Jacandra Math Quest

“c01IndicesSurdsAndLogarithms_PrintPDF” — 2021/9/8 — 12:27 — page 1 — #1
Indices, surds and

1 logarithms
LEARNING SEQUENCE
1.1 Overview ....................................................................................................................................................................2
1.2 Number classification review .............................................................................................................................4
1.3 Surds (10A) ............................................................................................................................................................... 9
1.4 Operations with surds (10A) ............................................................................................................................ 14
1.5 Review of Index laws ......................................................................................................................................... 28
1.6 Negative indices ...................................................................................................................................................35
1.7 Fractional indices (10A) ..................................................................................................................................... 40
1.8 Combining index laws ....................................................................................................................................... 47
1.9 Application of indices: Compound interest ............................................................................................... 53
1.10 Logarithms (10A) ..................................................................................................................................................60
1.11 Logarithm laws (10A) ..........................................................................................................................................66
1.12 Solving equations (10A) .................................................................................................................................... 73
1.13 Review ..................................................................................................................................................................... 79
1.1 Overview
Why learn this?
We often take for granted the amount of time and effort that has
gone into developing the number system we use on a daily basis.
In ancient times, numbers were used for bartering and trading
goods between people. Thus, numbers were always attached
to an object; for example, 5 cows, 13 sheep or 20 gold coins.
Consequently, it took a long time before more abstract concepts
such as the number 0 were introduced and widely used. It took
even longer for negative numbers or irrational numbers such as
surds to be accepted as their own group of numbers. Historically,
there has always been resistance to these changes and updates. In
folk law, Hippasus — the man first credited with the discovery of
irrational numbers — was drowned at sea for angering the gods
with his discovery.
A good example of how far we have come is to look at an ancient number system most people are familiar with:
Roman numerals. Not only is there no symbol for 0 in Roman numerals, but they are extremely clumsy to use
when adding or subtracting. Consider trying to add 54 (LIV) to 12 (XII). We know that to determine the answer
we add the ones together and then the tens to get 66. Adding the Roman numeral is more complex; do we write
LXVIII or LIVXII or LVXI or LXVI?
Having a better understanding of our number system makes it easier to understand how to work with concepts
such as surds, indices and logarithms. By building our understanding of these concepts, it is possible to more
accurately model real-world scenarios and extend our understanding of number systems to more complex sets,
such as complex numbers and quaternions.
Where to get help

Go to your learnON title at www.jacplus.com.au to access the following digital resources. The Online
Resources Summary at the end of this topic provides a full list of what’s available to help you learn the
concepts covered in this topic.
Fully worked
Video Interactivities
solutions
eLessons
to every
question
Digital
eWorkbook
documents
2 Jacaranda Maths Quest 10 + 10A

Exercise 1.1 Pre-test

Complete this pre-test in your learnON title at www.jacplus.com.au and receive automatic marks,
immediate corrective feedback and fully worked solutions.
1. Positive numbers are also known as natural numbers. Is this statement true or false?
√
2. State whether 36 is a rational or irrational number.
1 1
3. Simplify the following: 3n 5 × 5n 3 .
√
5
4. Simplify the following: 32p10 q15 .
−3
5. Determine the exact value of 81 4 .
√ 2
6. MC Select which of the numbers of the set { 0.25, 𝜋, 0.261, −5, } are rational.
3
√ 2
A. { 0.25, 𝜋, 0.261} B. {0.261, −5, } C. {𝜋, 0.261}
√ √ 3
2
D. { 0.25, 0.261, −5, } E. { 0.25, 𝜋, 0.261, −5}
3
12x8 × 3x7
7. MC simplifies to:
9x10 × x3
5x2 5x26 x2
A. B. 4x2 C. 4x26 D. E.
3 3 4
√ √
8. Simplify the following expression: 3 2× 10.
√ √ √
9. Simplify the following expression: 5 2 + 12 2 − 3 2.
√ √ √
10. MC Choose the most simplified form of the following expression: 8a3 + 18a + a5
√ √ √ √ √
A. 5 2a + a a B. 2a 2a2 + 3 2a + a4 a
√ √ √ √ √ √
C. 2a2 2a + 2 3a + a4 a D. 2a2 2a + 2 3a + a2 a
√ √ √
E. 2a 2a + 3 2a + a2 a
1
11. Solve the following equation for y: = 5y+2 .
125
12. Solve the following equation for x: x = log 1 16.

4
13. Calculate the amount of interest earned on an investment of $3000 compounding annually at 3% p. a. for
3 years, correct to the nearest cent.
( )
1
14. Simplify the following expression. log2 + log2 (32) − log2 (8).
4
15. MC Choose the correct value for x in 3 + log2 3 = log2 x.

A. x = 0 B. x = 3 C. x = 9 D. x = 24 E. x = 27
TOPIC 1 Indices, surds and logarithms 3

1.2 Number classification review

LEARNING INTENTION
At the end of this subtopic you should be able to:
• define the real, rational, irrational, integer and natural numbers
• determine whether a number is rational or irrational.
1.2.1 The real number system

eles-4661
• The number systems used today evolved from a basic and practical need of primitive people to count and
measure magnitudes and quantities such as livestock, people, possessions, time and so on.
• As societies grew and architecture and engineering developed, number systems became more sophisticated.
Number use developed from solely whole numbers to fractions, decimals and irrational numbers.
• The real number system contains the set of rational and irrational numbers. It is denoted by the symbol R.
The set of real numbers contains a number of subsets which can be classified as shown in the chart below.
Real numbers R
Irrational numbers I
(surds, non-terminating and Rational numbers Q
non-recurring decimals, π, e)
Non-integer rationals
Integers Z (terminating and
recurring decimals)
Positive Z+ Zero
(neither positive nor negative) Negative Z–
(Natural numbers N)

Integers (Z)
• The set of integers consists of whole positive and negative numbers and 0 (which is neither positive
nor negative).
• The set of integers is denoted by the symbol Z and can be visualised as:
Z = {… , −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, …}
• The set of positive integers are known as the natural numbers (or counting numbers) and is denoted Z+ or
N. That is:
Z+ = N = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, …}
• The set of negative integers is denoted Z− .
Z− = {… − 6, −5, −4, −3, −2, −1}
• Integers may be represented on the number line as illustrated below.
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 Z 1 2 3 4 5 6 N Z – –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1
The set of integers The set of positive integers The set of negative integers
or natural numbers
Rational numbers (Q)

a
• A rational number is a number that can be expressed as a ratio of two integers in the form , where b ≠ 0.
b
• The set of rational numbers are denoted by the symbol Q.
• Rational numbers include all whole numbers, fractions and all terminating and recurring decimals.
• Terminating decimals are decimal numbers which terminate after a specific number of digits.
Examples are:
1 5 9
= 0.25, = 0.625, = 1.8.
4 8 5
• Recurring decimals do not terminate but have a specific digit (or number of digits) repeated in a pattern.
Examples are:
1
= 0.333 333 … = 0.3̇ or 0.3
3
133 ̇ 6̇ or 0.1996
= 0.199 699 699 6 … = 0.199
666
• Recurring decimals are represented by placing a dot or line above the repeating digit/s.
• Using set notations, we can represent the set of rational numbers as:
a
Q = { ∶ a, b ∈ Z, b ≠ 0}
b
a
• This can be read as ‘Q is all numbers of the form given a and b are integers and b is not equal to 0’.
b

Irrational numbers (I)

a
• An irrational number is a number that cannot be expressed as a ratio of two integers in the form ,
b
where b ≠ 0.
• All irrational numbers have a decimal representation that is non-terminating and non-recurring. This means
the decimals do not terminate and do not repeat in any particular pattern or order.
For example: √
5 = 2.236 067 997 5 …
𝜋 = 3.141 592 653 5 …
e = 2.718 281 828 4 …
• The set of irrational numbers is denoted by the symbol I. Some common irrational numbers that you may
√ √
be familiar with are 2, 𝜋, e, 5.
• The symbol 𝜋 (pi) is used for a particular number that is the circumference of a circle whose diameter
is 1 unit.
• In decimal form, 𝜋 has been calculated to more than 29 million decimal places with the aid of a computer.
Rational or irrational
• Rational and irrational numbers combine to form the set of real numbers. We can find all of these number
somewhere on the real number line as shown below.
. 2
–
–4 –3.236 –√ 3 –0.1 3 2 e π
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 R
• To classify a number as either rational or irrational:

1. Determine whether it can be expressed as a whole number, a fraction, or a terminating or
recurring decimal.
2. If the answer is yes, the number is rational. If no, the number is irrational.
WORKED EXAMPLE 1 Classifying numbers as rational or irrational
Classify whether the following numbers are rational or irrational.

1 √ √
a. b. 25 c. 13 d. 3𝜋
5 √
√
3
√3 1
3
e. 0.54 f. 64 g. 32 h.
27
THINK WRITE
1 1
a. is already a rational number. a. is rational.
5 5
√ √
b. 1. Evaluate 25. b. 25 = 5
√ √
2. The answer is an integer, so classify 25. 25 is rational.
√ √
c. 1. Evaluate 13. c. 13 = 3.605 551 275 46 …
√
2. The answer is a non-terminating and 13 is irrational.
√
non-recurring decimal; classify 13.

d. 1. Use your calculator to find the value of 3𝜋. d. 3𝜋 = 9.424 777 960 77 …
2. The answer is a non-terminating and 3𝜋 is irrational.
non-recurring decimal; classify 3𝜋.
e. 0.54 is a terminating decimal; classify it e. 0.54 is rational.
accordingly.
√3
√
3
f. 1. Evaluate 64. f. 64 = 4
√
3
2. The answer
√ is a whole number, so 64 is rational.
3
classify
64.
√
3
√
3
g. 1. Evaluate 32. g. 32 = 3.17480210394 …
√
3
2. The result is a non-terminating and 32 is irrational.
√
3
non-recurring decimal; classify 32.
√ √
3 1 3 1 1
h. 1. Evaluate . h. = .
27 27 3
√
3 1
2. The result is a number in a rational form. is rational.
27
Resources
Resourceseses
eWorkbook Topic 1 Workbook (worksheets, code puzzle and project) (ewbk-2027)
Interactivities Individual pathway interactivity: Number classification review (int-8332)
The number system (int-6027)
Recurring decimals (int-6189)
Exercise 1.2 Number classification review

Individual pathways
PRACTISE CONSOLIDATE MASTER
1, 4, 7, 10, 13, 14, 17, 20, 23 2, 5, 8, 11, 15, 18, 21, 24 3, 6, 9, 12, 16, 19, 22, 25
To answer questions online and to receive immediate corrective feedback and fully worked solutions for all
questions, go to your learnON title at www.jacplus.com.au.
Fluency
For questions 1 to 6, classify whether the following numbers are rational (Q) or irrational (I).
1. WE1
√ 4 7 √
a. 4 b. c. d. 2
5 9
√ √ 1 √
2. a. 7 b. 0.04 c. 2 d. 5
2
9 √
3. a. b. 0.15 c. −2.4 d. 100
4

√
√ √ 25
4. a. 14.4 b. 1.44 c. 𝜋 d.
9
√ √
5. a. 7.32 b. − 21 c. 1000 d. 7.216 349 157 …
√
√ √
3 1
6. a. − 81 b. 3𝜋 c. 62 d.
16
For questions 7 to 12, classify the following numbers as rational (Q), irrational (I) or neither.
1 √ 11 0
7. a. b. 625 c. d.
8 4 8
√
1 √3
√ 1.44
8. a. −6 b. 81 c. − 11 d.
7 4
√ 8 √
3 𝜋
9. a. 𝜋 b. c. 21 d.
0 7
√ √
3 2 3 1 64
10. a. (−5) b. − c. d.
11 100 16
√ √
2 6 √
3 1
11. a. b. c. 27 d. √
25 2 4
22𝜋 √
3
√ √
12. a. b. −1.728 c. 6 4 d. 4 6
7
13. MC Identify a rational number from the following.
√ √
4 9 √
3
√
A. 𝜋 B. C. D. 3 E. 5
9 12
14. MCIdentify which of the following best represents an irrational number from the following numbers.
√ 6 √3
√ √
A. − 81 B. C. 343 D. 22 E. 144
5
√ 𝜋 √
15. MC Select which one of the following statements regarding the numbers −0.69, 7, , 49 is correct.
3
𝜋
A. is the only rational number.
√3 √
B. 7 and 49 √ are both irrational numbers.
C. −0.69 and 49 are the only rational numbers.
D. −0.69 is the only rational number.
√
E. 7 is the only rational number.
1 11 √ √
3
16. MC Select which one of the following statements regarding the numbers 2 , − , 624, 99 is correct.
2 3
11 √
A. − and 624 are both irrational numbers.
3
√ √3
B. 624 is an irrational number and 99 is a rational number.
√ √
3
C. 624 and 99 are both irrational numbers.
1 11
D. 2 is a rational number and − is an irrational number.
2 3
√3
E. 99 is the only rational number.

Understanding
√
a2
17. Simplify .
b2
√
18. MC If p < 0, then p is:
A. positive B. negative C. rational D. irrational E. none of these
√
19. MC If p < 0, then p2 must be:
A. positive B. negative C. rational D. irrational E. any of these
Reasoning
(√ √ ) (√ √ )
20. Simplify p− q × p + q . Show full working.
21. Prove that if c2 = a2 + b2 , it does not follow that a = b + c.

√
22. Assuming that x is a rational number, for what values of k will the expression x2 + kx + 16 always
be rational? Justify your response.
Problem solving
36
23. Determine the value of m and n if is written as:
11
1 1 1 1
a. 3 + m b. 3 + c. 3 + d. 3 +
n 3 + mn 3+
1
m
1
3 + 1+ m
n n
−1 −1
1 3 −4
24. If x−1 means , determine the value of −1 .
x 3 + 4−1
1 3−n − 4−n
25. If x−n = n , evaluate −n when n = 3.
x 3 + 4−n
1.3 Surds (10A)

LEARNING INTENTION
• determine whether a number under a root or radical sign is a surd
• prove that a surd is irrational by contradiction.
1.3.1 Identifying surds

eles-4662
• A surd is an irrational number that is represented by a root sign or a radical sign, for example:
√ √
3
√
4
, , .
√ √ √ 3
√4
Examples of surds include: 7, 5, 11, 15.
√ √ √ √
• The numbers 9, 16, 3 125, and 4 81 are not surds as they can be simplified to rational numbers,
√ √ √3
√4
that is: 9 = 3, 16 = 4, 125 = 5, 81 = 3.

WORKED EXAMPLE 2 Identifying surds
Determine which of the following numbers

√ are surds.
√ √ 1 √
3
√
4
√
3
a. 16 b. 13 c. d. 17 e. 63 f. 1728
16
THINK WRITE
√ √
a. 1. Evaluate 16. a. 16 = 4
√
2. The answer is rational (since it is a whole 16 is not a surd.
number), so state your conclusion.
√ √
b. 1. Evaluate 13. b. 13 = 3.605 551 275 46 …
√
2. The answer is irrational (since it is a 13 is a surd.
non-recurring and non-terminating decimal),
so state your conclusion.
√ √
1 1 1
c. 1. Evaluate . c. =
16 16 4
√
1
2. The answer is rational (a fraction); state is not a surd.
your conclusion. 16
√3
√
3
d. 1. Evaluate 17. d. 17 = 2.571 281 590 66 …
√
3
2. The answer is irrational (a non-terminating 17 is a surd.
and non-recurring decimal), so state
your conclusion.
√
4
√
4
e. 1. Evaluate 63. e. 63 = 2.817 313 247 26 …
√
4
√
4
2. The answer is irrational, so classify 63 63 is a surd.
accordingly.
√
3
√
3
f. 1. Evaluate 1728. f. 1728 = 12
√
3
2. The answer is rational; state your conclusion. 1728 is not a surd. So b, d and e are surds.
1.3.2 Proof that a number is irrational

eles-4663
• In Mathematics you are required to study a variety of types of proofs. One such method is called proof
by contradiction.
• This proof is so named because the logical argument of the proof is based on an assumption that leads to
contradiction within the proof. Therefore the original assumption must be false.
a
• An irrational number is one that cannot be expressed in the form (where a and b are integers). The next
√ b
worked example sets out to prove that 2 is irrational.

√
WORKED EXAMPLE 3 Proving the irrationality of 2
√
Prove that 2 is irrational.
THINK WRITE
√ √ a
1. Assume that 2 is rational; that is, it can be Let 2 = , where a and b are integers that have no
a b
written as in simplest form. We need to common factors and b ≠ 0.
b
show that a and b have no common factors.
a2
2. Square both sides of the equation. 2=
b2
3. Rearrange the equation to make a2 the subject a2 = 2b2 [1]
of the formula.
4. 2b2 is an even number and 2b2 = a2 . ∴ a2 is an even number and a must also be even; that
is, a has a factor of 2.
5. Since a is even it can be written as a = 2r. ∴ a = 2r
6. Square both sides. a2 = 4r2 [2]

But a2 = 2b2 from [1]
7. Equate [1] and [2]. ∴ 2b2 = 4r2

4r2
b2 =
2
= 2r2
2
∴ b is an even number and b must also be even; that
is, b has a factor of 2.
√ a
8. Use reasoning to deduce that 2= where Both a and b have a common factor of 2.√This
b a
a and b have no common factor. contradicts the original assumption that 2 = ,
b
where
√ a and b have no common factors.
∴ 2 is not rational.
∴ It must be irrational.
• Note: An irrational number written in surd form gives an exact value of the number; whereas the same
number written in decimal form (for example, to 4 decimal places) gives an approximate value.
DISCUSSION
√
How can you be certain that root a is a surd?
Resources
Resourceseses
Digital document SkillSHEET Identifying surds (doc-5354)
Interactivity Surds on the number line (int-6029)

Exercise 1.3 Surds (10A)

Individual pathways
1, 4, 7, 8, 11, 14, 17 2, 5, 9, 12, 15, 18 3, 6, 10, 13, 16, 19
Fluency
WE2 For questions 1 to 6, determine which of the following numbers are surds.
√ √ √ √
1. a. 81 b. 48 c. 16 d. 1.6
√ √
√ √ 3 3
3
2. a. 0.16 b. 11 c. d.
4 27
√ √ √ √
3. a. 1000 b. 1.44 c. 4 100 d. 2 + 10
√
3
√ √
3
√
3
4. a. 32 b. 361 c. 100 d. 125
√
√ √ √
3 7
5. a. 6+ 6 b. 2𝜋 c. 169 d.
8
√ (√ )2 √ √
4 3
6. a. 16 b. 7 c. 33 d. 0.0001
√
5
√
e. 32 f. 80
√
6 √ √ √ 3
√
7. MC The correct statement regarding the set of numbers { , 20, 54, 27, 9} is:
9
√
3
√
A. 27 and 9 are the only rational numbers of the set.
√
6
B. is the only surd of the set.
9
√
6 √
C. and 20 are the only surds of the set.
9
√ √
D. 20 and 54 are the only surds of the set.
√ √
E. 9 and 20 are the only surds of the set.
√ √ √
1 3 1 1 √ √ 3
8. MC Identify the numbers from the set { , , , 21, 8} that are surds.
4 27 8
√
√ 1
A. 21 only B. only
8
√ √
1 √
3 1 √
C. and 8 D. and 21 only
8 8
√
1 √
E. and 21 only
4

√
1 √ √ √
9. MC Select a statement regarding the set of numbers {𝜋, , 12, 16, 3, +1} that is not true.
49
√ √ √
A. 12 is a surd. B. 12 and 16 are surds.
√ √
C. 𝜋 is irrational but not a surd. D. 12 and 3 + 1 are not rational.
E. 𝜋 is not a surd.
√
√ 144 √ √ √ √
10. MC Select a statement regarding the set of numbers {6 7, , 7 6, 9 2, 18, 25} that is not true.
16
√ √
144 144 √
A. when simplified is an integer. B. and 25 are not surds.
16 16
√ √ √ √
C. 7 6 is smaller than 9 2. D. 9 2 is smaller than 6 7.
√
E. 18 is a surd.
Understanding
11. Complete
√ the following statement by selecting appropriate words, suggested in brackets:
a is definitely not a surd, if a is… (any multiple of 4; a perfect square; cube).
√3
12. Determine the smallest value of m, where m is a positive integer, so that 16m is not a surd.
Determine any combination of m and n, where m and n are positive integers with m < n, so that
13. a. √
4
(m + 4) (16 − n) is not a surd.
b. If the condition that m < n is removed, how many possible combinations are there?
Reasoning
14. Determine whether the following are rational or irrational.
√ √ √ √ (√ √ ) (√ √ )
a. 5+ 2 b. 5− 2 c. 5+ 2 5− 2
15. WE3 Prove that the following numbers are irrational, using a proof by contradiction:
√ √ √
a. 3 b. 5 c. 7.
√ ( √ )( √ )
16. 𝜋 is an irrational number and so is 3. Therefore, determine whether 𝜋 − 3 𝜋 + 3 is an
irrational number.
Problem solving
17. Many composite numbers have a variety of factor pairs. For example, factor pairs of 24 are 1 and 24, 2 and
12, 3 and 8, 4 and 6.
a. Use each pair of possible factors to simplify the following surds.
√ √
i.48 ii. 72
b. Explain if the factor pair chosen when simplifying a surd affect the way the surd is written in
simplified form.
c. Explain if the factor pair chosen when simplifying a surd affect the value of the surd when it is written in
simplified form.
√ √ √ √
18. Consider the expression ( p + q)( m − n). Determine under what conditions will the expression
produce a rational number.
√ √ √
19. Solve 3x − 12 = 3 and indicate whether the result is rational or irrational.

1.4 Operations with surds (10A)

LEARNING INTENTION
• multiply and simplify surds
• add and subtract like surds
• divide surds
• rationalise the denominator of a fraction.
1.4.1 Multiplying and simplifying surds

eles-4664
Multiplication of surds
• To multiply surds, multiply the expressions under the radical sign.
√ √ √ √
For example: 8 × 3 = 8 × 3 = 24
• If there are coefficients in front of the surds that are being multiplied, multiply the coefficients and then
multiply the expressions
√ √ under the radical
√ signs.√
For example: 2 3 × 5 7 = (2 × 5) 3 × 7 = 10 21
Multiplication of surds
In order to multiply two or more surds, use the following:
√ √ √
• a× b= a×b
√ √ √
• m a × n b = mn a × b
where a and b are positive real numbers.
Simplification of surds
• To simplify a surd means to make the number under the radical sign as small as possible.
• Surds can only be simplified if the number under the radical sign has a factor which is a perfect square
(4, 9, 16, 25, 36, …).
• Simplification of a surd uses the method of multiplying surds in reverse.
• The process is summarised in the following steps:
1. Split the number under the radical into the product of two factors, one of which is a perfect square.
2. Write the surd as the product of two surds multiplied together. The two surds must correspond to the
factors identified in step 1. √
3. Simplify the surd of the perfect square and
√ write the surd in the form a b.
• The example below shows the how the surd 45 can be simplified by following the steps 1 to 3.
√ √
45 = 9 × 5 (Step 1)
√ √
= 9× 5 (Step 2)
√ √
= 3 × 5 = 3 5 (Step 3)
• If possible, try to factorise the number under the radical sign so that the largest possible perfect square is
used. This will ensure the surd is simplified in 1 step.

Simplification of surds
√ √
n = a2 × b
√ √
= a2 × b
√
= a× b
√
=a b
WORKED EXAMPLE 4 Simplifying surds
Simplify the following surds. Assume that x and y are positive real numbers.
√ √ 1√ √
a. 384 b. 3 405 c. − 175 d. 5 180x3 y5
8
THINK WRITE
√ √
a. 1. Express 384 as a product of two factors where one a. 384 = 64 × 6
factor is the largest possible perfect square.
√ √ √
2. Express 64 × 6 as the product of two surds. = 64 × 6
√
3. Simplify the square root from the perfect
√ =8 6
square (that is, 64 = 8).
√ √
b. 1. Express 405 as a product of two factors, one b. 3 405 = 3 81 × 5
of which is the largest possible perfect square.
√ √ √
2. Express 81 × 5 as a product of two surds. = 3 81 × 5
√ √
3. Simplify 81. = 3×9 5
√
4. Multiply together the whole numbers outside = 27 5
the square root sign (3 and 9).
1√ 1√
c. 1. Express 175 as a product of two factors c. − 175 = − 25 × 7
in which one factor is the largest possible 8 8
perfect square.
√ 1 √ √
2. Express 25 × 7 as a product of 2 surds. = − × 25 × 7
8
√ 1 √
3. Simplify 25. = − ×5 7
8
5√
4. Multiply together the numbers outside the =− 7
square root sign. 8
√ √
d. 1. Express each of 180, x3 and y5 as a product d. 5 180x3 y5 = 5 36 × 5 × x2 × x × y4 × y
of two factors where one factor is the largest
possible perfect square.
√ √
2. Separate all perfect squares into one surd and = 5× 36x2 y4 × 5xy
all other factors into the other surd.

√ √
3. Simplify 36x2 y4 . = 5 × 6 × x × y2 × 5xy
√
4. Multiply together the numbers and the = 30xy2 5xy
pronumerals outside the square root sign.
WORKED EXAMPLE 5 Multiplying surds
Multiply the following surds, expressing answers in the simplest form. Assume that x and y are
positive
√ real √ numbers. √ √ √ √ √ √
a. 11 × 7 b. 5 3 × 8 5 c. 6 12 × 2 6 d. 15x5 y2 × 12x2 y
THINK WRITE
√ √ √
a. Multiply
√ the √surds together, using a. 11 × 7 = 11 × 7
√ √
a × b = ab (that is, multiply = 77
expressions under the square root sign).
Note: This expression cannot be simplified
any further.
√ √ √ √
b. Multiply the coefficients together and then b. 5 3×8 5 = 5×8× 3× 5
√
multiply the surds together. = 40 × 3 × 5
√
= 40 15
√ √ √ √ √
c. 1. Simplify 12. c. 6 12 × 2 6 = 6 4 × 3 × 2 6
√ √
= 6×2 3×2 6
√ √
= 12 3 × 2 6
√
2. Multiply the coefficients together and = 24 18
multiply the surds together.
√
3. Simplify the surd. = 24 9 × 2
√
= 24 × 3 2
√
= 72 2
√ √
d. 1. Simplify each of the surds. d. 15x5 y2 × 12x2 y
√ √
= 15 × x4 × x × y2 × 4 × 3 × x2 × y
√ √
= x2 × y × 15 × x × 2 × x × 3 × y
√ √
= x2 y 15x × 2x 3y
√
2. Multiply the coefficients together and the = x2 y × 2x 15x × 3y
surds together. √
= 2x3 y 45xy
√
= 2x3 y 9 × 5xy
√
3. Simplify the surd. = 2x3 y × 3 5xy
√
= 6x3 y 5xy

• When working with surds, it is sometimes necessary to multiply surds by themselves; that is, square them.
Consider the following examples:
(√ )2 √ √ √
2 = 2× 2= 4=2
(√ )2 √ √ √
5 = 5 × 5 = 25 = 5
• Observe that squaring a surd produces the number under the radical sign. This is not surprising, because
squaring and taking the square root are inverse operations and, when applied together, leave the
original unchanged.
Squaring surds
When a surd is squared, the result is the expression under the radical sign;
that is:
(√ )2
a =a
where a is a positive real number.
WORKED EXAMPLE 6 Squaring surds
Simplify each of the following.

(√ )2 ( √ )2
a. 6 b. 3 5
THINK WRITE
(√ )2 (√ )2
a. Use a = a, where a = 6. a. 6 =6
(√ )2 √ ( √ )2 (√ )2
b. 1. Square 3 and apply a = a to square 5. b. 3 5 = 32 × 5
= 9×5
2. Simplify. = 45
1.4.2 Addition and subtraction of surds

eles-4665
• Surds may be added or subtracted only if they are alike.
√ √ √
Examples of like surds include 7, 3 7 and − 5 7.
√ √ √ √
Examples of unlike surds include 11, 5, 2 13 and − 2 3.
• In some cases surds will need to be simplified before you decide whether they are like or unlike, and then
addition and subtraction can take place. The concept of adding and subtracting surds is similar to adding
and subtracting like terms in algebra.

WORKED EXAMPLE 7 Adding and subtracting surds
Simplify each of the following expressions containing surds. Assume that a and b are positive
real numbers.
√ √ √ √ √ √ √
a. 3 6 + 17 6 − 2 6 b. 5 3 + 2 12 − 5 2 + 3 8
1√ √ √
c. 100a3 b2 + ab 36a − 5 4a2 b
2
THINK WRITE
√ √ √ √
a. All 3 terms are √
alike because they contain a. 3 6 + 17 6 − 2 6 = (3 + 17 − 2) 6
√
the same surd ( 6). Simplify. = 18 6
√ √ √ √
b. 1. Simplify surds where possible. b. 5 3 + 2 12 − 5 2 + 3 8
√ √ √ √
= 5 3+2 4×3−5 2+3 4×2
√ √ √ √
= 5 3+2×2 3−5 2+3×2 2
√ √ √ √
2. Add like terms to obtain the simplified = 5 3+4 3−5 2+6 2
√ √
answer. = 9 3+ 2
1√ √ √
c. 1. Simplify surds where possible. c. 100a3 b2 + ab 36a − 5 4a2 b
2 √ √
1 √
= × 10 a2 × a × b2 + ab × 6 a − 5 × 2 × a b
2
1 √ √ √
= × 10 × a × b a + ab × 6 a − 5 × 2 × a b
2
√ √ √
2. Add like terms to obtain the simplified = 5ab a + 6ab a − 10a b
√ √
answer. = 11ab a − 10a b
TI | THINK DISPLAY/WRITE CASIO | THINK DISPLAY/WRITE

a–c. a–c. a–c. a–c.
In a new document, on a On the Main screen,
Calculator page, complete complete the entry lines
the entry lines as: as:
√ √ √ √ √ √
3 6 + 17 6 − 2 6 3 6 + 17 6 − 2 6
√ √ √ √ √ √
5 3 + 2 12 − 5 2 5 3 + 2 12 − 5 2
√ √
+3 8 +3 8
( √
1√ √ simplify
1
100a3 b2 +
100a3 b2 + ab 36a− 2
2√ √ √ √ √
3 6 + 17 √
5 4a2 b|a > 0 and b > 0 √ √ 6 − 2√6 = 18√ 6 a × b × 36a−
5 3√+ 2 √12 − 5 2 + 3 8 √
Press ENTER after each 5 4a2 b|a > 0|b > 0)
=9 3+ 2
entry.
1√ √ Press EXE after each √ √ √ √
100a3 b2 + ab 36a− entry. 3 6 + 17√ 6 − 2√6 = 18√ 6
√
2√ 2 √ 5 3√+ 2 √12 − 5 2 + 3 8
5 4a2 b = 11a 3 b − 10a b =9 3+ 2
1√ √
100a3 b2 + ab 36a−
2√ 2 √
5 4a2 b = 11a 3 b − 10a b

1.4.3 Dividing surds

eles-4666
• To divide surds, divide the expressions under the radical signs.
Dividing surds
√ √
a a
√ =
b b
where a and b are positive real numbers.
• When dividing surds it is best to simplify them (if possible) first. Once this has been done, the coefficients
are divided next and then the surds are divided.
√ √
m a m a
√ =
n b n b
WORKED EXAMPLE 8 Dividing surds
Divide the following surds, expressing answers in the simplest form. Assume that x and y are positive
real numbers.
√ √ √ √
55 48 9 88 36xy
a. √ b. √ c. √ d. √
5 3 6 99 25x9 y11
THINK WRITE
√ √ √ √
a a 55 55
a. 1. Rewrite the fraction, using √ = . a. √ =
b b 5 5
√
2. Divide the numerator by the denominator = 11
(that is, 55 by 5). Check if the surd can be
simplified any further.
√ √ √ √
a a 48 48
b. 1. Rewrite the fraction, using √ = . b. √ =
b b 3 3
√
2. Divide 48 by 3. = 16
√
3. Evaluate 16. =4
√ √ √ √
a a 9 88 9 88
c. 1. Rewrite surds, using √ = . c. √ =
b b 6 99 6 99
√
9 8
2. Simplify the fraction under the radical by =
dividing both numerator and denominator 6 9
by 11.

√
9×2 2
3. Simplify surds. =
6×3
√
18 2
4. Multiply the whole numbers in the numerator =
together and those in the denominator 18
together.
√
5. Cancel the common factor of 18. = 2
√ √
36xy 6 xy
d. 1. Simplify each surd. d. √ = √
25x9 y11 5 x8 × x × y10 × y
√
6 xy
= 4 5√
5x y xy
6
2. Cancel any common factors — in this
√ =
case xy. 5x4 y5
1.4.4 Rationalising denominators

eles-4667
• If the denominator of a fraction is a surd, it can be changed into a rational number through multiplication.
In other words, it can be rationalised.
• As discussed earlier in this chapter, squaring a simple surd (that is, multiplying it by itself) results in a
rational number. This fact can be used to rationalise denominators as follows.
Rationalising the denominator

√ √ √ √
a a b ab
√ =√ ×√ =
b b b b
• If both numerator and denominator of a fraction are multiplied by the surd contained in the denominator,
the denominator becomes a rational number. The fraction takes on a different appearance, but its numerical
value is unchanged, because multiplying the numerator and denominator by the same number is equivalent
to multiplying by 1.
WORKED EXAMPLE 9 Rationalising the denominator
Express
√ the following in their simplest form with a rational
√ denominator.
6 2 12
a. √ b. √
13 3 54
√ √
17 − 3 14
c. √
7

THINK WRITE
√
6
a. 1. Write the fraction. a. √
13
√ √
6 13
2. Multiply both the numerator and denominator by the
√ =√ ×√
13 13
surd contained in the denominator (in this case 13). √
This has the same
√ effect as multiplying the fraction 78
=
13 13
by 1, because √ = 1.
13
√
2 12
b. 1. Write the fraction. b. √
3 54
√ √
2 12 2 4 × 3
2. Simplify the surds. (This avoids dealing with large √ = √
numbers.) 3 54 3 9 × 6
√
2×2 3
= √
3×3 6
√
4 3
= √
9 6
√ √
√ 4 3 6
3. Multiply both the numerator and denominator by 6. = √ ×√
This has √
the same effect as multiplying the fraction by 1, 9 6 6
√
6 4 18
because √ = 1. =
6 9×6
Note: We need to multiply√ only by the surd part
√ of the
denominator (that is, by 6 rather than by 9 6.)
√
√ 4 9×2
4. Simplify 18. =
9×6
√
4×3 2
=
54
√
12 2
=
54
√
2 2
5. Divide both the numerator and denominator by 6 =
(cancel down). 9
√ √
17 − 3 14
c. 1. Write the fraction. c. √
7
√ √ √
√ ( 17 − 3 14) 7
2. Multiply both the numerator and denominator by 7. = √ ×√
Use grouping symbols (brackets) to make it √
clear that 7 7
the whole numerator must be multiplied by 7.

√ √ √ √
3. Apply the Distributive Law in the numerator. 17 × 7 − 3 14 × 7
a (b + c) = ab + ac = √ √
7× 7
√ √
119 − 3 98
=
7
√ √
√ 119 − 3 49 × 2
4. Simplify 98. =
√ 7 √
119 − 3 × 7 2
=
√ 7 √
119 − 21 2
=
7
1.4.5 Rationalising denominators using conjugate surds

eles-4668
• The product of pairs of conjugate surds results in a rational number.
√ √ √ √ √ √
• Examples of pairs of conjugate surds include 6 + 11 and 6 − 11, a + b and a − b, 2 5 − 7 and
√ √
2 5 + 7.
This fact is used to rationalise denominators containing a sum or a difference of surds.
Using conjugates to rationalise the denominator

• To rationalise the denominator that contains a sum or a difference of surds, multiply both numerator
and denominator by the conjugate of the denominator.
Two examples are given below: √
√
1 b a−
1. To rationalise the denominator of the fraction √ √ , multiply it by √ √ .
a+ b a− b
√ √
1 a+ b
2. To rationalise the denominator of the fraction √ √ , multiply it by √ √ .
a− b a+ b
• A quick way to simplify the denominator is to use the difference of two squares identity:
(√ √ ) (√ √ ) (√ )2 (√ )2
a− b a+ b = a − b
= a−b
WORKED EXAMPLE 10 Using conjugates to rationalise the denominator
Rationalise the denominator and simplify the following.

1
a. √
4− 3
√ √
6+3 2
b. √
3+ 3

THINK WRITE
1
a. 1. Write the fraction. a. √
4− 3
√
1 (4 + 3)
2. Multiply the numerator and = √ × √
denominator by the conjugate of the (4 − 3) (4 + 3)
denominator. √
(4 + 3)
(Note that √ = 1).
(4 + 3)
√
4+ 3
3. Apply the Distributive Law in the = √ 2
numerator and the difference of two (4)2 − ( 3)
squares identity in the denominator.
√
4+ 3
4. Simplify. =
16 −
√3
4+ 3
=
13
√ √
6+3 2
b. 1. Write the fraction. b. √
3+ 3
√ √ √
( 6 + 3 2) (3 − 3)
2. Multiply the numerator and = √ × √
denominator by the conjugate of the (3 + 3) (3 − 3)
denominator. √
(3 − 3)
(Note that √ = 1.)
(3 − 3)
√ √ √ √ √ √
3. Multiply the expressions in grouping 6 × 3 + 6 × (− 3) + 3 2 × 3 + 3 2 × −( 3)
symbols in the numerator, and apply the = √ 2
difference of two squares identity in the (3)2 − ( 3)
denominator.
√ √ √ √
3 6 − 18 + 9 2 − 3 6
4. Simplify. =
9−3
√ √
− 18 + 9 2
=
6
√ √
− 9×2+9 2
=
6
√ √
−3 2 + 9 2
=
6
√
6 2
=
6
√
= 2


a-b. a-b. a-b. a-b.
On a Calculator page, On the Main screen, complete
complete the entry lines the entry(
lines as: )
as: 1
1 simplify √
√ 4− 3
4 − 3√ (√ √ )
√ 6+3 2
6+3 2 simplify √
√ 3+ 3
3+ 3
Press EXE after each entry.
Press ENTER after each √
entry. 1 4+ 3
√ =
4− 3 13
√ √
6+3 2 √
√ = 2 √
3+ 3 1 4+ 3
√ =
4− 3 13
√ √
6+3 2 √
√ = 2
3+ 3
Resources
Resourceseses
Digital documents SkillSHEET Simplifying surds (doc-5355)
SkillSHEET Adding and subtracting surds (doc-5356)
SkillSHEET Multiplying and dividing surds (doc-5357)
SkillSHEET Rationalising denominators (doc-5360)
SkillSHEET Conjugate pairs (doc-5361)
SkillSHEET Applying the difference of two squares rule to surds (doc-5362)
Video eLessons Surds (eles-1906)
Rationalisation of surds (eles-1948)
Interactivities Addition and subtraction of surds (int-6190)
Multiplying surds (int-6191)
Dividing surds (int-6192)
Simplifying surds (int-6028)
Conjugate surds (int-6193)
Exercise 1.4 Operations with surds (10A)

Individual pathways
1, 4, 7, 10, 12, 15, 18, 21, 24, 27, 2, 5, 8, 11, 13, 16, 19, 22, 25, 28, 3, 6, 9, 14, 17, 20, 23, 26, 29, 32,
30, 33, 36, 39 31, 34, 37, 40 35, 38, 41
Fluency
WE4a For questions 1 to 3, simplify the following surds.
√ √ √ √
1. a. 12 b. 24 c. 27 d. 125
√ √ √ √
2. a. 54 b. 112 c. 68 d. 180

√ √ √ √
3. a. 88 b. 162 c. 245 d. 448
WE4b,c For questions 4 to 6, simplify the following surds.
√ √ √ √
4. a. 2 8 b. 8 90 c. 9 80 d. 7 54
√ √ √ 1√
5. a. −6 75 b. −7 80 c. 16 48 d. 392
7
1√ 1√ 1√ 3√
6. a. 162 b. 192 c. 135 d. 175
9 4 9 10
WE4d For questions 7 to 9, simplify the following surds. Assume that a, b, c, d, e, f, x and y are positive
real numbers.
√ √ √ √
7. a. 16a2 b. 72a2 c. 90a2 b d. 338a4
√ √ √ √
8. a. 338a3 b3 b. 68a3 b5 c. 125x6 y4 d. 5 80x3 y2
√ √ 1√ 1√
9. a. 6 162c7 d5 b. 2 405c7 d9 c. 88ef d. 392e11 f11
2 2
10. WE5a Simplify the following expressions containing surds. Assume that x and y are positive real numbers.
√ √ √ √ √
a. 3 5 + 4 5 b. 2 3 + 5 3 + 3
√ √ √ √ √ √
c. 8 5 + 3 3 + 7 5 + 2 3 d. 6 11 − 2 11
11. Simplify the following expressions containing surds. Assume that x and y are positive real numbers.
√ √ √ √ √ √ √
a. 7 2+9 2−3 2 b. 9 6 + 12 6 − 17 6 − 7 6
√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
c. 12 3 − 8 7 + 5 3 − 10 7 d. 2 x + 5 y + 6 x − 2 y
WE5b For questions 12 to 14, simplify the following expressions containing surds. Assume that a and b are
positive real numbers.
√ √ √ √ √
12. a. 200 − 300 b. 125 − 150 + 600
√ √ √ √ √ √
c. 27 − 3 + 75 d. 2 20 − 3 5 + 45
√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
13. a. 6 12 + 3 27 − 7 3 + 18 b. 150 + 24 − 96 + 108
√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
c. 3 90 − 5 60 + 3 40 + 100 d. 5 11 + 7 44 − 9 99 + 2 121
√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
14. a. 2 30 + 5 120 + 60 − 6 135 b. 6 ab − 12ab + 2 9ab + 3 27ab
1√ 1√ 1√ 1√ 7√ √
c. 98 + 48 + 12 d. 32 − 18 + 3 72
2 3 3 8 6
WE5c For questions 15 to 17, simplify the following expressions containing surds. Assume that a and b are
positive real numbers.
√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
15. a. 7 a − 8a + 8 9a − 32a b. 10 a − 15 27a + 8 12a + 14 9a
√ √ √ √ √ √ √
c. 150ab + 96ab − 54ab d. 16 4a2 − 24a + 4 8a2 + 96a
√ √ √ 1√ 1√ 1√
16. a. 8a3 + 72a3 − 98a3 b. 36a + 128a − 144a
√ √ 2√ √4 √6
c. 9a3 + 3a5 d. 6 a5 b + a3 b − 5 a5 b

√ √ √ √ √ √ √
17. a. ab ab + 3ab a2 b + 9a3 b3 b. a3 b + 5 ab − 2 ab + 5 a3 b
√ √ √ √ √ √
c. 32a3 b2 − 5ab 8a + 48a5 b6 d. 4a2 b + 5 a2 b − 3 9a2 b
WE6 For questions 18 to 20, multiply the following surds, expressing answers in the simplest form. Assume that
a, b, x and y are positive real numbers.
√ √ √ √ √ √
18. a. 2× 7 b. 6× 7 c. 8× 6
√ √ √ √ √ √
d. 10 × 10 e. 21 × 3 f. 27 × 3 3
√ √ √ √ √ √
19. a. 5 3 × 2 11 b. 10 15 × 6 3 c. 4 20 × 3 5
√ √ 1√ √ 1√ √
d. 10 6 × 3 8 e. 48 × 2 2 f. 48 × 2 3
4 9
1√ 1√ √ √ √ √
20. a. 60 × 40 b. xy × x3 y2 c. 3a4 b2 × 6a5 b3
10 5√ √
√ √ √ 1√ 3 3
d. 12a7 b × 6a3 b4 e. 15x3 y2 × 6x2 y3 f. 15a b × 3 3a2 b6
2
WE7 For questions 21 to 23, simplify each of the following.
(√ )2 (√ )2 (√ )2
21. a. 2 b. 5 c. 12
(√ )2 ( √ )2 ( √ )2
22. a. 15 b. 3 2 c. 4 5
( √ )2 ( √ )2
23. a. 2 7 b. 5 8
WE8 For questions 24 to 26, divide the following surds, expressing answers in the simplest form. Assume that
a, b, x and y are positive real numbers.
√ √
15 8
24. a. √ b. √
3 2
√ √
60 128
c. √ d. √
10 8
√ √
18 65
25. a. √ b. √
4 6 2 13
√ √
96 7 44
c. √ d. √
8 14 11
√ √ √
9 63 2040 x4 y3
26. a. √ b. √ c. √
15 7 30 x2 y5
√ √ √ √ √
16xy xy 12x8 y12 2 2a2 b4 10a9 b3
d. √ e. √ × √ f. √ × √
8x7 y9 x5 y7 x2 y3 5a3 b6 3 a7 b
WE9a,b For questions 27 to 29, express the following in their simplest form with a rational denominator.
√
5 7 4 8 12
27. a. √ b. √ c. √ d. √ e. √
2 3 11 6 7

√ √ √ √ √
15 2 3 3 7 5 2 4 3
28. a. √ b. √ c. √ d. √ e. √
6 5 5 2 3 3 5
Understanding
√ √ √ √ √
5 14 16 3 8 3 8 60 2 35
29. a. √ b. √ c. √ d. √ e. √
7 8 6 5 7 7 28 3 14
WE9c For questions 30 to 32, express the following in their simplest form with a rational denominator.
√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
6 + 12 15 − 22 6 2 − 15 2 18 + 3 2
30. a. √ b. √ c. √ d. √
3 6 10 5
√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
3 5+6 7 4 2+3 8 3 11 − 4 5 2 7−2 5
31. a. √ b. √ c. √ d. √
8 2 3 18 12
√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
7 12 − 5 6 6 2− 5 6 3−5 5 3 5+7 3
32. a. √ b. √ c. √ d. √
6 3 4 8 7 20 5 24
WE10 For questions 33 to 35, rationalise the denominator and simplify.
1 1 4
33. a. √ b. √ √ c. √ √
5+2 8− 5 2 11 − 13
√ √ √ √
5 3 8−3 12 − 7
34. a. √ √ b. √ c. √ √
3 5+4 2 8+3 12 + 7
√ √ √ √ √
3−1 3 6 − 15 5− 3
35. a. √ b. √ √ c. √ √
5+1 6+2 3 4 2− 3
Reasoning
3 5
36. Calculate the area of a triangle with base length √ and perpendicular height √ . Express your
2+2 8−1
answer with a rational denominator. Show full working.
1 1
37. Determine the average of √ and √ , writing your answer with a rational denominator. Show
2 x 3−2 x
full working.
(√ √ )2 √
38. a. Show that a + b = a + b + 2 ab.
b. Use this result to evaluate:
√ √ √ √ √ √
i. 8 + 2 15 ii. 8 − 2 15 iii. 7 + 4 3.
Problem solving
√ √ √ √
5+ 3 5− 3
39. Simplify √ √ √ −√ √ √ .
3+ 3+ 5 3+ 3− 5

40. Solve for x.

√ √
√ √ 5 9 x−7 3 x+1
a. 9+x− x= √ b. √ = √
9+x 3 x x+5
√ √ √
41. Solve the following for x: 2 − 2− 2− 2−…=x
1.5 Review of index laws

LEARNING INTENTION
• recall and apply the index or exponent laws
• simplify expressions involving multiplication and division of terms with the same base
• evaluate expressions involving powers of zero
• simplify expressions involving raising a power to another power.
1.5.1 Review of index laws

eles-4669
Index notation
• When a number or pronumeral is repeatedly multiplied by itself, it can be
Index
written in a shorter form called index form.
• A number written in index form has two parts, the base and the index, and is
written as:
• In the example shown, a is the base and x is the index. Base
ax
• Another name for an index is exponent or power.
Index laws
• Performing operations on numbers or pronumerals written in index form requires application of the
index laws. There are six index laws.
First Index Law

When terms with the same base are multiplied, the indices are added.
am × an = am+n
Second Index Law

When terms with the same base are divided, the indices are subtracted.
am ÷ an = am−n
WORKED EXAMPLE 11 Simplifying using the first two index laws

2x5 y4
a. m4 n3 p × m2 n5 p3 b. 2a2 b3 × 3ab4 c.
10x2 y3

THINK WRITE
a. 1. Write the expression. a. m4 n3 p × m2 n5 p3
2. Multiply the terms with the same base by adding the = m4+2 n3+5 p1+3
1
indices. Note: p = p . = m6 n8 p4
b. 1. Write the expression. b. 2a2 b3 × 3ab4
2. Simplify by multiplying the coefficients, then multiply = 2 × 3 × a2+1 × b3+4

the terms with the same base by adding the indices. = 6a3 b7
2x5 y4
c. 1. Write the expression. c.
10x2 y3
1x5−2 y4−3
2. Simplify by dividing both of the coefficients by the =
same factor, then divide terms with the same base by 5
x3 y
subtracting the indices. =
5
a–c. a–c. a–c. a–c.
In a new document on a On the main screen, using
calculator page, complete the Var tab, complete the
the entry lines as: entry lines as:
m4 × n3 × p × m2 × n5 × p3 m4 n3 p × m2 n5 p3
2 × a2 × b3 × 3 × a × b4 2a2 b3 × 3ab4
2 × x5 × y4 2x5 y4
10 × x2 × y3 10x2 y3
Press ENTER after each Press EXE after each
entry. entry.
Be sure to include the m4 n3 p × m2 n5 p3 = m6 n8 p4
multiplication sign between 2a2 b3 × 3ab4 = 6a3 b7
each variable. 2x5 y4 x3 y m4 n3 p × m2 n5 p3 = m6 n8 p4
=
10x2 y3 5 2a2 b3 × 3ab4 = 6a3 b7
2x5 y4 x3 y
=
10x2 y3 5
Third Index Law

Any term (excluding 0) with an index of 0 is equal to 1.
a0 = 1, a ≠ 0
WORKED EXAMPLE 12 Simplifying terms with indices of zero

( )0 ( )0
a. 2b3 b. −4 a2 b5

THINK WRITE
( )0
a. 1. Write the expression. a. 2b3
2. Apply the Third Index Law, which states that any =1
term (excluding 0) with an index of 0 is equal to 1.
( )0
b. 1. Write the expression. b. −4 a2 b5
2. The entire term inside the brackets has an index of 0, = −4 × 1

so the bracket is equal to 1.
3. Simplify. = −4
Fourth Index Law

When a power (am ) is raised to a power, the indices are multiplied.
(am )n = amn
Fifth Index Law

When the base is a product, raise every part of the product to the index
outside the brackets.
(ab)m = am bm
Sixth Index Law

When the base is a fraction, raise both the numerator and denominator to the
index outside the brackets.
( )m
a am
= m
b b
WORKED EXAMPLE 13 Simplifying terms in index form raised to a power

( )4
( )3 ( )3 2x3 3
a. 2n4 b. 3a2 b7 c. d. (−4)
y4
THINK WRITE
( )3
a. 1. Write the term. a. 2n4
2. Apply the Fourth Index Law and simplify. = 21×3 × n4×3

= 23 n12
= 8n12
( )3
b. 1. Write the expression. b. 3a2 b7
2. Apply the Fifth Index Law and simplify. = 31×3 × a2×3 × b7×3
= 33 a6 b21
= 27a6 b21

( )4
2x3
y4
21×4 × x3×4
2. Apply the Sixth Index Law and simplify. =
y4×4
16x12
=
y16
3
d. 1. Write the expression. d. (−4)
2. Write in expanded form. = −4 × −4 × −4
3. Simplify, taking careful note of the negative sign. = −64

a–d. a–d. a–d. a–d.
On a Calculator page, use On the Main screen, use the
the brackets and complete brackets and complete the entry
the entry line as: lines
( 4 )as:
( 4 )3 3
2n 2n
( 2 7 )3 ( 2 7 )3
3a b 3a b
( )4 ( )4
2x3 2x3
y4 y4
(−4)3 (−4)3
Press Enter after each ( 4 )3 Press EXE after each entry.
2n = 8n12
entry. ( 2 7 )3
3a b = 27a6 b21
( )4 ( 4 )3
2x3 16x12 2n = 8n12
= ( 2 7 )3
y4 y16 3a b = 27a6 b21
( )4
(−4)3 = −64 2x3 16x12
=
y4 y16
(−4)3 = −64
Resources
Resourceseses
Digital documents SkillSHEET Index form (doc-5168)
SkillSHEET Using a calculator to evaluate numbers given in index form (doc-5169)
Video eLesson Index laws (eles-1903)
Interactivities Individual pathway interactivity: Review of index laws (int-4652)
First Index Law (int-3709)
Second Index Law (int-3711)
Third Index Law (int-3713)
Fourth Index Law — Multiplication (int-3716)
Fifth and sixth index laws (int-6063)

Exercise 1.5 Review of index laws

Individual pathways
1, 4, 7, 10, 13, 15, 18, 21, 22, 26 2, 5, 8, 11, 14, 16, 19, 23, 24, 27 3, 6, 9, 12, 17, 20, 25, 28
Fluency
WE11a,b For questions 1 to 3, simplify each of the following.
1. a. a3 × a4 b. a2 × a3 × a c. b × b5 × b2 d. ab2 × a3 b5
2. a. m2 n6 × m3 n7 b. a2 b5 c × a3 b2 c2 c. mnp × m5 n3 p4 d. 2a × 3ab
1 5 1 3 1 4 4
3. a. 4a2 b3 × 5a2 b × b b. 3m3 × 2mn2 × 6m4 n5 c. 4x2 × xy × 6x3 y3 d. 2x3 y2 × 4x × xy
2 2 2
WE11c For questions 4 to 6, simplify each of the following.
4a7
4. a. a4 ÷ a3 b. a7 ÷ a2 c. b6 ÷ b3 d.
3a3
21b6 48m8 m7 n3 2x4 y3

5. a. b. c. d.
7b2 12m3 m4 n2 4x4 y
20m5 n3 p4 14x3 y4 z2
6. a. 7ab5 c4 ÷ ab2 c4 b. c.
16m3 n3 p2 28x2 y2 z2
0 ( )0
7. a. a0 b. (2b) c. 3m2
0
8. a. 3x0 b. 4b0 c. −3 × (2n)
( )0
a
0
( )0
9. a. 4a − b. 5y0 − 12 c. 5x0 − 5xy2
4
( 2 )4 ( )2
( )3 ( )4 m 2n4 2
10. a. a2 b. 2a5 c. d. e. (−7)
3 3
( )3 ( )2
( )3 ( )
3 2 2
( )
3 5 4 3m2 n a2
11. a. a2 b b. 3a b c. 2m n d. e.
4 b3
( )4 ( )3 ( )4
5m3 7x 3a 5 5
12. a. b. c. d. (−3) e. (−2)
n2 2y5 5b3

13. MC a. 2m10 n5 is the simplified form of:

( )2
5 3 4 2 6m10 n4 ( )
5 2 2
( )
5 2 4 2m5
A. m n × 2m n B. C. 2m n D. 2n m ×n E.
3n n3
0
b. The value of 4 − (5a) is:
A. −1 B. 9 C. 1 D. 3 E. 5
14. MC a. 4a3 b × b4 × 5a2 b3 simplifies to:
A. 9a5 b8 B. 20a5 b7 C. 20a5 b8 D. 9a5 b7 E. 21a5 b8

15x9 × 3x6
b. simplifies to:
9x10 × x4
A. 5x9 B. 9x C. 5x29 D. 9x9 E. 5x
3p7 × 8q9
c. simplifies to:
12p3 × 4q5
p4 q4 q4 p4 q4 q4
A. 2q4 B. C. D. E.
2 2 24 24
7a5 b3 7b3 a2
d. ÷ simplifies to:
5a6 b2 5b5 a4
49a3 b 25a3 b 25ab3
A. B. C. a3 b D. ab3 E.
25 49 49
Understanding
For questions 15 to 17, evaluate each of the following.
( 2 )2
15. a. 23 × 22 × 2 b. 2 × 32 × 22 c. 5
( )3
35 × 46 ( 3
)2 3
16. a. b. 2 × 5 c.
34 × 44 5
44 × 56 ( )0 ( )0
17. a. b. 33 × 24 c. 4 52 × 35
43 × 55
For questions 18 to 20, simplify each of the following.
3z 0
18. a. (xy ) b. ab × (pq )
( )x
a b 0 a2
19. a. m × n × (mn) b.
b3
n3 m2 p
20. a. b. (am+n )
np mq
Reasoning
21. Explain why a3 × a2 = a5 and not a6 .
22. Is 2x ever the same as x2 ? Explain your reasoning using examples.

0
23. Explain the difference between 3x0 and (3x) .

24. a. Complete the table for a = 0, 1, 2 and 3.
a 0 1 2 3
3a2
5a
2
3a + 5a
3a2 × 5a
b. Analyse what would happen as a becomes very large.

2
25. Evaluate algebraically the exact value of x if 4x+4 = 2x . Justify your answer.
Problem solving
26. Binary numbers (base 2 numbers) are used in computer operations. As the
name implies, binary uses only two types of numbers, 0 and 1, to express
all
( numbers.
) ( A binary
) (number) such as 101 (read one, zero, one) means
1 × 22 + 0 × 21 + 1 × 20 = 4 + 0 + 1 = 5 (in base 10, the base we are
most familiar with).
The number 1010 (read one, zero, one, zero) means
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1 × 23 + 0 × 22 + 1 × 21 + 0 × 20 = 8 + 0 + 2 + 0 = 10.
If we read the binary number from right to left, the index of 2 increases
by one each time, beginning with a power of zero. Using this information,
write out the numbers 1 to 10 in binary (base 2) form.
27. Solve for x:

7x × 71+2x
a. = 16 807 b. 22x − 5 (2x ) = −4
(7x )2
28. For the following:
a. determine the correct answer
b. identify the error in the solution.
( )3 ( )2 ( )3 ( 2 2 )2
a2 b3 c a3 b2 c2 b3 c ab c
× = ×
a2 b2 a2 b3 b 2
b2
( )3 ( 2 )2
bc ac
= ×
1 b
( ) 6
abc3
=
b
( 3 )6
ac
=
1
= a6 c18

1.6 Negative indices

LEARNING INTENTION
• evaluate expressions involving negative indices
• simplify expressions involving negative indices and re-write expressions so that all indices are positive.
1.6.1 Negative indices and the Seventh Index Law

eles-4670
a3
• Consider the expression. . This expression can be simplified in two different ways.
a5
a3 a×a×a
1. Written in expanded form: 5 =
a a×a×a×a×a
1
=
a×a
1
= 2
a
a3
2. Using the Second Index Law: 5 = a3−5
a
= a−2
1
• Equating the results of both of these simplifications we get a−2 = .
a2
1 a0 ( 0
)
• In general, = 1 = a
an an
= a0−n (using the Second Index Law)
= a−n
This statement is the Seventh Index Law.
Seventh Index Law

A term raised to a negative index is equivalent to 1 over the original term with
a positive index.
1
a−n =
an
• The converse of this law can be used to rewrite terms with positive indices only.
1
−n
= an
a
• It is also worth noting that applying a negative index to a fraction has the effect of swapping the numerator
and denominator.
( )−n
a bn
= n
b a
Note: It is proper mathematical convention for an algebraic term to be written with each variable in alphabetical
b3 a2 c−4 a2 b3 x5
order with positive indices only. For example: 6 −5 should be written as 4 6 .
yx cy

WORKED EXAMPLE 14 Writing terms with positive indices only
Express each of the following with positive indices.

4
a. x−3 b. 2m−4 n2 c.
a−3
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Write the expression. a. x−3
1
2. Apply the Seventh Index Law. =
x3
b. 1. Write the expression. b. 2m−4 n2
2n2
2. Apply the Seventh Index Law to write the =
expression with positive indices. m4
4
c. 1. Write the expression and rewrite the c.
−3
= 4 ÷ a−3
fraction, using a division sign. a
1
2. Apply the Seventh Index Law to write the =4÷
expression with positive indices. a3
a3
3. To divide the fraction, change fraction =4×
division into multiplication. 1
= 4a3
WORKED EXAMPLE 15 Simplifying expressions with negative indices
Simplify each of the following, expressing the answers with positive indices.
( 3 )−2
2 –3 – 5
2x4 y2 2m
a. a b × a b b. c.
3xy 5
n−2
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Write the expression. a. a2 b−3 × a−5 b
2. Apply the First Index Law. Multiply terms = a2+−5 b−3+1

with the same base by adding the indices. = a−3 b−2
1
3. Apply the Seventh Index Law to write the = 3 2
answer with positive indices. ab
2x4 y2
b. 1. Write the expression. b.
3xy5
2x4−1 y2−5
2. Apply the Second Index Law. Divide terms =
with the same base by subtracting the indices. 3
2x3 y−3
=
3
2x3
3. Apply the Seventh Index Law to write the =
answer with positive indices. 3y3

( )−2
2m3
n−2
2−2 m−6
2. Apply the Sixth Index Law. Multiply =
the indices of both the numerator and n4
denominator by the index outside
the brackets.
1
3. Apply the Seventh Index Law to express all =
terms with positive indices. 22 m6 n4
1
4. Simplify. =
4m6 n4
WORKED EXAMPLE 16 Evaluating expressions containing negative indices
Evaluate 6 × 3−3 without using a calculator.
THINK WRITE
1. Write the multiplication. 6 × 3−3
1
2. Apply the Seventh Index Law to write 3−3 with a = 6×
positive index. 33
6
3. Multiply the numerator of the fraction by the whole =
number. 33
6
4. Evaluate the denominator. =
27
2
5. Cancel by dividing both the numerator and =
denominator by the highest common factor (3). 9
Resources
Resourceseses
Video eLesson Negative indices (eles-1910)
Interactivities Individual pathway interactivity: Negative indices (int-4563)
Negative indices (int-6064)

Exercise 1.6 Negative indices

Individual pathways
1, 4, 7, 10, 13, 15, 17, 18, 28, 31 2, 5, 8, 11, 14, 16, 19, 20, 23, 26, 3, 6, 9, 12, 21, 22, 24, 25, 27, 30,
29, 32 33
Fluency
WE14 For questions 1 to 3, express each of the following with positive indices.
4 −3
1. a. x−5 b. y−4 c. 2a−9 d. a
5
1
2. a. 3x2 y−3 b. 2−2 m−3 n−4 c. 6a3 b−1 c−5 d.
a−6
2 6a 7a−4 2m3 n−5
3. a. b. c. d.
3a−4 3b−2 2b−3 3a−2 b4
WE15 For questions 4 to 6, simplify each of the following, expressing the answers with positive indices.
4. a. a3 b−2 × a−5 b−1 b. 2x−2 y × 3x−4 y−2 c. 3m2 n−5 × m−2 n−3
d. 4a3 b2 ÷ a5 b7 e. 2xy6 ÷ 3x2 y5
6m4 n 4x2 y9 2m2 n−4 ( )−5

5. a. 5x−2 y3 ÷ 6xy2 b. c. d. e. 2a3 m4
2n3 m6 x7 y−3 6m5 n−1
( )−3 ( )2 ( )−3
( )
7 −4 −2
( )
−2 −3 4 2p2 a−4 6a2
6. a. 4 p q b. 3 a b c. d. e.
3q3 2b−3 3b−2
WE16 For questions 7 to 9, evaluate each of the following without using a calculator.
7. a. 2−3 b. 6−2 c. 3−4 d. 3−2 × 23
6 4 × 3−3
8. a. 4−3 × 22 b. 5 × 6−2 c. d.
2−3 2−3
1 160 × 24 53 × 250 34 × 42
9. a. × 5−2 × 34 b. c. d.
3 82 × 2−4 252 × 5−4 123 × 150
10. Write each of these numbers as a power of 2.
1 1
a. 8 b. c. 32 d.
8 64
11. Solve each of the following for x.
1 1 x
a. 125 = 5x b. = 4x c. = 7x d. 216 = 6x e. 0.01 = 10
16 7
12. Solve each of the following for x.
1 1 1
a. 1 = 8x b. 64 = 4x c. = 4x d. = 2x e. = 8x
64 64 64

13. Evaluate the following expressions.

( )−1 ( )−1 ( )−1 ( )−1
2 5 1 1
a. b. c. 3 d.
3 4 2 5
14. Write the following expressions with positive indices.
( )−1 ( )−1 ( )−1 ( )−1
a a2 a−2 m3
a. b. c. d.
b b3 b−3 n−2
15. Evaluate each of the following, using a calculator.
−4
a. 3−6 b. 12 c. 7−5
16. Evaluate each of the following, using a calculator.

( )−8 ( )−7
1 3 −5
a. b. c. (0.04)
2 4
Understanding
1
17. MC is the same as:
a−4
1
A. 4a B. −4a C. a4 D. E. −a4
a4
1
18. MC is the same as:
8
1
A. 23 B. 2−3 C. 32 D. 3−2 E.
2−3
3m4
19. MC Select which of the following, when simplified, gives .
4n2
3m−4 n−2 3n−2
A. B. 3 × 2−2 × m4 × n−2 C.
4 2−2 m−4
22 n−2
D. E. 3m4 × 22 n−2
3−1 m−4
( )
−2 −7 3 −4 6
20. MC When simplified, 3a b ÷ a b is equal to:
4
4 9b 9a2 4a2 4a2
A. B. C. D. E.
6 13
ab 4a6 4b b13 b
−3
21. MC When (2x6 y−4 ) is simplified, it is equal to:
2x 18
x18 y12 8y12 x18
A. B. C. D. E.
y12 8y12 8x18 x18 6y12
( )3
2ax 8b9
22. MC If is equal to , then x and y (in that order) are:
by a6
A. −3 and −6 B. −6 and −3 C. −3 and 2 D. −3 and −2 E. −2 and −3
23. Simplify, expressing your answer with positive indices.

( )−7 ( )2 ( −2 )−1
m−3 n−2 m3 n−2 5 a3 b−3 5a b
a. b. ( )4 c. ( ) −1
÷ ( −4 )3
m−5 n6 m−5 n3 ab−4 a b

24. Simplify, expanding any expressions in brackets.

( )( ) ( )2
a. r3 + s3 r3 − s3 b. m5 + n5
( a+1 )b a+b ( )−4
x ×x px+1 p8(x+1) p2
c. d. × ( )4 × ( )0
xa(b+1) × x2b px−1 p2x p12x
( r )
2 × 8r
25. Write in the form 2ar+b .
22r × 16
26. Write 2−m × 3−m × 62m × 32m × 22m as a power of 6.
27. Solve for x if 4x − 4x−1 = 48.
Reasoning
6 6
28. Consider the equation y = . Clearly x ≠ 0 as would be undefined.
x x
Explain what happens to the value of y as x gets closer to zero coming from:
a. the positive direction b. the negative direction.
−n
29. Consider the expression 2 . Explain what happens to the value of this expression as n increases.
30. Explain why each of these statements is false. Illustrate each answer by substituting a value for the
pronumeral
1
a. 5x0 = 1 b. 9x5 ÷ (3x5 ) = 3x c. a5 ÷ a7 = a2 d. 2c−4 =
2c4
Problem solving
31. Solve the following pair of simultaneous equations.
1 5y
3y+1 = and = 125
9 125x
xn+2 + xn−2
32. Simplify .
xn−4 + xn
33. Solve for x and y if 5x−y = 625 and 32x × 3y = 243.
35x
Hence, evaluate .
7−2y × 5−3y
1.7 Fractional indices (10A)

LEARNING INTENTION
• evaluate expressions involving fractional indices
• simplify expressions involving fractional indices.
1.7.1 Fractional indices and the Eighth Index Law

eles-4671
1
• Consider the expression a 2 . Now consider what happens if we square that expression.
( )2
1
= a (Using the Fourth Index Law, (am )n = am×n )
a2
(√ )2
• From our work on surds, we know that a = a.

( )2 (√ )2
1 1 √
• Equating the two facts above, a2 = a . Therefore, a 2 = a.
1 1 1
( 1
)3 1 √
3
• Similarly, b 3 × b 3 × b 3 = b3 = b implying that b 3 = b.
1 √
• This pattern can be continued and generalised to produce a n = n a.
m m 1
m× 1 ×m
• Now consider: a n = a n or a n = a n
1 ( )m
1
= (am ) n = an
√
= n am (√ )m
= na
Eighth Index Law

m
A term raised to a fractional index is equivalent to the nth root of the term
n
raised to the power m.
m √ (√ )m
n n
an = am = a
WORKED EXAMPLE 17 Converting fractional indices to surd form
Write each of the following expressions in simplest surd form.

1 3
a. 10 2 b. 5 2
THINK WRITE
1 1 √
a. Since an index of is equivalent to taking the a. 10 2 = 10
2
square root, this term can be written as the square
root of 10.
3 3 √
b. 1. A power of means the square root of the b. 5 2 = 53
2
number cubed.
√
2. Evaluate 53 . = 125
√ √
3. Simplify 125. =5 5
WORKED EXAMPLE 18 Evaluating fractional indices without a calculator
Evaluate each of the following without using a calculator.

1 3
a. 9 2 b. 16 2
THINK WRITE
1 √
a. 1. Rewrite the number using Eighth Index Law. a. 9 2 = 9
2. Evaluate. =3

m (√ )m 3 (√ )3
n
b. 1. Rewrite the number using a n = a . b. 16 2 = 16
= 43
2. Simplify and evaluate the result. = 64
WORKED EXAMPLE 19 Evaluating fractional indices with a calculator
Use a calculator to determine the value of the following, correct to 1 decimal place.
1 1
a. 10 4 b. 200 5
THINK WRITE
1
a. Use a calculator to produce the answer. a. 10 4 = 1.77827941
≈ 1.8
1
b. Use a calculator to produce the answer. b. 200 5 = 2.885399812
≈ 2.9

a. a. a–b. a–b.
In a new document on a On the Main screen, complete
Calculator page, complete the entry lines as:
the entry line as: 1
1 10 4
1
10 4 200 5
Then press ENTER. Press EXE after each entry.
To convert the answer to
Note: Change Standard to
decimal press:
Decimal.
• MENU
• 2: Number 1
• 1: Convert to Decimal 10 4 = 1.77827941
Then press ENTER. ≈ 1.8
b. b.
In a new document on a 1
10 4 = 1.77827941
Calculator page, complete
≈ 1.8
the entry line as: 1
1
200 5 200 5 = 2.885399812
To convert the answer to
decimal press:
• MENU
• 2: Number
1
• 1: Convert to Decimal 200 5 = 2.885399812

WORKED EXAMPLE 20 Simplifying expressions with fractional indices

1
1 2 1 ⎛ 32 ⎞ 2
x
a. m 5 × m 5 b. (a2 b3 ) 6 c. ⎜ ⎟
⎜ 3⎟
⎝ y4 ⎠
THINK WRITE
1 2
a. 1. Write the expression. a. m 5 × m 5
3
2. Multiply numbers with the same base by adding the = m5
indices.
1
b. 1. Write the expression. b. (a2 b3 ) 6
2 3
2. Multiply each index inside the grouping symbols = a6 b6
(brackets) by the index on the outside.
1 1
3. Simplify the fractions. = a3 b2
1
⎛ 23 ⎞ 2
x
c. 1. Write the expression. c. ⎜ ⎟
⎜ 3⎟
⎝ y4 ⎠
1
x3
2. Multiply the index in both the numerator and denominator = 3
by the index outside the grouping symbols. y8
Resources
Resourceseses
Digital documents SkillSHEET Addition of fractions (doc-5176)
SkillSHEET Subtraction of fractions (doc-5177)
SkillSHEET Multiplication of fractions (doc-5178)
SkillSHEET Writing roots as fractional indices (doc-5179)
Video eLesson Fractional indices (eles-1950)
Interactivities Individual pathway interactivity: Fractional indices (int-4564)
Fractional indices (int-6107)
Exercise 1.7 Fractional indices (10A)

Individual pathways
1, 3, 7, 10, 13, 15, 17, 20, 23, 25, 2, 4, 5, 8, 11, 14, 18, 21, 26, 6, 9, 12, 16, 19, 22, 24, 27, 30,
28, 31 29, 32 33, 34

Fluency
WE17 For questions 1 to 4, write the following in surd form.
1 1 2 5
1. a. 15 2 b. m 4 c. 7 5 d. 7 2
3 1
2. a. w 8 b. w1.25 c. 53 3 d. a0.3
√ √
4
√
6
√
7 6
3. a. t b. 57 c. 611 d. x
√
6
√
5
√ √
x
4. a. x7 b. w10 c. 10 w5 d. 11n
5. WE18 Evaluate each of the following without using a calculator.

1 1 1
a. 16 2 b. 25 2 c. 81 2
6. Evaluate each of the following without using a calculator.

1 1 1
a. 8 3 b. 64 3 c. 81 4
WE19 For questions 7 to 9, use a calculator to evaluate each of the following, correct to 1 decimal place.
1 1 1
7. a. 5 2 b. 7 5 c. 8 9
3 5 2
8. a. 12 8 b. 100 9 c. 50 3
4
( )3 ( )2
3 4 4 3
9. a. (0.6) 5 b. c.
4 5
For questions 10 to 19, simplify each of the expressions.
3 1 1 3 1 1
10. a. 4 5 × 4 5 b. 2 8 × 2 8 c. a 2 × a 3
3 2 1 1 1 3 2
11. a. x 4 × x 5 b. 5m 3 × 2m 5 c. b 7 × 4b 7
2
2 2 3 3 1
12. a. −4y2 × y 9 b. a 8 × 0.05a 4 c. 5x3 × x 2
5
2 3 1 3 3 2 1 1 1 3 4
13. a. a 3 b 4 × a 3 b 4 b. x 5 y 9 × x 5 y 3 c. 2ab 3 × 3a 5 b 5
3 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 3 1 3 3
14. a. 6m 7 × m4 n5 b. x3 y 2 z 3 × x 6 y 3 z 2 c. 2a 5 b 8 c 4 × 4b 4 c 4
3
4 3 5 2 2 2 3 4 3
15. a. x3 y2 ÷ x 3 y 5 b. a 9 b 3 ÷ a 5 b 5 c. m 8 n 7 ÷ 3n 8
3 3 7 1
4 2 1 5a 4 b 5 p8 q4
16. a. 10x 5 y ÷ 5x 3 y 4 b.
1 1
c.
2 1
20a 5 b 4 7p 3 q 6
( 3
)3 ( 2
)1 ( 1
)6
5 4
17. a. 24 b. 53 c. 75

( )3 ( )1
( )1 4 8 1 3
18. a. a3 10 b. m9 c. 2b 2
( ) 14 ( m ) pn ( a )c
b
3 15
19. a. 4 p7 b. x n c. 3m b
Understanding
( )1 ( )2
1 1 2 ( 4
)3 3 7
20. a. a2 b3 b. a b 4 c. x5 y8
2
( 1 3 3
)1 ( 2
)1 ⎛ 43 ⎞ 3
3 1 2 2 a
21. a. 3a 3 b 5 c 4 b. 5 x 2 y 3 z 5 c. ⎜ ⎟
⎜b⎟
⎝ ⎠
2 1
2
⎛ 54 ⎞ ⎛ 35 ⎞ 3 ⎛ 7 ⎞2
m ⎟ b 4x ⎟
22. a. ⎜ b. ⎜ ⎟ c. ⎜
⎜ 7⎟ ⎜ 4⎟ ⎜ 3⎟
⎝ n8 ⎠ ⎝ c9 ⎠ ⎝ 2y 4 ⎠
2
23. MC a. y 5 is equal to:
( )5 ( 1 )2
1 2 ( )1 √
A. y2 B. y × C. y5 2 D. 2 5 y E. y5
5
2
b. k 3 is not equal to:
( 1 )2 √ ( )3 (√ )2 1
1
3 2 3
A. k3 B. k C. k2 D. k E. (k2 ) 3
1
c. √ is equal to:
2
5 g
2 2 5 5 1
A. g 5 B. g− 5 C. g 2 D. g− 2 E. 2g 5
m
3 n 1
24. MC a. If (a 4 ) is equal to a 4 , then m and n could not be:
A. 1 and 3 B. 2 and 6 C. 3 and 8 D. 4 and 9 E. both C and D
( m ) mp
an
b. When simplified, n is equal to:
bp
2
m p mp m
p
ap an an a a np
A. n B. n C. n D. E. nm
bm bm bm bm 2
bp
25. Simplify each of the following.
√ √
3
√
4
a. a8 b. b9 c. m16
√ √ √
3 4
a. 16x4 b. 8y9 c. 16x8 y12


√
3 √ √
3
5
a. 27m9 n15 b. 32p5 q10 c. 216a6 b18
Reasoning
28. The relationship between the length of a pendulum (L) in a grandfather clock and
the time it takes to complete one swing (T) in seconds is given by the following
rule. Note that g is the acceleration due to gravity and will be taken as 9.8.
( )1
L 2
T = 2𝜋
g
a. Calculate the time it takes a 1 m long pendulum to complete one swing.

b. Determine the time it takes the pendulum to complete 10 swings.
c. Determine how many swings will be completed after 10 seconds.
√
5
29. Using the index laws, show that 32a5 b10 = 2ab2 .
30. To rationalise a fraction means to remove all non-rational numbers from the
a2
denominator of the fraction. Rationalise √ by multiplying the numerator
3 + b3
√
and denominator by 3 − b3 , and then evaluate if b = a2 and a = 2. Show all of
your working.
Problem solving
31. Simplify:
1 1 √
x + 2x 2 y 2 + y − z 2
t
a. ( ) b. 5 √
1 1 1
x +y +y
2 2 2 t3
( 3 3
)( )
1 1 1 1 1
32. Expand m4 + m2 n2 + m4 n + n2 m4 − n2 .
2 1 1 2 2
m 5 − 2m 5 n 5 + n 5 − p 5
33. Simplify
1 1 1
m5 − n5 − p5
34. A scientist has discovered a piece of paper with a complex formula written on it. She thinks that someone
has tried to disguise a simpler formula. The formula is:
√
4 13 2
√ (√ )2 ( )3
a a b3 a 3b 2
b
√ × b3 × × √
1
ab ab2 a2 b
a. Simplify the formula using index laws so that it can be worked with.
b. From your simplified formula, can a take a negative value? Explain.
c. Evaluate the smallest value for a for which the expression will give a rational answer. Consider
only integers.

1.8 Combining index laws

LEARNING INTENTION
• simplify algebraic expressions involving brackets, fractions, multiplication and division using
appropriate index laws.
1.8.1 Combining index laws

eles-4672 • When it is clear that multiple steps are required to simplify an expression, expand brackets first.
• When fractions are involved, it is usually easier to carry out all multiplications first, leaving one division as
the final process.
• Make sure to simplify terms to a common base, before attempting to apply the index laws.
( )3
For example: 52x × 253 = 52x × 52 = 52x × 56 = 52x+6 .
• Finally, write the answer with positive indices and variables in alphabetical order, as is convention.
WORKED EXAMPLE 21 Simplifying expressions in multiple steps

(2a)4 b4 3n−2 × 9n+1
a. b.
6a3 b2 81n−1
THINK WRITE
(2a)4 b4
a. 1. Write the expression. a.
6a3 b2
16a4 b4
2. Apply the Fourth Index Law to remove the bracket. =
6a3 b2
8a4−3 b4−2
3. Apply the Second Index Law for each number and =
pronumeral to simplify. 3
8ab2
4. Write the answer. =
3
3n−2 × 9n+1
81n−1
n+1
3n−2 × (32 )
2. Rewrite each term in the expression so that it has a = n−1
base of 3. (34 )
3n−2 × 32n+2
3. Apply the Fourth Index Law to expand the brackets. =
34n−4
33n
4. Apply the First and Second Index Laws to simplify =
and write your answer. 34n−4
1
= n−4
3

WORKED EXAMPLE 22 Simplifying complex expressions involving multiple steps

4 7xy3 2m5 n × 3m7 n4
a. (2a3 b) × 4a2 b3 b. c.
2
(3x3 y2 ) 7m3 n3 × mn2
THINK WRITE
4
a. 1. Write the expression. a. (2a3 b) × 4a2 b3
2. Apply the Fourth Index Law. Multiply each index = 24 a12 b4 × 4a2 b3
inside the brackets by the index outside the brackets.
3. Evaluate the number. = 16a12 b4 × 4a2 b3
4. Multiply coefficients and multiply pronumerals. = 16 × 4 × a12+2 b4+3

Apply the First Index Law to multiply terms with the = 64a14 b7
same base by adding the indices.
7xy3
2
(3x3 y2 )
7xy3
2. Apply the Fourth Index Law in the denominator. =
Multiply each index inside the brackets by the index 9x6 y4
outside the brackets.
7x−5 y−1
3. Apply the Second Index Law. Divide terms =
with the same base by subtracting the indices. 9
1 7
4. Use a−m = m to express the answer with positive =
a 9x5 y
indices.
2m5 n × 3m7 n4
7m3 n3 × mn2
6m12 n5
2. Simplify each numerator and denominator by =
multiplying coefficients and then terms with the same 7m4 n5
base.
6m8 n0
3. Apply the Second Index Law. Divide terms with the =
same base by subtracting the indices. 7
6m8 × 1
4. Simplify the numerator using a0 = 1. =
7
8
6m
=
7

WORKED EXAMPLE 23 Simplifying expressions with multiple fractions

2
(5a2 b3 ) a2 b5 8m3 n−4 4m−2 n−4
a. × b. ÷
a10 (a3 b)
7
(6mn2 )
3
6m−5 n
THINK WRITE
2
(5a2 b3 ) a2 b5
a. 1. Write the expression. a. × 7
a10 (a3 b)
25a4 b6 a2 b5
2. Remove the brackets in the numerator of the first = × 21 7
fraction and in the denominator of the second fraction. a10 a b
25a6 b11
3. Multiply the numerators and then multiply the =
denominators of the fractions. (Simplify across.) a31 b7
4. Divide terms with the same base by subtracting the = 25a−25 b4

indices. (Simplify down.)
25b4
5. Express the answer with positive indices. =
a25
8m3 n−4 4m−2 n−4
b. 1. Write the expression. b. ÷
(6mn2 )
3
6m−5 n
8m3 n−4 4m−2 n−4

2. Remove the brackets. = ÷
216m3 n6 6m−5 n
8m3 n−4 6m−5 n
3. Multiply by the reciprocal. = ×
3 6
216m n 4m−2 n−4
48m−2 n−3
4. Multiply the numerators and then multiply the =
denominators. (Simplify across.) 864mn2
m−3 n−5
5. Cancel common factors and divide pronumerals with =
the same base. (Simplify down.) 18
1
6. Simplify and express the answer with =
positive indices. 18m3 n5
Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivities Individual pathway interactivity: Combining index laws (int-4565)
Combining index laws (int-6108)

Exercise 1.8 Combining index laws

Individual pathways
1, 4, 7, 10, 13, 16, 17, 23, 26 2, 5, 8, 11, 14, 18, 19, 21, 24, 27 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 20, 22, 25, 28
Fluency
3 2 −6
1. a. (3a2 b2 ) × 2a4 b3 b. (4ab5 ) × 3a3 b6 c. 2m3 n−5 × (m2 n−3 )
2 3 2 2 3 −4
2. a. (2pq3 ) × (5p2 q4 ) b. (2a7 b2 ) × (3a3 b3 ) c. 5(b2 c−2 ) × 3(bc5 )
( 3 4
)1 3
( )3
1 1 2 1 1
3. a. 6x 2 y 3 × 4x 4 y 5 b. (16m3 n4 ) 4 × m2 n4
( 2 1
)− 3 ( 3
)− 1 ( 1 2
)− 1 ( 1 3
)2
4 1 3 3 3
c. 2 p3 q3 ×3 p 4 q− 4 d. 8p 5 q 3 × 64p 3 q 4

3
5a2 b3 4x5 y6 (3m2 n3 )
4. a. b. c.
3 4 7
(2a3 b) (2xy3 ) (2m5 n5 )
( )6 ( )3
4x3 y10 3a3 b−5 3g2 h5
5. a. b. c.
−3
2x7 y4 (2a7 b4 ) 2g4 h
( )2
1 1 1
1 2 ( )−4 x2 y4 z2
(5p6 q 3 ) 3b2 c3
6. a. b. c.
( )2 5b−3 c−4 ( 2 1
)− 3
1 1 3 −1 2
25 p2 q4 x3 y 4 z3
WE22c For questions 7 to 9, simplify each of the following.
2a2 b × 3a3 b4 4m6 n3 × 12mn5 10m6 n5 × 2m2 n3

7. a. b. c.
4a3 b5 6m7 n6 12m4 n × 5m2 n3
4
6x3 y2 × 4x6 y (6x3 y2 ) 5x2 y3 × 2xy5
8. a. b. c.
9xy5 × 2x3 y6 9x5 y2 × 4xy7 10x3 y4 × x4 y2
3 −3 3 1 4 3
a3 b2 × 2(ab5 ) (p6 q2 ) × 3pq 6x 2 y 2 × x 5 y 5
9. a. b. c.
3
6(a2 b3 ) × a4 b 2p−4 q−2 × (5pq4 )
−2 ( )1
1 5 1 1
2 x 2 y × 3x 2 y 5

WE23a For questions 10 to 12, simplify each of the following.

2 2 3
a3 b2 2a6 b (2a6 ) 4ab6 (m4 n3 ) (m3 n3 )
10. a.
4 7
× 9 3 b.
7 3
× c. ×
5a b ab 10a b 6a3 (m6 n)
4
(2mn)2
( )3 ( )4 ( )2
2m3 n2 6m2 n4 2xy2 x3 y9 4x−5 y−3 3x5 y6
11. a. × b. × c.
−2
×
3mn5 4m3 n10 3x3 y5 2y10 (x2 y2 ) 2−2 x−7 y
( )1
1 2
6 −5
( 6 4
)−2 1 1 4a 4 b 2 1 1
5p q 5p q 2a 2 b 3 3x 3 y 5 4x 2
12. a. × b. × c. ×
3q−4 3p5 1 1 1 1 1 3
6a 3 b 2 b4 a 9x 3 y 4 x4 y
WE23b For questions 13 to 15, simplify each of the following.
( )3
5a2 b3 a9 b4 7a2 b4 3ab
13. a. ÷ b. ÷
6a7 b5 3ab6 3a6 b7 2a6 b4
( )3 ( )4 3 ( )−4
4a9 3a7 5x2 y6 (4x6 y) x5 y−3 4x6 y−10
14. a. ÷ b.
2
÷ c. ÷ −3
b6 2b5 (2x4 y5 ) 10xy3 2xy5 (3x−2 y2 )
1
( )
6 −2
1 1 ⎛ 3 13 ⎞ 2 1
3m3 n4 2m4 n 1 3 6m 3 n 4 4b c ⎟ − 3
15. a. ÷ b. 4m 2 n 4 ÷ c. ⎜ ÷ (2b 3 5 −2
c )
2m−6 n−5 m−1 n 3 1 ⎜ 1 ⎟
8m 4 n 2 ⎝ 6c 5 b ⎠
Understanding
16. Evaluate each of the following.
0
2 0 −3 0 5 6 −1 −3 3 3 −2 (26 × 39 )
a. (5 × 2) × (5 × 2 ) ÷ (5 × 2 ) b. (2 × 3 ) ÷ −3
26 × (3−2 )
17. Evaluate the following for x = 8. (Hint: Simplify first.)
( )2
−3 x 2x
(2x) × ÷ 4
2 (23 )
a2y × 9by × (5ab)y
18. a. Simplify the following fraction:
(ay )3 × 5(3by )2
b. Determine the value of y if the fraction is equal to 125.
3
19. MC Select which of the following is not the same as (4xy) 2 .
1
3 3 √ 3 √ (2x3 y3 ) 2 1 1
8x 2 y 2 B. ( 4xy) C. 64x3 y3 D. ( E. 4xy 2 × (2xy2 ) 2
A.
√ )−1
32
x2 y xy
20. MC The expression ÷ is equal to:
2 3 16x0
(2xy )
2 2x2 2 1
A. B. C. 2x2 y6 D. E.
2 6
xy b6 xy6 128xy5

21. Simplify the following.
√ √ ( )1 1
3 3 1 2 45 3
−2
a. m2 n ÷ mn3 b. (g h) × c.
n−3 3 3
9 4 × 15 2
( )−2 ( )2 (√ ) 3 (√ ) 1
3
−1 −3 a3 b−2 3−3 a−2 b 5 2 2 3 5 5
a. 22 ×4 4 × 16 4 b. ÷ c. d × d
3−3 b−3 a4 b−2
Reasoning
23. The population of the number of bacteria on a petri dish is modelled by N = 6 × 2t+1 , where N is the number
of bacteria after t days.
a. Determine the initial number of bacteria.
b. Determine the number of bacteria after one week.
c. Calculate when the number of bacteria will first exceed 100 000.
24. In a controlled breeding program at the Melbourne Zoo, the population (P) of koalas at t years is modelled
by P = P0 × 10kt . Given P0 = 20 and k = 0.3:
a. Evaluate the number of koalas after 2 years.
b. Determine when the population will be equal to 1000. Show full working.
25. The decay of uranium is modelled by D = D0 × 2−kt . It takes 6 years for the mass of uranium to halve.
Giving your answers to the nearest whole number, determine the percentage remaining after:
a. 2 years b. 5 years c. 10 years.
Problem solving
26. Solve the following for x: 22x+2 − 22x−1 − 28 = 0.
72x+1 − 72x−1 − 48
27. Simplify .
36 × 72x − 252
z4 + z−4 − 3
28. Simplify .
1
2 −2
z +z − 52

1.9 Application of indices: Compound interest

LEARNING INTENTION
• calculate the future value of an investment earning compound interest
• calculate the amount of interest earned after a period of time on an investment with compound interest.
1.9.1 Application of indices: compound interest

eles-4673
• One practical application of indices is compound interest.
• Compound interest is the type of interest that is applied to savings in a bank account, term deposits and
bank loans.
• Unlike simple interest, which has a fixed amount of interest added at each payment, compound interest
depends on the balance (or principal) of the account. This means that the amount of interest increases with
each successive payment. It is often calculated per year (per annum or p.a.)
• The following graph shows how compound interest increases over time. Each interest amount is 20% of the
previous balance. As the balance grows, the interest increases and the balance growth accelerates.
Compound interest (20% p.a. over 8 years)
40 000
Balance
35 000
Interest p.a.
30 000
Compound interest
25 000
20 000
15 000
10 000
5000
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Time (years)
• The amount to which the initial investment grows is called the compounded value or future value.
• Compound interest can be calculated by methodically calculating the amount of interest earned at each
time, and adding it to the value of the investment.
WORKED EXAMPLE 24 Calculating compound interest step by step
Kyna invests $8000 at 8% p.a. for 3 years with interest paid at the end of each year. Determine the
compounded value of the investment by calculating the simple interest on each year separately.
THINK WRITE
1. Write the initial (first year) principal. Initial principal = $8000
2. Calculate the interest for the first year. Interest for year 1 = 8% of $8000
= $640

3. Calculate the principal for the second year Principal for year 2 = $8000 + $640
by adding the first year’s interest to the = $8640
initial principal.
4. Calculate the interest for the second year. Interest for year 2 = 8% of $8640
= $691.20
5. Calculate the principal for the third year Principal for year 3 = $8640 + $691.20
by adding the second year’s interest to the = $9331.20
second year’s principal.
6. Calculate the interest for the third year. Interest for year 3 = 8% of $9331.20
= $746.50
7. Calculate the future value of the investment Compounded value after 3 years = $9331.20 + $746.50
by adding the third year’s interest to the third = $10 077.70
year’s principal.
• To calculate the total amount of interest received, subtract the initial value from the future value.
• In Worked example 24, the total amount of interest is $10 077.70 − $8000 = $2077.70.
1.9.2 The compound interest formula

eles-5357
• Calculating compound interest in a step by step manner is very time consuming, particularly for an
investment or loan over 20 or more years.
• By investigating the process however, we are able to simplify things and create a formula to calculate
compound interest over extended periods of time.
• To increase a number by a certain percentage we can multiply the number by a decimal that is greater
than 1. For example, to increase a number by 8%, multiply by 1.08.
• Consider Worked example 24. Let the compounded value after n years be An .
• The initial value of the investment (after 0 years) is $8000.
Therefore, A0 = 8000.
• After 1 year, 8% interest has been added to the investment.
Therefore, A1 = 8000 × 1.08
• After 2 years, another 8% interest has been added to the investment.
Therefore, A2 = (8000 × 1.08) × 1.08 = 8000 × (1.08)2
• After 3 years, another 8% interest has been added to the investment.
Therefore, A3 = (8000 × 1.08 × 1.08) × 1.08 = 8000 × (1.08)3
• Continuing this pattern, the value of the investment after n years is given by An = 8000 × (1.08)n .
× 1.08 × 1.08 × 1.08 × 1.08 × 1.08
A0 = $8000 A1 = $8640 A2 = $9331.20 A3 = $10 077.70 … An = $8000 × 1.08 n
× 1.081 × 1.082 × 1.083 × 1.08 n
• We can simplify this so that we skip all of the values in the middle and focus on the initial value (principal)
and the final (future) value.

Compound interest formula

For any investment or loan, the balance after n compounding periods is given by:
A = P(1 + r)n
where:
• A is the future value of the investment in $
• P is the principal (initial value of the investment) in $
• r is the interest rate per compounding period as a decimal. (Note: The pronumeral
i can also be used in the formula to represent the interest rate.)
• n is the number of compounding periods.
• The interest, (I), can then be calculated using the formula:
I=A−P
WORKED EXAMPLE 25 Using the compound interest formula
William has $14 000 to invest. He invests the money at 9% p.a. for 5 years with interest
compounded annually.
n
a. Use the formula A = P(1 + r) to calculate the amount to which this investment will grow.
b. Calculate the compound interest earned on the investment.
THINK WRITE
n
a. 1. Write the compound interest formula. a. A = P(1 + r)
2. Write down the values of P, r and n. P = $14 000, r = 0.09, n = 5
3. Substitute the values into the formula. A = $14 000 × 1.095

4. Calculate. = $21 540.74
The investment will grow to $21 540.74.
b. Calculate the compound interest earned. b. I = A − P
= $21 540.74 − $14 000
= $7540.74
The compound interest earned is $7540.74.

a–b. a–b. a–b. a–b.
On a Calculator page, store On the Main screen, complete
the value of p. To do this, the entry line as:
complete the entry line as: solve (A = P × (1 + r)n , A)|r =
p: = 14000 0.09|n = 5|P = 14000
Then press: Then press EXE and complete
• MENU as shown.
• 3: Algebra
• 1: Solve
Complete the entry line as:
solve (a = p × (1 + r)n , a) The investment will grow to
|r = 0.09 and n = 5 $21 540.74.
Then press ENTER and The compound interest earned is
complete as shown. $7540.74. The investment will
grow to $21 540.74
The compound interest
earned is $7540.74.

1.9.3 Compounding period

eles-5358
• In Worked example 25, interest is paid annually. Interest can be paid more regularly — it may be paid
six-monthly (twice a year), quarterly (4 times a year), monthly or even daily.
• The frequency of interest payment is called the compounding period.
• In general, the time period of a loan will be stated in years and the interest rate will be quoted as % p.a.
(per annum). If the compounding period is not annual, these values must be adjusted in the compound
interest formula.
• For example, an investment over 5 years at 6% p.a. compounding quarterly will have:
n = 5 × 4 = 20 compounding periods
6
r = % = 1.5% = 0.015
4
Calculating n and r for different compounding time periods

• n is the total number of compounding time periods:
n = number of years × number of compounding periods per year
• r is the interest rate per compounding time period:
interest rate per annum

r=
number of compounding periods per year
WORKED EXAMPLE 26 Calculating the future value of an investment
Calculate the future value of an investment of $4000 at 6% p.a. for 2 years with interest
compounded quarterly.
THINK WRITE
1. Write the compound interest formula. A = P(1 + r)n
2. Write the values of P, n and r. The number of P = $4000,

compounding periods, n, is 4 compounding periods n = 2 × 4 = 8
per year for two years. The interest rate, r, is the 6
r = ÷ 100 = 0.015
interest rate per annum divided by the number of 4
compounding periods per year, expressed as
a decimal.
3. Substitute the values into the formula. A = $4000 × 1.0158
4. Calculate the future value of an investment. = $4505.97
The future value of the investment is $4505.97.


Use the finance functions On the Financial screen, press:
available on the calculator for • Compound Interest
this question. Enter the values as shown in
On a Calculator page, press: the screenshot. The FV is
• MENU left blank. Tap it and it will
• 8: Finance calculate the value.
• 2: TVM Functions Note that the number of
• 5: Future Value compounding periods is 8, that
Complete the entry line as: is 4 times a year for 2 years,
tvmFV(8, 1.5, 4000, 0) 6
The future value is $4505.97. and the interest is = 1.5%
Press ENTER. 4
Note that the number of quarterly.
compounding periods is 8, that
The future value is $4505.97.
is 4 times a year for 2 years,
6
and the interest is = 1.5%
4
quarterly.
Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivities Individual pathway interactivity: Compound interest (int-4636)
Compound interest (int-6075)
Compounding periods (int-6186)
Exercise 1.9 Application of indices: Compound interest

Individual pathways
1, 4, 7, 9, 10, 14, 19, 22 2, 5, 8, 11, 15, 17, 20, 23 3, 6, 12, 13, 16, 18, 21, 24
Fluency
For questions 1 to 3, use the formula A = P(1 + r)n to calculate the amount to which each of the following
investments will grow with interest compounded annually.
1. a. $3000 at 4% p.a. for 2 years b. $9000 at 5% p.a. for 4 years
2. a. $16000 at 9% p.a. for 5 years b. $12500 at 5.5% p.a. for 3 years
3. a. $9750 at 7.25% p.a. for 6 years b. $100 000 at 3.75% p.a. for 7 years
For questions 4 and 5, calculate the compounded value of each of the following investments.
4. a. $870 for 2 years at 3.50% p.a. with interest compounded six-monthly
1
b. $9500 for 2 years at 4.6% p.a. with interest compounded quarterly
2
1
5. a. $148 000 3 for years at 9.2% p.a. with interest compounded six-monthly
2
b. $16 000 for 6 years at 8 p.a. with interest compounded monthly

6. Calculate the compounded value of each of the following investments.

a. $130 000 for 25 years at 12.95% p.a. with interest compounded quarterly
b. $250 000 for 8.5 years at 6.75% p.a. with interest compounded monthly
Understanding
7. WE24 Danielle invests $6000 at 10% p.a. for 4 years with interest
paid at the end of each year. Determine the compounded value of the
investment by calculating the simple interest on each year separately.
8. Ben is to invest $13 000 for 3 years at 8% p.a. with interest paid
annually. Determine the amount of interest earned by calculating the
simple interest for each year separately.
9. WE25 Simon has $2000 to invest. He invests the money at 6% p.a. for 6 years
with interest compounded annually.
n
a. Use the formula A = P(1 + r) to calculate the amount to which this investment will grow.
b. Calculate the compound interest earned on the investment.
10. WE26Calculate the future value of an investment of $14 000 at 7% p.a. for 3 years with interest
compounded quarterly.
11. A passbook savings account pays interest of 0.3% p.a. Jill has $600 in such an account. Calculate the amount
in Jill’s account after 3 years, if interest is compounded quarterly.
12. Damien is to invest $35 000 at 7.2% p.a. for 6 years with interest compounded six-monthly. Calculate the
compound interest earned on the investment.
13. Sam invests $40 000 in a one-year fixed deposit at an interest rate of 7% p.a. with interest
compounding monthly.
a. Convert the interest rate of 7% p.a. to a rate per month.
b. Calculate the value of the investment upon maturity.
14. MC A sum of $7000 is invested for 3 years at the rate of 5.75% p.a., compounded quarterly. The interest paid
on this investment, to the nearest dollar, is:
A. $1208 B. $1308 C. $8208 D. $8308 E. $8508.
15. MC After selling their house and paying off their mortgage, Mr and Mrs
Fong have $73 600. They plan to invest it at 7% p.a. with interest
compounded annually. The value of their investment will first exceed
$110 000 after:
A. 5 years
B. 6 years
C. 8 years
D. 10 years
E. 15 years
16. MC Maureen wishes to invest $150 000 for a period of 7 years. The following investment alternatives are
suggested to her. The best investment would be:
A. simple interest at 8% p.a.
B. compound interest at 6.7% p.a. with interest compounded annually
C. compound interest at 6.6% p.a. with interest compounded six-monthly
D. compound interest at 6.5% p.a. with interest compounded quarterly
E. compound interest at 6.4% p.a. with interest compounded monthly

17. MC An amount is to be invested for 5 years and compounded semi-annually at 7% p.a. Select which of the
following investments will have a future value closest to $10 000.
A. $700 B. $6500 C. $7400 D. $9000 E. $9900
18. Jake invests $120 000 at 9% p.a. for a 1-year term. For such large investments interest is compounded daily.
a. Calculate the daily percentage interest rate, correct to 4 decimal places. Use 1 year = 365 days.
b. Hence, calculate the compounded value of Jake’s investment on maturity.
c. Calculate the amount of interest paid on this investment.
d. Calculate the extra amount of interest earned compared with the case where the interest is calculated only
at the end of the year.
Reasoning
19. Daniel has $15 500 to invest. An investment over a 2-year term will pay interest of 7% p.a.
a. Calculate the compounded value of Daniel’s investment if the compounding period is:
i. 1 year ii. 6 months iii. 3 months iv. monthly.

b. Explain why it is advantageous to have interest compounded on a more frequent basis.
20. Jasmine invests $6000 for 4 years at 8% p.a. simple interest. David also invests $6000 for 4 years, but his
interest rate is 7.6% p.a. with interest compounded quarterly.
a. Calculate the value of Jasmine’s investment on maturity.
b. Show that the compounded value of David’s investment is greater than Jasmine’s investment.
c. Explain why David’s investment is worth more than Jasmine’s investment despite receiving a lower rate
of interest.
21. Quan has $20 000 to invest over the next 3 years. He has the choice of investing his money at 6.25% p.a.
simple interest or 6% p.a. compound interest.
a. Calculate the amount of interest that Quan will earn if he selects the simple interest option.
b. Calculate the amount of interest that Quan will earn if the interest is compounded:
i. annually ii. six monthly iii. quarterly.
c. Clearly Quan’s decision will depend on the compounding period. Explain the conditions under which
Quan should accept the lower interest rate on the compound interest investment.
d. Consider an investment of $10000 at 8% p.a. simple interest over 5 years. Use a trial-and-error method to
determine an equivalent rate of compound interest over the same period.
e. State whether this equivalent rate be the same if we change:
i. the amount of the investment ii. the period of the investment.
Problem solving
22. A building society advertises investment accounts at the following rates:
i. 3.875% p.a. compounding daily
ii. 3.895% p.a. compounding monthly
iii. 3.9% p.a. compounding quarterly.
Peter thinks the first account is the best one because the interest is calculated more frequently. Paul thinks
the last account is the best one because it has the highest interest rate. Explain whether either is correct.
23. Two banks offer the following investment packages.
Bank west: 7.5% p. a. compounded annually fixed for 7 years.
Bank east: 5.8% p. a. compounded annually fixed for 9 years.
a. Determine which bank’s package will yield the greatest interest.
b. If a customer invests $20 000 with Bank west, determine how much she would have to invest with Bank
east to produce the same amount as Bank west at the end of the investment period.

24. a. Consider an investment of $1 invested at 100% interest for 1 year. Calculate the value of the investment if
it is compounded:
i. quarterly ii. monthly iii. daily iv. once every hour.
b. Comment on the pattern you notice as the compounding period become more frequent. Do you notice
any connection to an important mathematical constant?
1.10 Logarithms (10A)

LEARNING INTENTION
• convert between index form and logarithmic form
• evaluate logarithms and use logarithms in scale measurement.
1.10.1 Logarithms
eles-4676
• The index, power or exponent in the statement y = ax is also known as a logarithm (or log for short).
Logarithm or index or power or exponent

x
y= a Base
• This statement y = ax can be written in an alternative form as log y = x, which is read as ‘the logarithm of y
a
to the base a is equal to x’. These two statements are equivalent.
Index form Logarithmic form
ax = y ⇔ loga (y) = x
• For example, 32 = 9 can be written as log 9 = 2. The log form would be read as ‘the logarithm of 9, to the
3
base of 3, is 2’. In both forms, the base is 3 and the logarithm is 2.
• It helps to remember that the output of a logarithm would be the power of the equivalent expression in
index form. Logarithms take in large numbers and output small numbers (powers).
WORKED EXAMPLE 27 Converting to logarithmic form
Write the following in logarithmic form.

a. 104 = 10 000 b. 6x = 216
THINK WRITE
4
a. 1. Write the given statement. a. 10 = 10 000

2. Identify the base (10) and the logarithm (4) and log10 (10 000) = 4
write the equivalent statement in logarithmic
form. (Use ax = y ⇔ loga y = x, where the base
is a and the log is x.)
b. 1. Write the given statement. b. 6x = 216
2. Identify the base (6) and the logarithm (x) and log6 (216) = x
write the equivalent statement in
logarithmic form.
WORKED EXAMPLE 28 Converting to index form
Write the following in index form.

1
a. log2 (8) = 3 b. log25 (5) =
2
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Write the statement. a. log2 (8) = 3
2. Identify the base (2) and the log (3), and write the 23 = 8
equivalent statement in index form. Remember that
the log is the same as the index.
1
b. 1. Write the statement. b. log25 (5) =
2
( )
1 1
2. Identify the base (25) and the log , and write the 25 2 = 5
2
equivalent statement in index form.
• In the previous examples, we found that:
log2 (8) = 3 ⇔ 23 = 8 and log10 (10 000) = 4 ⇔ 104 = 10 000.

( )
We could also write log2 (8) = 3 as log2 (23 ) = 3 and log10 (10 000) = 4 as log2 104 = 4.
• Can this pattern be used to work out the value of log (81)? We need to find the power when the base of 3 is
3
raised to that power to give 81.
WORKED EXAMPLE 29 Evaluating a logarithm
Evaluate log3 (81).
THINK WRITE
1. Write the log expression. log3 (81)
2. Express 81 in index form with a base of 3. = log3 (34 )
3. Write the value of the logarithm. =4

1.10.2 Using logarithmic scales in measurement

eles-4677
• Logarithms can also be used to display data sets that cover a
range of values which vary greatly in size. For example,
when measuring the amplitude of earthquake waves, some
earthquakes will have amplitudes of around 10 000, whereas
other earthquakes may have amplitudes of around 10 000 000
(1000 times greater). Rather than trying to display this data on a
linear scale, we can take the logarithm of the amplitude, which
gives us the magnitude of each earthquake.
• The Richter scale uses the magnitudes of earthquakes to display
the difference in their power.
• The logarithm that is used in these scales is the logarithm with
base 10, which means that an increase by 1 on the scale, is an
increase of 10 in the actual value.
• The logarithm with base 10 is often written simply as log (x),
with the base omitted.
WORKED EXAMPLE 30 Real world application of logarithms
Convert the following amplitudes of earthquakes into values on the Richter scale, correct to
1 decimal place.
a. 1989 Newcastle earthquake: amplitude 398 000
b. 2010 Canterbury earthquake: amplitude 12 600 000
c. 2010 Chile earthquake: amplitude 631 000 000
THINK WRITE
a. Use a calculator to calculate the logarithmic a. log(398 000) = 5.599. . .
value of the amplitude. Round the answer to = 5.6
1 decimal place. The 1989 Newcastle earthquake rated 5.6 on the
Write the answer in words. Richter scale.
b. Use a calculator to calculate the logarithmic b. log(12 600 000) = 7.100. . .
1 decimal place. The 2010 Canterbury earthquake rated 7.1 on the
c. Use a calculator to calculate the logarithmic c. log(631 000 000) = 8.800. . .
1 decimal place. The 2010 Chile earthquake rated 8.8 on the
Displaying logarithmic data in histograms

• If we are given a data set in which the data vary greatly in size, we can use logarithms to transform the data
into more manageable figures, and then group the data into intervals to provide an indication of the spread
of the data.

WORKED EXAMPLE 31 Creating a histogram with a log scale
The following table displays the population of 10 different Town or city Population
towns and cities in Victoria (using data from the 2011 census). Benalla 9328
a. Convert the populations into logarithmic form, correct to
Bendigo 76 051
2 decimal places.
b. Group the data into a frequency table. Castlemaine 9124
c. Draw a histogram to represent the data. Echuca 12 613
Geelong 143 921
Kilmore 6 142
Melbourne 3 707 530
Stawell 5734
Wangaratta 17 377
Warrnambool 29 284
THINK WRITE
a. Use a calculator to calculate the a.
Town or city log(population)
logarithmic values of all of the
populations. Round the answers to
Benalla 3.97
2 decimal places. Bendigo 4.88
Castlemaine 3.96
Echuca 4.10
Geelong 5.16
Kilmore 3.79
Melbourne 6.57
Stawell 3.76
Wangaratta 4.24
Warrnambool 4.67
b. Group the logarithmic values into class b.

log(population) Frequency
intervals and create a frequency table.
3− < 4 4
4− < 5 4
5− < 6 1
6− < 7 1
c. Construct a histogram of the data set. c.

5
Frequency
4
3
2
1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Log (population)

Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivity Logarithms (int-6194)
Exercise 1.10 Logarithms (10A)

Individual pathways
1, 4, 5, 9, 12, 14, 17, 20 2, 6, 8, 10, 13, 15, 18, 21 3, 7, 11, 16, 19, 22
Fluency
WE27 For questions 1 to 3, write the following in logarithmic form.
3
1. a. 42 = 16 b. 25 = 32 c. 34 = 81 d. 62 = 36 e. 1000 = 10
2. a. 25 = 52 b. 43 = x c. 5x = 125 d. 7x = 49 e. p4 = 16
1 1 1 3
−1
3. a. 9 2 = 3 b. 0.1 = 10 c. 2 = 8 3 d. 2−1 = e. 4 2 = 8
2
4. MC The statement w = ht is equivalent to:
A. w = logt (h) B. h = logt (w) C. t = logw (h) D. t = logh (w) E. h = logw (t)
WE28 For questions 5 to 7, write the following in index form.
5. a. log2 (16) = 4 b. log3 (27) = 3 c. log10 (1 000 000) = 6 d. log5 (125) = 3
1 1
6. a. log16 (4) = b. log4 (64) = x c. = log49 (7) d. log3 (x) = 5
2 2
1 1
7. a. log81 (9) = b. log10 (0.01) = −2 c. log8 (8) = 1 d. log64 (4) =
2 3
8. MC The statement q = logr (p) is equivalent to:
A. q = rp B. p = rq C. r = pq D. r = qp E. p = qr
WE29 For questions 9 to 11, evaluate the following logarithms.
9. a. log2 (16) b. log4 (16) c. log11 (121) d. log10 (100 000)
10. a. log3 (243) b. log2 (128) c. log5 (1) d. log9 (3)

( ) ( )
1 1
11. a. log3 b. log6 (6) c. log10 d. log125 (5)
3 100

12. Write the value of each of the following.

a. log10 (1) b. log10 (10) c. log10 (100)
13. Write the value of each of the following.

a. log10 (1000) b. log10 (10 000) c. log10 (100 000)
Understanding
14. Use your results to question 12 and 13 to answer the following.
a. Between which two whole numbers would log10 (7) lie?
b. Between which two whole numbers would log10 (4600) lie?
c. Between which two whole numbers would log10 (85) lie?
15. a. Between which two whole numbers would log10 (12 750) lie?
b. Between which two whole numbers would log10 (110) lie?
c. Between which two whole numbers would log10 (81 000) lie?
16. WE30 Convert the following amplitudes of earthquakes into values on the Richter scale, correct to
1 decimal place.
a. 2016 Northern Territory earthquake: amplitude 1 260 000.
b. 2011 Christchurch earthquake: amplitude 2 000 000.
c. 1979 Tumaco earthquake: amplitude 158 000 000.
Reasoning
( )
17. a. If log10 (g) = k, determine the value of log10 g2 . Justify your answer.
b. If logx (y) = 2, determine the value of logy (x). Justify your answer.
c. By referring to the equivalent index statement, explain why x must be a positive number given
log4 (x) = y, for all values of y.
18. Calculate each of the following logarithms.
( )
1
a. log2 (64) b. log3 c. log10 (0.00001)
81
19. Calculate each of the following logarithms.
( ) (√ )
1
a. log3 (243) b. log4 c. log5 125
64
Problem solving
20. For each of the following, determine the value of x.
( )
1 1
a. logx = −5 b. logx (343) = 3 c. log64 (x) = −
243 2
log10 (x)
21. Simplify 10 .
2−log3 (x)
22. Simplify the expression 3 .

1.11 Logarithm laws (10A)

LEARNING INTENTION
• simplify expressions using logarithm laws.
1.11.1 Logarithm laws

eles-4678 • Recall the index laws:
am
Index Law 1: am × an = am+n Index Law 2: = am−n
an
Index Law 3: a0 = 1 Index Law 4: (am )n = amn

( )m
a am
Index Law 5: (ab)m = am bm Index Law 6: = m
b b
1 m √
Index Law 7: a−m = Index Law 8: a n = n am
am
• The index laws can be used to produce a set of equivalent logarithm laws.
Logarithm Law 1
• If x = am and y = an , then log x = m and log y = n (equivalent log form).
a a
Now xy = am × an
or xy = am+n (First Index Law).
So loga (xy) = m + n (equivalent log form)
or loga (xy) = loga x + loga y (substituting for m and n).
Logarithm Law 1
loga (x) + loga (y) = loga (xy)
• This means that the sum of two logarithms with the same base is equal to the logarithm of the product of
the numbers.
WORKED EXAMPLE 32 Adding logarithms
Evaluate log10 (20) + log10 (5).
THINK WRITE
1. Since the same base of 10 used in each log log10 (20) + log10 (5) = log10 (20 × 5)
term, use loga (x) + loga (y) = loga (xy) = log10 (100)
and simplify.
2
2. Evaluate. (Remember that 100 = 10 .) =2

Logarithm Law 2
• If x = am and y = an , then log (x) = m and log (y) = n (equivalent log form).
a a
x am
Now =
y an
x
or = am−n (Second Index Law).
y
( )
x
So loga =m−n (equivalent log form)
y
( )
x
or loga = loga (x) − loga (y) (substituting for m and n).
y
Logarithm Law 2
( )
x
loga (x) − loga (y) = loga
y
• This means that the difference of two logarithms with the same base is equal to the logarithm of the
quotient of the numbers.
WORKED EXAMPLE 33 Subtracting logarithms
Evaluate log4 (20) − log4 (5).
THINK WRITE
( )
20
1. Since the same base of 4(is )
used in each log term, use log4 (20) − log4 (5) = log4
x 5
loga (x) − loga (y) = loga and simplify. = log4 (4)
y
WORKED EXAMPLE 34 Simplifying multiple logarithm terms
Evaluate log5 (35) + log5 (15) − log5 (21).
THINK WRITE
1. Since the first two log terms are being added, use log5 (35) + log5 (15) − log5 (21)
loga (x) + loga (y) = loga (xy) and simplify. = log5 (35 × 15) − log5 (21)
= log5 (525) − log5 (21)
( )
525
2. To find the difference between the (
two)remaining log = log5
x 21
terms, use loga (x) − loga (y) = loga and simplify. = log5 (25)
y


On a Calculator page, press On the Math1 keyboard
CTRL log (above 10x ) and screen, tap:
complete the entry line as:
•
log5 (35) + log5 (15) −
log5 (21) Complete the entry line as:
log5 (35) + log5 (15) − log5 (21)
Then press ENTER. Then press EXE.
log5 (35) + log5 (15) − log5 (21) = 2
log5 (35) + log5 (15) − log5 (21) = 2
• Once you have gained confidence in using the first two laws, you can reduce the number of steps of
working by combining the application of the laws. In Worked example 34, we could write:
( )
35 × 15
log5 (35) + log5 (15) − log5 (21) = log5
21
= log5 (25)
= 2
Logarithm Law 3
• If x = am , then log (x) = m (equivalent log form).
a
Now xn = (am )n
or xn = amn (Fourth Index Law)
So loga (xn ) = mn (equivalent log form)
( )
or loga (xn ) = loga (x) × n (substituting for m)
or loga (xn ) = n loga (x)
Logarithm Law 3
loga (xn ) = nloga (x)
• This means that the logarithm of a number raised to a power is equal to the product of the power and the
logarithm of the number.
WORKED EXAMPLE 35 Simplifying a logarithm of a number raised to a power
Evaluate 2log6 (3) + log6 (4).

THINK WRITE
( )
1. The first log term is not in the required form to 2 log6 (3) + log6 (4) = log6 32 + log6 (4)
use the log law relating to sums. Use = log6 (9) + log6 (4)
loga (xn ) = n loga (x) to rewrite the first term in
preparation for applying the first log law.
2. Use loga (x) + loga (y) = loga (xy) to simplify the = log6 (9 × 4)
two log terms to one. = log6 (36)

Logarithm Law 4
• As a0 = 1 (Third Index Law)

loga (1) = 0 (equivalent log form)
Logarithm Law 4
loga (1) = 0
• This means that the logarithm of 1 with any base is equal to 0.
Logarithm Law 5
• As a1 = a
loga (a) = 1 (equivalent log form)
Logarithm Law 5
loga (a) = 1
• This means that the logarithm of any number a with base a is equal to 1.
Logarithm Law 6
( )
1 ( )
• Now loga = loga x−1 (Seventh Index law)
x
( )
1
or loga = −1 × loga (x) (using the fourth log law)
x
( )
1
or loga = − loga (x).
x
Logarithm Law 6
( )
1
loga = − loga (x)
x
Logarithm Law 7
• Now loga (ax ) = x loga (a) (using the third log law)
or loga (ax ) = x × 1 (using the fifth log law)
or loga (ax ) = x.
Logarithm Law 7
loga (ax ) = x

Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivities The first law of logarithms (int-6195)
The second law of logarithms (int-6196)
The third law of logarithms (int-6197)
The fourth law of logarithms (int-6198)
The fifth law of logarithms (int-6199)
The sixth law of logarithms (int-6200)
The seventh law of logarithms (int-6201)
Exercise 1.11 Logarithm laws (10A)

Individual pathways
1, 2, 3, 6, 9, 12, 13, 15, 18, 22, 4, 7, 10, 14, 16, 19, 21, 23, 27, 5, 8, 11, 17, 20, 24, 25, 28, 31
26, 29 30
Fluency
1. Use a calculator to evaluate the following, correct to 5 decimal places.
a. log10 (50) b. log10 (25) c. log10 (5) d. log10 (2)
2. Use your answers to question 1 to show that each of the following statements is true.
a. log10 (25) + log10 (2) = log10 (50) b. log10 (50) − log10 (2) = log10 (25)
c. log10 (25) = 2 log10 (5) d. log10 (50) − log10 (25) − log10 (2) = log10 (1)
WE32 For questions 3 to 5, evaluate the following.

3. a. log6 (3) + log6 (2) b. log4 (8) + log4 (8)
4. a. log10 (25) + log10 (4) b. log8 (32) + log8 (16)
5. a. log6 (108) + log6 (12) b. log14 (2) + log14 (7)

6. a. log2 (20) − log2 (5) b. log3 (54) − log3 (2)
7. a. log4 (24) − log4 (6) b. log10 (30 000) − log10 (3)
8. a. log6 (648) − log6 (3) b. log2 (224) − log2 (7)

9. a. log3 (27) + log3 (2) − log3 (6) b. log4 (24) − log4 (2) − log4 (6)
10. a. log6 (78) − log6 (13) + log6 (1) b. log2 (120) − log2 (3) − log2 (5)

11. a. log7 (15) + log7 (3) − log7 (315) b. log9 (80) − log9 (8) − log9 (30)
12. Evaluate 2 log4 (8).

13. a. 2 log10 (5) + log10 (4) b. log3 (648) − 3 log3 (2)
1
14. a. 4 log5 (10) − log5 (80) b. log2 (50) + log2 (16) − 2 log2 (5)
2
( )
1 ( )
15. a. log8 (8) b. log5 (1) c. log2 d. log4 45
2
( )
( −2
) 1
16. a. log6 6 b. log20 (20) c. log2 (1) d. log3
9
( ) ( )
1 (√ ) 1 ( √ )
17. a. log4 b. log5 5 c. log3 √ d. log2 8 2
2 3
Understanding
For questions 18 to 20, use the logarithm laws to simplify each of the following.
18. a. loga (5) + loga (8) b. loga (12) + loga (3) − loga (2)
c. 4 logx (2) + logx (3) d. logx (100) − 2 logx (5)
( ) ( )
19. a. 3 loga (x) − loga x2 b. 5 loga (a) − loga a4
( 7)
c. logx (6) − logx (6x) d. loga a + loga (1)
( ) ( )
(√ ) ( √ ) 1 1
20. a. logp p b. logk k k c. 6 loga d. loga √
3
a a
21. MC Note: There may be more than one correct answer.
x
a. The equation y = 10 is equivalent to:
y
A. x = 10 B. x = log10 (y) C. x = logx (10)
D. x = logy (10) E. x = log10 (10)
4x
b. The equation y = 10 is equivalent to:
(√ ) (√ )
A. x = log10 4y B. x = log10 4y
1 1
y
C. x = 10 4 D. x = log10 (y)
4
E. x = 4 log10 (y)
3x
c. The equation y = 10 is equivalent to:
( 1)
1
A. x = log10 (y) B. x = log10 y 3 C. x = log10 (y) − 3
3
y–3
D. x = 10 E. x = 3 log10 (y)
d. The equation y = manx is equivalent to:
( )n
1 my m 1( )
A. x = a B. x = loga C. x = loga (y) − loga (m)
n y n
( ) ( )
1 y y
D. x = loga E. x = n loga
n m m

For questions 22 to 24, simplify, and evaluate where possible, each of the following without a calculator.
22. a. log2 (8) + log2 (10) b. log3 (7) + log3 (15) c. log10 (20) + log10 (5) d. log6 (8) + log6 (7)
( )
1
23. a. log2 (20) − log2 (5) b. log3 (36) − log3 (12) c. log5 (100) − log5 (8) d. log2 + log2 (9)
3
( ) ( ) ( )
1 4 1
24. a. log4 (25) + log4 b. log10 (5) − log10 (20) c. log3 − log3
5 5 5
d. log2 (9) + log2 (4) − log2 (12) e. log3 (8) − log3 (2) + log3 (5) f. log4 (24) − log4 (2) − log4 (6)
25. MC a. The expression log10 (xy) is equal to:
A. log10 (x) × log10 (y) B. log10 (x) − log10 (y) C. log10 (x) + log10 (y)
D. y log10 (x) E. x log10 (y)
b. The expression log10 (xy ) is equal to:
A. x log10 (y) B. y log10 (x) C. 10 logx (y)

D. log10 (x) + log10 (y) E. 10 logy (x)
1
c. The expression log2 (64) + log2 (10) is equal to:
3
( )
64
A. log2 (40) B. log2 (80) C. log2
10
D. 1 E. 2
Reasoning
26. For each of the following, write the possible strategy you intend to use.
( )( )
a. Evaluate log3 (81) log3 (27) .
loga (81)
b. Evaluate .
loga (3)
log5 (7)
c. Evaluate 5 .
In each case, explain how you obtained your final answer.
27. Simplify log5 (10) + 2 log5 (2) − 3 log5 (10).
( ) ( ) ( )
8 3 1
28. Simplify log2 − 3 log2 − 4 log2 .
125 5 2
Problem solving
( ) ( )
29. Simplify loga a5 + a3 − loga a4 + a2 .
30. If 2 loga (x) = 1 + loga (8x − 15a), determine the value of x in terms of a where a is a positive constant and x is
positive.
31. Solve the following for x:
log3 (x + 2) + log3 (x − 4) = 3

1.12 Solving equations (10A)

LEARNING INTENTION
• simplify and solve equations involving logarithms using the logarithm laws and index laws.
1.12.1 Solving equations with logarithms

eles-4679
• The equation log (y) = x is an example of a general logarithmic
a
equation. Laws of logarithms and indices are used to solve
these equations.
WORKED EXAMPLE 36 Solving by converting to index form
Solve for x in the following equations.

a. log2 (x) = 3 b. log6 (x) = −2 c. log3 (x4 ) = −16 d. log5 (x − 1) = 2
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Write the equation. a. log2 (x) = 3
2. Rewrite using ax = y ⇔ loga (y) = x. 23 = x

3. Rearrange and simplify. x=8
b. 1. Write the equation. b. log6 (x) = −2
2. Rewrite using ax = y ⇔ loga (y) = x. 6−2 = x

1
3. Rearrange and simplify. x=
62
1
=
36
( )
c. 1. Write the equation. c. log3 x4 = −16
2. Rewrite using loga (xn ) = n loga (x). 4 log3 (x) = −16
3. Divide both sides by 4. log3 (x) = −4
4. Rewrite using ax = y ⇔ loga (y) = x. 3−4 = x

1
5. Rearrange and simplify. x=
34
1
=
81

d. 1. Write the equation. d. log5 (x − 1) = 2
2. Rewrite using ax = y ⇔ loga (y) = x. 52 = x − 1

3. Solve for x. x − 1 = 25
x = 26
WORKED EXAMPLE 37 Solving for the base of a logarithm
Solve for x in logx (25) = 2, given that x > 0.
THINK WRITE
1. Write the equation. logx (25) = 2
2. Rewrite using ax = y ⇔ loga (y) = x. x2 = 25

3. Solve for x. x = 5 (because x > 0)
Note: x = −5 is rejected as a solution because x > 0.
WORKED EXAMPLE 38 Evaluating logarithms
Solve for x in the following. ( )

1
a. log2 (16) = x b. log3 =x c. log9 (3) = x
3
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Write the equation. a. log2 (16) = x
2. Rewrite using ax = y ⇔ loga (y) = x. 2x = 16
3. Write 16 with base 2. = 24

4. Equate the indices. x=4
( )
1
b. 1. Write the equation. b. log3 =x
3
1
2. Rewrite using ax = y ⇔ loga (y) = x. 3x =
3
1
= 1
3
1
3. Write with base 3. 3x = 3−1
3
4. Equate the indices. x = −1
c. 1. Write the equation. c. log9 (3) = x
2. Rewrite using ax = y ⇔ loga (y) = x. 9x = 3

( 2 )x
3. Write 9 with base 3. 3 =3

4. Remove the grouping symbols. 32x = 31

5. Equate the indices. 2x = 1
1
6. Solve for x. x=
2
WORKED EXAMPLE 39 Solving equations with multiple logarithm terms
Solve for x in the equation log2 (4) + log2 (x) − log2 (8) = 3.
THINK WRITE
1. Write the equation. log2 (4) + log2 (x) − log2 (8) = 3
( )
4×x
2. Simplify the left-hand side. log2 =3
Use loga (x) + loga (y) = loga (xy) and 8
( )
x
loga (x) − loga (y) = loga .
y
( )
x
3. Simplify. log2 =3
2
x
4. Rewrite using ax = y ⇔ loga (y) = x. 23 =
2
5. Solve for x. x = 2 × 23
= 2×8
= 16
Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivity Solving logarithmic equations (int-6202)
Exercise 1.12 Solving equations (10A)

Individual pathways
1, 4, 7, 10, 14, 17, 20 2, 5, 8, 11, 15, 18, 21 3, 6, 9, 12, 13, 16, 19, 22
Fluency
WE38 For questions 1 to 3, solve for x in the following equations.
( )
1. a. log5 (x) = 2 b. log3 (x) = 4 c. log2 (x) = −3 d. log4 (x) = −2 e. log10 x2 = 4

( )
2. a. log2 x3 = 12 b. log3 (x + 1) = 3 c. log5 (x − 2) = 3 d. log4 (2x − 3) = 0 e. log10 (2x + 1) = 0
3. a. log2 (−x) = −5 b. log3 (−x) = −2 c. log5 (1 − x) = 4 d. log10 (5 − 2x) = 1
WE39 For questions 4 to 6, solve for x in the following equations, given that x > 0.
2
4. a. logx (9) = 2 b. logx (16) = 4 c. logx (25) =
3
( ) ( )
3 1 1
5. a. logx (125) = b. logx = −3 c. logx = −2
4 8 64
( 2) ( )
6. a. logx 6 = 2 b. logx 43 = 3
WE40 For questions 7 to 9, solve for x in the following equations.

( )
1
7. a. log2 (8) = x b. log3 (9) = x c. log5 =x
5
( )
1
8. a. log4 =x b. log4 (2) = x c. log8 (2) = x
16
9. a. log6 (1) = x b. log8 (1) = x c. log 1 (2) = x d. log 1 (9) = x

2 3
WE41 For questions 10 to 12, solve for x in the following.

10. a. log2 (x) + log2 (4) = log2 (20) b. log5 (3) + log5 (x) = log5 (18)
c. log3 (x) − log3 (2) = log3 (5) d. log10 (x) − log10 (4) = log10 (2)
11. a. log4 (8) − log4 (x) = log4 (2) b. log3 (10) − log3 (x) = log3 (5)
c. log6 (4) + log6 (x) = 2 d. log2 (x) + log2 (5) = 1
12. a. 3 − log10 (x) = log10 (2) b. 5 − log4 (8) = log4 (x)

c. log2 (x) + log2 (6) − log2 (3) = log2 (10) d. log2 (x) + log2 (5) − log2 (10) = log2 (3)
e. log3 (5) − log3 (x) + log3 (2) = log3 (10) f. log5 (4) − log5 (x) + log5 (3) = log5 (6)
13. MC a. The solution to the equation log7 (343) = x is:
A. x = 2 B. x = 3 C. x = 1
D. x = 0 E. x = 4
b. If log8 (x) = 4 , then x is equal to:
A. 4096 B. 512 C. 64
D. 2 E. 16
1
c. Given that logx (3) = , x must be equal to:
2
A. 3 B. 6 C. 81
D. 9 E. 18
( )
d. If loga (x) = 0.7 , then loga x2 is equal to:
A. 0.49 B. 1.4 C. 0.35

D. 0.837 E. 0.28

Understanding
For questions 14 to 16, solve for x in the following equations.
1
14. a. 2x = 128 b. 3x = 9 c. 7x = d. 9x = 1 e. 5x = 625
49
√ √ 1
x
15. a. 64 = 8 b. 6x = 6 c. 2x = 2 2 d. 3x = √ e. 4x = 8
3
√ 1 √ 1 1
16. a. 9x = 3 3 b. 2x = √ c. 3x+1 = 27 3 d. 2x−1 = √ e. 4x+1 = √
4 2 32 2 8 2
Reasoning
17. The apparent brightness of stars is measured on a logarithmic scale
called magnitude, in which lower numbers mean brighter stars. The
relationship between the ratio of apparent brightness of two objects
and the difference in their magnitudes is given by the formula:
( )
b2
m2 − m1 = −2.5 log10
b1
where m is the magnitude and b is the apparent brightness. Determine

how many times brighter a magnitude 2.0 star is than a magnitude
3.0 star.
12
18. The decibel (dB) scale for measuring loudness, d, is given by the formula d = 10 log10 (I × 10 ) , where I is
the intensity of sound in watts per square metre.
a. Determine the number of decibels of sound if the intensity is 1.

b. Evaluate the number of decibels of sound produced by a jet engine at a distance of 50 metres if the
intensity is 10 watts per square metre.
c. Determine the intensity of sound if the sound level of a pneumatic drill 10 metres away is 90 decibels.
d. Determine how the value of d changes if the intensity is doubled. Give your answer to the nearest
decibel.
e. Evaluate how the value of d changes if the intensity is 10 times as great.
f. Determine by what factor does the intensity of sound have to be multiplied in order to add 20 decibels to
the sound level.

19. The Richter scale is used to describe the energy of earthquakes. A formula for the Richter scale is:
2
R= log10 (K) − 0.9, where R is the Richter scale value for an earthquake that releases K kilojoules (kJ)
3
of energy.
a. Determine the Richter scale value for an earthquake that releases the following amounts of energy:
i. 1000 kJ ii. 2000 kJ iii. 3000 kJ iv. 10 000 kJ v. 100 000 kJ vi. 1 000 000 kJ
b. Does doubling the energy released double the Richter
scale value? Justify your answer.
c. Determine the energy released by an earthquake of:
i. magnitude 4 on the Richter scale

ii. magnitude 5 on the Richter scale
iii. magnitude 6 on the Richter scale.
d. Explain the effect (on the amount of energy released)

of increasing the Richter scale value by 1.
e. Explain why an earthquake measuring 8 on the
Richter scale so much more devastating than one that
measures 5.
Problem solving
20. Solve for x.
a. 3x+1 = 7 b. 3x+1 = 7x
21. Solve the following for x.

(27 × 3x )3 = 81x × 32
2
22. Solve {x ∶ (3x ) = 30 × 3x − 81} .

1.13 Review
1.13.1 Topic summary
Number sets Surds

n
• Natural numbers: N = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5 …} • A surd is any number that requires a x or x symbol
• Integers: Z = {… , –2, –1, 0, 1, 2 …} and does not simplify to a whole number.
1 9 e.g. 2 is a surd, but 9 = 3 is not.
• Rational numbers: Q = – , – 0.36, 2, – , 0.3̇6̇
4 7 • To simplify a surd look for the highest square factor.
• Irrational numbers: I = { 2, π, e} e.g. 48 = 16 × 3 = 4 3
• Real numbers: R = Q + I
• Only like surds can be added and subtracted.
e.g. 5 , 3 5 and –6 5 are like surds whereas 7
Index notation and 2 11 are not like surds.
• Index notation is a short way of writing a repeated • Surds are added and subtracted the same way like terms
multiplication.
e.g. 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 can be written as 26, which is e.g. 3 2 + 7 2 – 2 2 = 10 2 – 2 2 = 8 2
read ‘2 to the power of 6’. e.g. 12 + 75 = 2 3 + 5 3 = 7 3
• The base is the number that is being repeatedly multiplied
and the index is the number of times it is multiplied.
e.g. 26 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 = 64
INDICES, SURDS AND LOGARITHMS

Index laws Multiplying and dividing surds Rationalising the denominator
• 1st law: a m × a n = a m + n • a× b = ab • Involves re-writing a fraction with a

• 2nd law: a m ÷ a n = a m – n rational denominator.
• m a × n b = mn ab
• 3rd law: a 0 = 1, a ≠ 0 2 2 5 2 5
a a e.g. – = – × – = –
• 4th law: (a m) n = a m × n = a mn • a÷ b= – = – 5 5 5 5
• 5th law: (ab) n= a nb n b b • It may be necessary to multiply by the
a n an m a m a conjugate in order to rationalise.
• 6th law: – = –n • m a ÷ (n b ) = – = – –
b b n b n b 1 6–2 6–2
1 e.g. – × – = –
• 7th law: a = –n
–n 6+2 6–2 2
1 a
–
• 8th law: a n = a
Compound interest
• To calculate the value of an investment earning compound interest:
• A = future value A = P(1 + r)n
Logarithms
• P = principal (starting value)
• Index form: y = ax • r = interest rate as a decimal (e.g. 7.5% p.a. is equal to 0.075 p.a.)
• Logarithmic form: loga(y) = x • n = number of periods
• Log laws: • calculate Interest = I = A – P
• log a(x) + log a(y) = log a(xy)
x
• log a(x) – log a(y) = log a –
y Solving logarithmic equations Compounding multiple times per year
• log a(x)n = nlog a(x)
• log a(1) = 0 • Simplify both sides of the • The more frequently interest is
• log a(a) = 1 equation so there is at most a compounded per year, the faster the
1 single logarithm on each side. value of an investment will grow.
• log a – = –log a(x) • Switch to index form or log form • To account for this, adjust the rule for
x
• log a(ax) = x as required. compound interest by:
e.g. n = periods per year × years
• Each log law is equivalent to
log3(x) = 4 ⟹ x = 34 r = interest rate ÷ periods per year
one of the index laws.
5x = 7 ⟹ log5(7) = x

1.13.2 Success criteria

Tick a column to indicate that you have completed the subtopic and how well you think you have understood it
using the traffic light system.
(Green: I understand; Yellow: I can do it with help; Red: I do not understand)
Subtopic Success criteria
1.2 I can define the real, rational, irrational, integer and natural numbers.
I can determine whether a number is rational or irrational.
1.3 I can determine whether the number under a root or radical sign is a surd.
I can prove that a surd is irrational by contradiction.
1.4 I can multiply and simplify surds.
I can add and subtract like surds.
I can divide surds.
I can rationalise the denominator of a fraction.
1.5 I can recall and apply the index laws.
I can simplify expressions involving multiplication and division of terms with

the same base.
I evaluate expressions involving powers of zero.
I simplify expressions involving raising a power to another power.
1.6 I can evaluate expressions involving negative indices.
I can simplify expressions involving negative indices and re-write expressions

so that all indices are positive.
1.7 I can evaluate expressions involving fractional indices.
I can simplify expressions involving fractional indices.
1.8 I can simplify algebraic expressions involving brackets, fractions,

multiplication and division using appropriate index laws.
1.9 I can calculate the future value of an investment earning compound interest.
I can calculate the amount of interest earned after a period of time on an

investment with compound interest.
1.10 I can convert between index form and logarithmic form.
I can evaluate logarithms and use logarithms in scale measurement.
1.11 I can simplify expressions using logarithm laws.
1.12 I can simplify and solve equations involving logarithms using the logarithm
laws and index laws.

1.13.3 Project
Other number systems
Throughout history, different systems have been used to aid with counting. Ancient tribes are known to
have used stones, bones and knots in rope to help keep count. The counting system that is used around the
world today is called the Hindu-Arabic system. This system had its origin in India around 300–200BC . The
Arabs brought this method of counting to Europe in the Middle Ages.
The Hindu–Arabic method is known as the decimal or base 10 system, as it is based on counting in lots of
ten. This system uses the digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9. Notice that the largest digit is one less than the
base number, that is, the largest digit in base 10 is 9. To make larger numbers, digits are grouped together.
The position of the digit tells us about its value. We call this place value. For example, in the number 325 ,
the 3 has a value of ‘three lots of a hundred’, the 2 has a value of ‘two lots of ten’ and the 5 has a value of
‘five lots of units’. Another way to write this is:
3 × 100 + 2 × 10 + 5 × 1 or 3 × 102 + 2 × 101 + 5 × 100
In a decimal system, every place value is based on the number 10 raised to a power. The smallest place
value (units) is described by 100 , the tens place value by 101 , the hundreds place value by 102 , the
thousands by 103 and so on.
Computers do not use a decimal system. The system for computer languages is based on the number 2 and
is known as the binary system. The only digits needed in the binary system are the digits 0 and 1. Can you
see why?
Decimal 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
number
Binary 0 1 10 11 100 101 110 111 1000 1001 1010 1011 1100 1101
number
Consider the decimal number 7. From the table above, you can see that its binary equivalent is 111. How
can you be sure this is correct?
111 = 1 × 22 + 1 × 21 + 1 × 20 = 4 + 2 + 1 = 7
Notice that this time each place value is based on the number 2 raised to a power. You can use this
technique to change any binary number into a decimal number. (The same pattern applies to other bases,
for example, in base 6 the place values are based on the number 6 raised to a power.)

Binary operations
When adding in the decimal system, each time the addition is greater than 9, we need to ‘carry over’ into
the next place value. In the example below, the units column adds to more than 9, so we need to carry over
into the next place value.
1 17
+ 13
30
The same is true when adding in binary, except we need to ‘carry over’ every time the addition is greater
than 1.
1 01
+ 01
10
1. Perform the following binary additions.

a. 112 b. 1112 c. 10112
+ 012 + 1102 + 1012
2. Perform the following binary subtractions. Remember that if you need to borrow a number from a
column on the left-hand side, you will actually be borrowing a 2 (not a 10).
a. 112 b. 1112 c. 10112
− 012 − 1102 − 1012
3. Try some multiplication. Rem||ember to carry over lots of 2.

a. 112 b. 1112 c. 10112
× 012 × 1102 × 1012
4. What if our number system had an 8 as its basis (that is, we counted in lots of 8)? The only digits
available for use would be 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7. (Remember the maximum digit is 1 less than the base
value.) Give examples to show how numbers would be added, subtracted and multiplied using this base
system. Remember that you would ‘carry over’ or ‘borrow’ lots of 8.
5. The hexadecimal system has 16 as its basis. Investigate this system. Explain how it would be possible to
have 15, for example, in a single place position. Give examples to show how the system would add,
subtract and multiply.
Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivities Crossword (int-2872)
Sudoku puzzle (int-3891)

Exercise 1.13 Review questions
To answer questions online and to receive immediate corrective feedback and fully worked solutions for
all questions, go to your learnON title at www.jacplus.com.au.
Fluency
1. MC Identify which of the given numbers are rational.
√ √
6 √ 𝜋 3
, 0.81, 5, −3.26, 0.5, ,
12 5 12
√ √
√ 3 6 𝜋
A. 0.81, 5, −3.26, 0.5 and B. and
12 12 5
√ √ √
6 √ 3 6
C. , 0.81 and D. 5, −3.26 and
12 12 12
√
√ 3
E. 0.81 and
12
2. For each of the following, state whether the number is rational or irrational and give the reason for
your answer:
√ √ 2 √
3
a. 12 b. 121 c. d. 0.6̇ e. 0.08
9
3. MC Identify which of the numbers of the given set are surds.

√ √ √ √ √ √
{3 2, 5 7, 9 4, 6 10, 7 12, 12 64 }
√ √ √ √
A. 9 4, 12 64 B. 3 2 and 7 12 only
√ √ √ √ √ √ √
C. 3 2, 5 7 and 6 10 only D. 3 2, 5 7, 6 10 and 7 12
√
E. 5 7 only
√ √ √ √ √
m m √ 3
4. Identify which of 2m, 25m, , , 3 m, 8m are surds:
16 20
a. if m = 4 b. if m = 8

√ √ √ √
a. 50 b. 180 c. 2 32 d. 5 80
√
6. MC The expression 392x8 y7 may be simplified to:
√ √ √
A. 196x4 y3 2y B. 2x4 y3 14y C. 14x4 y3 2y
√ √
D. 14x4 y3 2 E. 14x8 y7 2
7. Simplify the following surds. Give the answers in the simplest form.
√ √
7 2 25 5 11
a. 4 648x y9 b. − xy
5 64

8. Simplify the following, giving answers in the simplest form.

√ √ √
a. 7 12 + 8 147 − 15 27
1√ 3 √ 1 √
b. 64a3 b3 – ab 16ab + 100a5 b5
2 4 5ab

√ √ √ √ √ √ (√ )2
a. 3× 5 b. 2 6×3 7 c. 3 10 × 5 6 d. 5
10. Simplify the following, giving answers in the simplest form.

1√ √ √ √
a. 675 × 27 b. 10 24 × 6 12
5

(√ )2
√ √ √ 7
30 6 45 3 20
a. √ b. √ c. √ d.
10 3 5 12 6 14
12. Rationalise the denominator of each of the following.

√ √
2 3 2 3−1
a. √ b. √ c. √ d. √
6 2 6 5−2 3+1
13. Evaluate each of the following, correct to 1 decimal place if necessary.

1 1 1 1
a. 64 3 b. 20 2 c. 10 3 d. 50 4
14. Evaluate each of the following, correct to 1 decimal place.
2 3 3
( )2
2 3
a. 20 3 b. 24 c. (0.7) 5 d.
3
15. Write each of the following in simplest surd form.

1 1 3 4
a. 2 2 b. 18 2 c. 5 2 d. 8 3
16. Evaluate each of the following, without using a calculator. Show all working.
3 1 ( )1
16 4 × 81 4 2 2 2
a.
1
b. 125 3 − 27 3
6 × 16 2
17. Evaluate each of the following, giving your answer as a fraction.

−3
a. 4−1 b. 9−1 c. 4−2 d. 10
18. Determine the value of each of the following, correct to 3 significant figures.
−1 −1 −4
a. 12 b. 7−2 c. (1.25) d. (0.2)
19. Write down the value of each of the following.

( )−1 ( )−1 ( )−1 ( )−1
2 7 1 1
a. b. c. d. 3
3 10 5 4

√
20. MC a. The expression 250 may be simplified to:
√ √ √ √
A. 25 10 B. 5 10 C. 10 5 D. 5 50 E. 25
√ √
b. When expressed in its simplest form, 2 98 − 3 72 is equal to:
√ √
A. −4 2 B. −4 C. −2 4
√
D. 4 2 E. None of these options.
√
8x3
c. When expressed in its simplest form, is equal to:
√ √ 32 √
x x x3 x3
A. B. C.
√2 4 2
x x
D. E. None of these options.
4
21. Determine the value of the following, giving your answer in fraction form.
( )−1 ( )−2
2 2
a. b.
5 3
22. Determine the value of each of the following, leaving your answer in fraction form.
( )−1
−1 −2 −3 1
a. 2 b. 3 c. 4 d.
2
23. MC 3d10 e4 is the simplified form of:

( )2
6 2 4 3 6d10 e5 ( )
5 2 2
( )2 d5
A. d e × 3d e B. C. 3d e D. 3e d5 × e3 E. 3
2e2 e2
24. MC 8m3 n × n4 × 2m2 n3 simplifies to:

A. 10m5 n8 B. 16m5 n7 C. 16m5 n8 D. 10m5 n7 E. 17m5 n8
25. MC 8x3 ÷ 4x−3 is equal to:

2
A. 2 B. 2x0 C. 2x6 D. 2x−1 E.
x9
12x8 × 2x7
26. MC simplifies to:
6x9 × x5
A. 4x5 B. 8x C. 4x D. 8x5 E. 4x29
5
(a2 b3 )
27. MC The expression 2
is equal to:
(2a2 b)
a6 b13 a3 b6 a6 b13 a3 b6
A. B. 2a6 b13 C. D. E.
4 2 2 4
( )4 ( )2
p2 q p5 q2
28. MC
( )3 ÷ can be simplified to:
2p5 q2 2pq5
1 22 1 1
A. B. C. D. E. 22 p16 q
4p16 q p16 q 4p8 2p16 q

3 3
29. MC 16− 4 ÷ 9 2 can be simplified to:
1 8 3 1
A. 2 B. C. D. 3 E.
216 27 8 2
( 2
)−3
2l 9 m−1
30. MC
( )2 can be simplified to:
1 −2
8 lm
16
8m7 2m7 4m7 16m7 m7
A. B. C. D. E.
11 7 8 5 7
l3 l3 l3 l3 2l 3
√
5 10 5
31. MC 32i 7 j 11 k2 can be simplified to:
2 1 2 10 5 2 1 2
32i 7 j 11 k 5 2 1 2 32i 7 j 11 k2 50 25 2i 7 j 11 k 5
A. B. 2i 7 j 11 k 5 C. D. 2i 7 j 11 k10 E.
5 5 5

3 26a4 b6 c5
a. 5x3 × 3x5 y4 × 5 x2 y6 b.
12a3 b3 c3
( )3 ( )4
20m5 n2 14p7
c. d.
6 21q3
33. Evaluate each of the following.

( )0
0 2a 0 (4b)0
a. 5a − + 12 b. −(3b) −
3 2
34. Simplify each of the following and express your answer with positive indices.
( )−4
a. 2a−5 b2 × 4a−6 b−4 b. 4x−5 y−3 ÷ 20x12 y−5 c. 2m−3 n2
35. Evaluate each of the following without using a calculator.

( )−3 ( )2
1 −3 9 5
a. b. 2 × (3) × c. 4−3 × −5
2 2 8−2

1
3 1
⎛ 13 ⎞ 2
4 1 1 3 3 2 43 x 4 y 9 4a ⎟
a. 2a 5 b 2 × 3a 2 b 4 × 5a 4 b 5 b. c. ⎜
4 1 ⎜ b3 ⎟
16x 5 y 3 ⎝ ⎠
37. Evaluate each of the following without using a calculator. Show all working.
3 1 ( )1
16 4 × 81 4 2 2 2
a.
1
b. 125 3 − 27 3
6 × 16 2
38. Simplify:
√ √ (√ )15 √ √
3 4 5 3
a. a9 + 16a8 b2 − 3 5 a b. 32x5 y10 + 64x3 y6


( )−3 ( )1 −1
−2 6 −2 ( )−3 3 ⎛ 13 −2 ⎞ 2
5a b × 4a b 4 −5
2x y 4xy −2 3 4
2m n 4m n ⎟
a. b. × c. ÷⎜
2 3
2a b × 5 a b −2 −3 −6 6 −2
3y x −6 3
3x y 1 ⎜ −2 ⎟
5m 2 n ⎝ 5 3 ⎠
40. Simplify each of the following and then evaluate.

( 1
)6
1
( )0 32 × 63
( )1 3 1 ( )−1
a. 3 × 56 2 × 3 2 × 5−2 + 36 × 5− 2 b. 6 × 3−2 ÷ ( )0
−62 × 3−3
41. Ryan invests $12 500 for 3 years at 8% p.a. with interest
paid annually. By calculating the amount of simple
interest earned each year separately, determine the
amount to which the investment will grow.
42. Calculate the compound interest earned on $45 000 at

12% p.a. over 4 years if interest is compounded:
a. annually b. six-monthly
c. quarterly d. monthly.
43. Evaluate the following.

a. log12 (18) + log12 (8) b. log4 (60) − log4 (15)
( )
c. log9 98 d. 2 log3 (6) − log3 (4)
44. Use the logarithm laws to simplify each of the following.

( √ )
a. loga (16) + loga (3) − loga (2) b. logx x x
( )
( ) 1
c. 4 loga (x) − loga x2 d. 5 logx
x
45. Solve for x in the following, given that x > 0.

a. log2 (x) = 9 b. log5 (x) = −2 c. logx (25) = 2
( )
d. logx 26 = 6 e. log3 (729) = x f. log7 (1) = x
46. Solve for x in the following.

a. log5 (4) + log5 (x) = log5 (24)
b. log3 (x) − log3 (5) = log3 (7)
47. Solve for x in the following equations.

1 1 √
a. 6x = b. 7x = √ c. 2x+1 = 8 2
36 7
48. Solve for x in the following equations, correct to 3 decimal places.

x
a. 2x = 25 b. 0.6 = 7 c. 9−x = 0.84

Problem solving
49. Answer the following. Explain how you reached your answer.
3
a. What is the hundred’s digit in 33 ?
b. What is the one’s digit in 6704 ?
c. What is the thousand’s digit in 91000 ?
50. a. Plot a graph of y = 4x by first producing a table of values. Label the y-intercept and the equation of
any asymptotes.
b. Draw the line y = x on the same set of axes.
c. Use the property of inverse graphs to draw the graph of y = log4 (x). Label any intercepts and the
equation of any asymptotes. Use a graphics calculator or graphing software to check your graphs.
( )−1
6 1
51. Solve for x: + = x−1
x 6
−1
⎛( (a2 )−1 ) ⎞
−1
52. Simplify ⎜ ⎟
⎜ b 12 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
53. If m = 2, determine the value of:
6a3m × 2b2m × (3ab)−m

1
(4b)m × (9a4m ) 2
54. Answer the following and explain your reasoning.

3
a. Identify the digit in the tens of 33 .
b. Identify the digit in the ones of 6309 .
c. Identify the digit in the ones of 81007 .
55. For the work shown below:

a. calculate the correct answer
b. identify where the student has made mistakes.
( )2 ( )
3a3 b5 c3 2ab 3a6 b10 c6 2ab
÷ = ÷
5a2 b c 10a4 b2 c
3a6 b10 c6 c
= 4 2
×
10a b 2ab
3a6 b10 c7
=
20a5 b3
3ab7 c7
=
20

56. A friend is trying to calculate the volume of water in

a reservoir amid fears there may be a severe water
shortage. She comes up with the following
expression:
r4 u2 ru × d2
W= 3 √
× ,
dr3 u4
r 2 d2 u
where r is the amount of rain, d is how dry the area
is, u is the usage of water by the townsfolk, and W is
the volume of water in kL.
a. Help your friend simplify the expression by

simplifying each pronumeral one at a time.
b. Explain whether the final expression contain any
potential surds.
c. Express the fraction with a rational denominator.
d. List the requirements for the possible values of r, u and d to give a rational answer.
e. Calculate the volume of water in the reservoir when r = 4, d = 60 and u = 9. Write your answer in:
i. kL ii. L iii. mL.
f. Does a high value for d mean the area is dry? Explain using working.
p2
57. The speed of a toy plane can be modelled by the equation S = √ , where:
2 + w3
w = wind resistance
p = battery power (from 0 (empty) to 10 (full)).
a. Rationalise the denominator of the expression.
b. Using your knowledge of perfect squares, estimate the speed of a toy plane with its battery half full
and a wind resistance of 2. Check your answer with a calculator.
c. How does the speed of the toy plane change with increasing wind resistance? Explain providing
supportive calculations.
To test your understanding and knowledge of this topic, go to your learnON title at
www.jacplus.com.au and complete the post-test.

Online Resources Resources
Below is a full list of rich resources available online for this topic. These resources are designed to bring ideas to life,
to promote deep and lasting learning and to support the different learning needs of each individual.
eWorkbook 1.10 Logarithms (eles-4676) ⃞

Using logarithmic scales in measurement (eles-4677) ⃞
Download the workbook for this topic, which includes 1.11 Logarithm laws (eles-4678) ⃞
worksheets, a code puzzle and a project (ewbk-2027) ⃞ 1.12 Solving equations with logarithms (eles-4679) ⃞
Solutions Interactivities
Download a copy of the fully worked solutions to every 1.2 Individual pathway interactivity: Number classification
question in this topic (sol-0735) ⃞ review (int-8332) ⃞
The number system (int-6027) ⃞
Digital documents Recurring decimals (int-6189) ⃞
1.3 SkillSHEET Identifying surds (doc-5354) ⃞ 1.3 Surds on the number line (int-6029) ⃞
1.4 SkillSHEET Simplifying surds (doc-5355) ⃞ 1.4 Addition and subtraction of surds (int-6190) ⃞
SkillSHEET Adding and subtracting surds (doc-5356) ⃞ Multiplying surds (int-6191) ⃞
SkillSHEET Multiplying and dividing surds (doc-5357) ⃞ Dividing surds (int-6192) ⃞
SkillSHEET Rationalising denominators (doc-5360) ⃞ Simplifying surds (int-6028) ⃞
SkillSHEET Conjugate pairs (doc-5361) ⃞ Conjugate surds (int-6193) ⃞
SkillSHEET Applying the difference of two squares 1.5 Individual pathway interactivity: Review of index laws
rule to surds (doc-5362) ⃞ (int-4652) ⃞
1.5 SkillSHEET Index form (doc-5168) ⃞ First Index Law (int-3709) ⃞
SkillSHEET Using a calculator to evaluate numbers Second Index Law (int-3711) ⃞
given in index form (doc-5169) ⃞ Third Index Law (int-3713) ⃞
1.7 SkillSHEET Addition of fractions (doc-5176) ⃞ Fourth Index Law — Multiplication (int-3716) ⃞
SkillSHEET Subtraction of fractions (doc-5177) ⃞ Fifth and sixth index laws (int-6063) ⃞
SkillSHEET Multiplication of fractions (doc-5178) ⃞ 1.6 Individual pathway interactivity: Negative indices
SkillSHEET Writing roots as fractional indices (int-4563) ⃞
(doc-5179) ⃞ Negative indices (int-6064) ⃞
1.7 Individual pathway interactivity: Fractional indices
Video eLessons (int-4564) ⃞
Fractional indices (int-6107) ⃞
1.2 The real number system (eles-4661) ⃞ 1.8 Individual pathway interactivity: Combining index
1.3 Identifying surds (eles-4662) ⃞ laws (int-4565) ⃞
Proof that a number is irrational (eles-4663) ⃞ Combining index laws (int-6108) ⃞
1.4 Multiplying and simplifying surds (eles-4664) ⃞ 1.9 Individual pathway interactivity: Compound interest
Addition and subtraction of surds (eles-4665) ⃞ (int-4636) ⃞
Dividing surds (eles-4666) ⃞ Compound interest (int-6075) ⃞
Rationalising denominators (eles-4667) ⃞ Compounding periods (int-6186) ⃞
Rationalising denominators using conjugate surds 1.10 Logarithms (int-6194) ⃞
(eles-4668) ⃞ 1.11 The first law of logarithms (int-6195) ⃞
Surds (eles-1906) ⃞ The second law of logarithms (int-6196) ⃞
Rationalisation of surds (eles-1948) ⃞ The third law of logarithms (int-6197) ⃞
1.5 Review of index laws (eles-4669) ⃞ The fourth law of logarithms (int-6198) ⃞
Index laws (eles-1903) ⃞ The fifth law of logarithms (int-6199) ⃞
1.6 Negative indices and the Seventh Index Law The sixth law of logarithms (int-6200) ⃞
(eles-4670) ⃞ The seventh law of logarithms (int-6201) ⃞
Negative indices (eles-1905) ⃞ 1.12 Solving logarithmic equations (int-6202) ⃞
1.7 Fractional indices and the Eighth Index Law 1.13 Crossword (int-2872) ⃞
(eles-4671) ⃞ Sudoku puzzle (int-3891) ⃞
Fractional indicies (eles-1950) ⃞
1.8 Combining index laws (eles-4672) ⃞
1.9 Application of indices: compound interest (eles-4673) ⃞ Teacher resources
The compound interest formula (eles-4674) ⃞ There are many resources available exclusively for teachers
Compounding period (eles-4675) ⃞ online.
To access these online resources, log on to www.jacplus.com.au.

1
Answers 24.
7
or 7−1
37
Topic 1 Indices, surds and 25.
91
logarithms Exercise 1.3 Surds
Exercise 1.1 Pre-test 1. b and d
1. True 2. b, c and d
2. Rational 3. a and d
8
3. 15 n 15 4. a and c
2 3
4. 2p q 5. a, c and d
1 6. c and f
5.
27 7. A
6. D 8. D
7. B√ 9. B
8. 6 5 10. C
√
9. 14 2 11. Any perfect square.
10. E 12. m=4
11. y = −5 13. a. m = 5 , n = 7 and m = 4, n = 14
12. x = −2 b. 15
13. $278.18 14. a. Irrational b. Irrational c. Rational
14. 0 15. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions in

15. D the online resources.
16. Irrational
√ √
Exercise 1.2 Number classification review 17. a. i. 4 3 ii. 6 2
1. a. Q b. Q c. Q d. I Yes. If you don’t choose the largest perfect square, then
b.
you will need to simplify again.
2. a. I b. Q c. Q d. I
c. No
3. a. Q b. Q c. Q d. Q
18. p = m and q = n
4. a. I b. Q c. I d. Q 19. x = 3, rational
5. a. Q b. I c. I d. I
Q I I Q Exercise 1.4 Operations with surds
6. a. b. c. d. √ √
1. a. 2 3 b. 2√6
7. a. Q b. Q c. Q d. Q √
c. 3 3 d. 5 5
8. a. Q b. I c. I d. Q √ √
2. a. 3 6 b. 4√7
9. a. I b. Undefined √
c. I d. I c. 2 17 d. 6 5
√ √
10. a. I b. Q c. Q d. Q 3. a. 2√22 b. 9 2
√
11. a. I b. I c. Q d. Q c. 7 5 d. 8 7
√ √
12. a. I b. Q c. Q d. I 4. a. 4 √ 2 b. 24 10
√
13. B c. 36 5 d. 21 6
14. D √ √
5. a. −30 3 b. −28
√ 5
15. C √
c. 64 3 d. 2 2
16. C √ √
a 6. a. 2 b. 2 3
17. 1√ 3√
b c. 15 d. 7
3 2
18. E √
A 7. a. 4a b. 6a √ 2
19. √
20. p−q c. 3a 10b d. 13a2 2
√ √
21. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions in 8. a. 13ab √2ab b. 2ab2 √17ab
the online resources.
c. 5x3 y2 5 d. 20xy 5x
22. 8, − 8 √ √
3 2
23. a. m = 11, n = 3 b. m = 2, n = 3 9. a. 54c
√ d 2cd b. 18c3 d√4
5cd
c. m = 3, n = 2 d. m = 1, n = 2 c. 22ef d. 7e5 f5 2ef

√ √ √ √ √
10. a. 7 √5 √ b. 8√3 5 7 8 15 8 21
29. a. b. c.
c. 15 5 + 5 3 d. 4 11 √
14 √15 49
√ √ 8 105 10
11. a. 13√2 √ b. −3 6 d. e.
√ √ 7 3
c. 17 3 − 18 7 d. 8 x+3 y √ √
(√ √ ) (√ √ ) √ 3 10 − 2 33
12. a. 10 2− 3 b. 5 5+ 6 30. a. 2+2 b.
√ √ √ √ √ 6
c. 7 3 d. 4 5 12 5 − 5 6 9 10
√ √ √ √ c.
10
d.
5
13. a. 14√3 + 3 2√ b. 3 √ 6+6 3 √ √ √
c. 15 10 − 10 15 + 10 d. −8 11 + 22 3 10 + 6 14 5 6
31. a. b.
√ √ √ √
14. a. 12 30 − 16 15 b. 12 ab + 7 3ab √4 √ √3 √
3 22 − 4 10 21 − 15
7√ √ √ c. d.
c. 2+2 3 d. 15 2 6 3
2 √ √ √
√ √ √ √ 14 − 5 2 12 − 10 6 15 − 25
15. a. 31 a − 6 2a b. 52 a − 29 3a 32. a. b. c.
√ √ √ √ 6 √ 16 70
c. 6 6ab d. 32a + 2 6a + 8a 2 30 + 7 2
√ √ √ d.
16. a. a 2a b. a+2 √ 2a 20
√ √ ( 2 ) √ √ √ √
c. 3a a + a2 3a d. a +a ab √ 2 2+ 5 8 11 + 4 13
√ √ 33. a. 5−2 b. c.
17. a. 4ab ab + 3a2 b b 3 31
√ √ √
b. 3 ab (2a + 1) 15 15 − 20 6
√ √ 34. a.
c. −6ab 2a + 4a2 b3 3a
√ √ 13
b. 12 2 − 17
d. −2a b
√ √ √ √
14 19 − 4 21
18. a. b.
√42 c. 4 3 c.
d. 10 e. 3 7 f. 27 √ 5 √ √
√ √ 15 − 3 − 5 + 1
19. a. 10 33 b. 180 5 c. 120 35. a.
√ √ 2 √4 √ √
d. 120 3 e. 2 6 f. 2 −6 + 6 2 + 10 − 2 5
3 b.
2√ 2√ 4 2
√
√ √ 2 √
20. a. 6 b. x y y c. 3a b 2ab
5 4 10 + 15 − 4 6 − 3
√ √ 9 √ c.
d. 6a5 b2 2b 2 2
e. 3x y 10xy f. a2 b4 5ab ( √ )29
2
15 3 2 − 2
21. a. 2 b. 5 c. 12
36.
22. a. 15 b. 18 c. 80 √ 28
9 x + 6x
23. a. 28 b. 200 37.
√ 36x − 16x2
24. a.
√5 b. 2 38. a. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions
c. 6 d. 4 in the
√ online
√ resources.
√ √ √
√ √ b. i. 5+ 3 ii. 5+ 3 iii. 3+2
3 5
25. a. b. 2
√
4 2 39.
c. 2 3 d. 1 7
√ 40. a. x = 16 b. x=1
4 x
26. a. 1 b. 2 17 c. 41. 1
√5 y√
2 √ 4 a
Exercise 1.5 Review of index laws
d. e. 2xy 3y f.
x3 y4 3 1. a. a7 b. a6 c. b8 d. a4 b7
√ √ √
5 2 7 3 4 11 2. a. m n 5 13
b.
5 7 3
a b c c. m n p6 4 5
d. 6a2 b
27. a. b. c.
√
2 √
3 11 3. a. 10a4 b9 b. 36m8 n7 c. 12x6 y6 d. 4x8 y6
4 6 2 21
d. e. 4 4
3 7 4. a. a b. a5 c. b3 d. a
√ √ √ 3
10 2 15 3 35 1 2
28. a. b. c. 5. a. 3b4 b. 4m5 c. m3 n d. y
√
2 √5 5 2
5 6 4 15
d. e.
6 15

5 2 2 1 2 27. a. x=4 b. x = 0, 2
6. a. 7b3 b. m p c. xy
4 2 28. a.
2
a bc 7
7. a. 1 b. 1 c. 1 b. The student made a mistake when multiplying the

8. a. 3 b. 4 c. −3 two brackets in line 3. Individual brackets should be
expanded first.
9. a. 3 b. −7 c. 4
6 20
10. a. a b. 16a Exercise 1.6 Negative indices
1 8 4 8 1 1 2 4
c. m d. n 1. a. b. c. d.
81 9 x5 y4 a9 5a3
e. 49
3x2 1 6a3
11. a. a6 b3 b. 9a6 b4 c. 16m12 n20 2. a. b. c. d. a6
27 6 3 a4 y3 4m3 n4 bc5
d. m n e.
2a4 7b3 2m3 a2
64 b6 3. a. b. 2ab2 c. d.
625m12 343x3 81a4 3 2a4 3b4 n5
12. a. b. c. 1 6 3
n8 8y15 625b12 4. a. b. c.
d. −243 e. −32 a2 b3 x6 y n8
13. a. D b. D 4 2y
d. e.
a2 b5 3x
14. a. C b. E
c. B d. D 5y 3 4y12
5. a. b. c.
6x3 m2 n2 x5
15. a. 64 b. 72 c. 625
1 1
27 d. e.
16. a. 48 b. 1600 c. 3m3 n3 32a m20
15
125
4q8 3 27q9
17. a. 20 b. 1 c. 4 6. a. b. c.
p14 a8 b12 8p6
18. a. x3yz b. ab
6
b 1
a b a2x d. e.
19. a. m n b. 4a8 8a6 b6
b3x 1 1 1 8
20. a. n3−p m2−q b. a
mp+np 7. a. b. c. d.
8 36 81 9
21. a3 = a × a × a
1 5 32
a2 = a × a 8. a. b. c. 48 d.
16 36 27
a3 × a2 = a × a × a × a × a
27 2
= a5 , not a6 9. a. =1 b. 4
25 25
Explanations will vary. 3
c. 125 d.
22. They are equal when x = 2. Explanations will vary. 4
0 0
23. 3x = 3 and (3x) = 1. Explanations will vary. 10. a. 23 b. 2−3 c. 2
5
d. 2−6
11. a. x=3 b. x = −2 c. x = −1
24. a.
a 0 1 2 3 d. x=3 e. x = −2
3a2 0 3 12 27 12. a. x=0 b. x=3 c. x = −3
5a 0 5 10 15 d. x = −6 e. x = −2
3a2 + 5a 0 8 22 42 3 4 2
13. a. b. c. d. 5
2
3a × 5a 0 15 120 405 2 5 7
b b3 a2 1
3a2 × 5a will become much larger than 3a2 + 5a.
b. 14. a. b. c. d.
a a2 b3 m3 n2
25. x = −2 or 4
26. 1 ≡ 1 1
15. a.
2 ≡ 10 729
3 ≡ 11 1
b.
4 ≡ 100 20 736
5 ≡ 101 1
c. 0.000059499 or
6 ≡ 110 16807
7 ≡ 111 16 384
8 ≡ 1000 16. a. 256 b. c. 9 765 625
2187
9 ≡ 1001
17. C
10 ≡ 1010

5 7 7 4 1 3 11
18. B 15. a. x3 y5 b. a 45 b 15 c. m 8 n 56
19. B 3
2 3 1 11 7 1 5 1
20. D 16. a. 2x 15 y 4 b. a 20 b 20 c. p 24 q 12
21. C 4 7
9 1 6
22. E 17. a. 2 20 b. 56 c. 75
m2 n2 25 3 1 1 1
23. a. b. c.
n8 m a7 b6 18. a. a 10 b. m6 c. 23 b6
2 m b a
24. a. r6 − s6 19. a. 4p 5 b. xp c. 3c mc
10 5 5 10
b. m + 2m n + n 1 1 3 6 7
c. 1 20. a. a4 b6 b. a3 b 4 c. x5 y4
2 1
d. p
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 a2
2r−4
25. 2 21. a. 3 3 a 9 b 5 c 4 b. 5x 4 y 3 z 5 c.
2
26. 63m b3
8 2 1 7
27. x=3 m5 b5 22 x2
28. a. As x gets closer to 0 coming from the positive direction, 22. a. b. c.
7 8 3
y gets more and more positive, approaching ∞. n4 c 27 y8
b. As x gets closer to 0 coming from the negative direction, 23. a. E b. C c. B
y gets more and more negative, approaching −∞.
24. a. E b. B
−n 1
29. 2 = n 25. a. a4
b. b3 c. m4
2
A n increases, the value of 2n increases, so the value of 2−n
26. a. 4x2 b. 2y3 c. 2x2 y3
gets closer to 0.
30. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions of 27. a. 3m3 n5 b. 2pq2 c. 6a2 b6
your online resources. 28. a. 2.007 s b. 20.07 s c. 4.98 swings
31. x = −2, y = −3 ( )1
x2 29. 25 a5 b 5 = 2ab2 10
32. ( √ )
33. x = 3, y = −1 ; 7 a2 3 − b3 4
30.
3
;
Exercise 1.7 Fractional indices 9−b 11
√ √ 1 1 1 1
1. a. 15 b. 4 m 31. a. x 2 + y 2 − z 2 b. t 10
√ √
c.
5
72 d. 75 32. m − n2
√ √ 1 1 1
2. a.
8
w3 b.
4 5
w 33. m5 − n5 + p5
√
3
√ −
1 13
10
c. 510 d. a3 34. a. a 4 ×b 2
1 7 b. No, because you can’t take the fourth root of a negative
3. a. t2 b. 54 number.
11 6
c. 66 d. x7 c. a = 1
7
4. a. x6 b. w2 Exercise 1.8 Combining index laws
1 n
c. w 2 d. 11 x 2n13
1. a. 54a10 b9 b. 48a5 b16 c.
5. a. 4 b. 5 c. 9 m9
6. a. 2 b. 4 c. 3 15b2
2. a. 500p8 q18 b. 36a20 b10 c.
c26
7. a. 2.2 b. 1.5 c. 1.3
7 11 15 15 6
8. a. 2.5 b. 12.9 c. 13.6 3. a. 12x 8 y 15 b. 8m 4 n 4 c.
7
9. a. 0.7 b. 0.8 c. 0.9 p 12

7 5
4 1 5 d. 8p 45 q 18
10. a. 4 5 b. 2 2 c. a 6
5 x 27
23 8 5 4. a. b. c.
11. a. x 20 b. 10m 15 c. 2b 7 8a7 4y6 128m29 n26
20 9 7 64y36 27h12
12. a. −4y 9 b. 0.02a 8 c. 5x 2 5. a. b. 24a24 b7 c.
x24 8g6
3 4 5 8 17
13. a. ab 2 b. x 5 y 9 c. 6a 5 b 15 35 1 625 5 1 3
6. a. p 3 q 2 b. c. x3 y8 z2
19 2 19 5 5 2 9 81b20 c28
14. a. 2m 28 n 5 b. x 6 y6 z6 c. 8a 5 b 8 c

3a2 m2 n4 6. a. $3 145 511.41

7. a. b. 8n2 c.
2 3 $443 014.84
b.
4x5 36x6 y2 7. $8784.60
8. a. b. c.
3y8 y x4 8. $3376.26
b 7
75q 5 17 7 9. a. $2837.04 b. $837.04
9. a. b. c. x 10 y 10
3a4 2p11 10. $17 240.15
2 4a b 3 3
n 9 11. $605.42
10. a. b. c. 12. $18 503.86
5a4 b7 15 4m9
13. a. 0.5833% b. $42 891.60
4m5 4
11. a. b. c. 48x11 y6 14. B
9n15 81x2 y14
1 1 15. B
3p4 2b 12 4x 12 16. C
12. a. b. c.
5q9 17 21
17. C
3a 24 3y 20
18. a. 0.0247%
5 56a11 b6
13. a. b. b. ≈ $131 295.85
2a13 81
c. ≈ $11 295.85
1024b2 25 4y36
14. a. b. c. d. ≈ $495.85
81a 128x23 y4 27x16
19. a. i. $17 745.95
11 11
16m 12 n 4b 2 ii. $17 786.61
15. a. 6m19 n19 b. c.
1 7 iii. $17 807.67
3
3 2 c 30 iv. $17 821.99
125
16. a. b. 1 b. The interest added to the principal also earns interest.
8
20. a. $7920
17. 1
y−1 b. David’s investment = $8108.46
18. a. 5 b. y=4
c. Because David’s interest is compounded, the interest
19. E
is added to the principal each quarter and earns itself
20. A √ interest.
1 7 m
−
21. a. m6 n 6 or 6 21. a. $3750 interest
n7 b. i. $3820.32 interest
3
b. g−6 h3 n 2 ii. $3881.05
7 7
− − iii. $3912.36
c. 3 3 ×5 6
1 a6 14 √
15
c. Compound quarterly gives the best return.
22. a. 2−2 or b. a6 b−8 or c. d 15 or d14 d. If we assume that interest is compounded annually, an
4 b8
equivalent return of I = 7% would be achieved.
23. a. 12 b. 1536 c. 14 days
e. i. Yes
24. a. 80 koalas
ii. No
During the 6th year.
b.
22. Neither is correct. The best option is to choose 3.895% p.a.
25. a. 79% b. 56% c. 31%
compounding monthly.
3 23. a. Bank east b. $19 976.45
26.
2
4 24. a. i. $2.44 ii. $2.61
27. iii. $2.71 iv. $2.71
21 √
2 −2 b. Compounding more frequently increases the final value,
28. z + z + 5
but the amount of increase becomes less and less. The
final value of iv. is 2.7181 which is almost equal to iii.
Exercise 1.9 Compound interest
1. a. $3244.80 b. $10 939.56 Exercise 1.10 Logarithms
2. a. $24 617.98 b. $14 678.02 1. a. log4 (16) = 2 b. log2 (32) = 5
3. a. $14 838.45 b. $129 394.77 c. log3 (81) = 4 d. log6 (36) = 2
e. log10 (1000) = 3
4. a. $932.52 b. $10 650.81
5. a. $20 2 760.57 2. a. log5 (25) = 2 b. log4 (x) = 3
b. $25 816.04 c. log5 (125) = x d. log7 (49) = x
e. logp (16) = 4

1 6. a. 2 b. 3
3. a. log9 (3) = b. log10 (0.1) = −1
2 ( ) 7. a. 1 b. 4
1 1
c. log8 (2) = d. log2 = −1
3 2 8. a. 3 b. 5
3 1
e. log4 (8) =
2 9. a. 2 b.
2
4. D
4
10. a. 1 b. 3
5. a. 2 = 16 b. 33 = 27
6 3 1
c. 10 = 1 000 000 d. 5 = 125 11. a. −1 b. −
1
2
6. a. 16 2 = 4 b. 4x = 64 12. 3
1
c. 49 2 =7 d. 3 =x5 13. a. 2 b. 4
1 14. a. 3 b. 3
7. a. 81 2 = 9 b. 10−2 = 0.01
1 15. a. 1 b. 0
c. 81 = 8 d. 64 3 = 4 c. −1 d. 5
8. B 16. a. −2 b. 1
9. a. 4 b. 2 c. 0 d. −2
c. 2 d. 5 1 1
17. a. − b.
10. a. 5 b. 7 2 2
1
c. 0 d. 1 7
2 c. − d.
2 2
11. a. −1 b. 1
1 18. a. loga (40) b. loga (18)
c. −2 d. c. logx (48) d. logx (4)
3
12. a. 0 b. 1 c. 2 19. a. loga (x) b. 1
13. a. 3 b. 4 c. 5 c. −1 d. 7
1 3
14. a. 0 and 1 b. 3 and 4 c. 1 and 2 20. a. b.
2 2
15. a. 4 and 5 b. 2 and 3 c. 4 and 5 1
c. −6 d. −
16. a. 6.1 b. 6.3 8.2 c. 3
2
( k )2 21. a. B b. B, D
17. a. log10 (g) = k implies that g = k so g = 10 . That is,
( ) c. A, B d. C, D
g2 = 102k , therefore, log10 g2 = 2k.
1
22. a. log2 (80) b. log3 (105)
2
logx (y) = 2 implies that y = x , so
b. x = y2
and therefore c. log10 (100) = 2 d. log6 (56)
1
logy (x) = . 23. a. log2 (4) = 2 b. log3 (3) = 1 c. log5 (12.5)
2 d. log2 (3)
y
c. The equivalent exponential statement is x = 4 , and we
y ( )
know that 4 is greater than zero for all values 1
24. a. log4 (5) b. log10
of y. Therefore, x is a positive number. 4
18. a. 6 b. −4 c. −5 c. log3 (4) d. log2 (3)
3 1
19. a. 5 b. −3 c. e. log3 (20) f. log4 (2) =
2 2
1 25. a. C b. B c. A
20. a. 3 b. 7 c.
8 26. a. 12 (Evaluate each logarithm separately and then find the
21. x product.)
9 b. 4 (First simplify the numerator by expressing 81 as a
22.
x power of 3.)
log (7)
c. 7 (Let y = 5 5 and write an equivalent statement in
Exercise 1.11 Logarithm laws
logarithmic form.)
1. a. 1.698 97 b. 1.397 94
27. −2
c. 0.698 97 d. 0.301 03
28. 7 − 3 log2 (3)
2. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions in
29. 1
3. a. 1 b. 3
30. x = 3a, 5a
31. 7
4. a. 2 b. 3
5. a. 4 b. 1

Exercise 1.12 Solving equations Project

1 1. a. 1002 b. 11012 c. 100002
1. a. 25 b. 81 c.
8 2. a. 102 b. 12 c. 1102
1
d. e. 100, −100
16 3. a. 112 b. 1010102 c. 1101112
2. a. 16 b. 26 c. 127 4. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions in the
d. 2 e. 0 online resources. The digits in octal math are 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
1 1 6, and 7. The value “eight” is written as “1 eight and 0 ones”,
3. a. − b. − c. −624 or 108.
32 9
d. −2.5 5. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions in the
online resources. The numbers 10, 11, 12, 13, 14 and 15 are
4. a. 3 b. 2 c. 125
allocated the letters A, B,C, D, E and F respectively.
5. a. 625 b. 2 c. 8
6. a. 6 b. 4 Exercise 1.13 Review questions
1. A
7. a. 3 b. 2 c. −1
2. a. Irrational, since equal to non-recurring and
1 1
8. a. −2 b. c. non-terminating decimal
2 3
b. Rational, since can be expressed as a whole number
9. a. 0 b. 0 c. −1
c. Rational, since given in a rational form
d. −2
d. Rational, since it is a recurring decimal
10. a. 5 b. 6 c. 10
e. Irrational, since equal to non-recurring and
d. 8
non-terminating decimal
11. a. 4 b. 2 c. 9 3. D
2 √
d. √ 20 √ √3
5 4. a. , 3 m, 8m
2m,
m
12. a. 500 128 5 √ √
b. c. √ m 20
d. 6 e. 1 f. 2 b. 25m, ,
16 m
13. a. B b. A c. D √ √ √ √
5. a. 5 2 b. 6 5 c. 8 2 d. 20 5
d. B
6. C
14. a. 7 b. 2 c. −2 √ 1 √
d. 0 e. 4 7. a. 72x3 y4 2xy b. − x2 y5 xy
4
1 1 3 √ √
15. a. b. c. 8. a. 25 3 b. 3ab ab
2 2 2 √ √
1 3 9. a. 15
√ b. 6 42
d. − e.
2 2 c. 30 15 d. 5
√
3 5 5 10. a. 27 b. 720 2
16. a. b. − c. √
4 2 2
9 11
11. a.
√3 √ b. 6
d. − e. − 10 30 1
2 4 c. √ or d.
4 3 12 2
17. Approximately 2.5 times brighter. √ √
18. a. 120 b. 130 6 2
12. a. b.
c. 0.001 d. 3 dB are added. √
3 4 √
e. 10 dB are added. f. 100 c. 2 5+4 d. 2− 3
19. a. i. 1.1 ii. 1.3 iii. 1.418 13. a. 4 b. 4.5
iv. 1.77 v. 2.43 vi. 3.1 c. 2.2 d. 2.7
b. No; see answers to 19a i and ii above. 14. a. 7.4 b. 1.7
c. i. 22 387 211 KJ c. 0.8 d. 0.8
√ √
ii. 707 945 784 KJ
15. a.
√2 b. 3 2
iii. 22 387 211 386 KJ.
c. 5 5 d. 16
d. The energy is increased by a factor of 31.62.
16. a. 1 b. 4
e. It releases 31.623 times more energy.
1 1
20. a. x = 0.7712 b. x = 1.2966 17. a. b.
4 9
21. x=7
1 1
22. x = 1, 3 c. d.
16 1000

18. a. 0.0833 b. 0.0204 3

44. a. loga (24) b.
c. 0.800 d. 625 ( 2) 2
c. loga x or 2 loga (x) d. −5
1 3
19. a. 1 b. 1 1
2 7 45. a. 512 b. c. 5
4 25
c. 5 d.
13 d. 2 e. 6 f. 0
20. a. B b. A c. A 46. a. 6 b. 35
1 1 1 5
21. a. 2 b. 2 47. a. −2 b. − c.
2 4 2 2
1 1 48. a. 4.644 b. −3.809 c. 0.079
22. a. b.
2 9 49. a. 9 b. 6 c. 0
1 2
c. d. 50. a, b, c
64 1 y y = 4x
23. D 3 y=x
24. C 2 y = log4 (x)
25. C y=0 1
26. C –3 –2 –1–10 1 2 3 4 x
27. A –2
x=0
28. A
51. x = 2, −3
29. B
1
30. C 52.
a2 b 12
31. B
1
13ab3 c2 53.
32. a. 9x10 y10 b. 36
6
54. a. 8 b. 6 c. 2
1000m15 n6 16p28 7 7
c. d. 9ab c
27 81q12 55. a.
50
3 b. The student has made two mistakes when squaring the
33. a. 16 b. −
2 left-hand bracket in line 1 ∶ 32 = 9, 52 = 25.
√
8 y2 m12 r
34. a.
a b2
11
b.
5x17
c.
16n8
56. a. √
d u3
3 √ √
35. a. 8 b. c. 0 b. Yes, r, u3
2 √
1 ru3
41 33 4 2a 6 c.
36. a. 30a 20 b 20 b.
1 2
c.
3
du3
x 20 y 9 b2 d. r should be a perfect square, u should be a perfect cube
and d should be a rational number.
37. a. 1 b. 4
e. i. 0.0012346 kL
1
2 2 ii. 1.2346 L
38. a. −2a3 + 2a b
2 iii. 1234.6 mL
b. 6xy
f. A high value for d causes the expression to be smaller,
2a 13
9y4 4
39. a. b. c. 2 3 m as d only appears on the denominator of the fraction.
5b 2 32x 15
This means that when d is high there is less water in the
1 reservoir and the area is dry.
40. a. 46 b. − ( √ )
18
p2 2 − w3
41. $15 746.40
57. a.
42. a. $25 808.37 b. $26 723.16 4 − w3
c. $27 211.79 d. $27 550.17 b. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions
in the online resources; approximately 5.
43. a. 2 b. 1
c. Speed decreases as wind resistance increases.
c. 8 d. 2

2 Algebra and equations
LEARNING SEQUENCE
2.1 Overview ................................................................................................................................................................. 100
2.2 Substitution ............................................................................................................................................................102
2.3 Adding and subtracting algebraic fractions .............................................................................................. 109
2.4 Multiplying and dividing algebraic fractions ..............................................................................................114
2.5 Solving simple equations ................................................................................................................................. 119
2.6 Solving multi-step equations .......................................................................................................................... 126
2.7 Literal equations ...................................................................................................................................................132
2.8 Review ..................................................................................................................................................................... 138
2.1 Overview
Why learn this?
Algebra is like the language of maths; it holds the key to understanding
the rules, formulae and relationships that summarise much of our
understanding of the universe. Every maths student needs this set of
skills in order to process mathematical information and move on to more
challenging concepts.
To some extent, this explains why those who want to pursue a career in
maths need algebra. Every maths teacher is faced with the question ‘Why
do I need to study algebra, I’m never going to use it?’ and yet no one asks
why a professional footballer would lift weights when they don’t lift any
weight in their sport. The obvious answer for the footballer is that they
are training their muscles to be fitter and stronger for upcoming matches.
Learning algebra is no different, in that you are training your mind to
better handle abstract concepts. Abstraction is the ability to consider
concepts beyond what we observe. Spatial reasoning, complex reasoning,
understanding verbal and non-verbal ideas, recognising patterns, analysing
ideas and solving problems all involve abstract thinking to some degree.
If some food were to fall on the ground, an adult would think about how
long the food has been there, whether the ground is clean, whether the food surface can be washed; whereas
a young child would just pick up the food and eat it off the ground, because they lack the ability to think
abstractly. Being able to think about all these considerations is just a simple example of abstract thinking. We
use abstract thinking every day, and develop this skill over our life. Those who have strong abstract reasoning
skills tend to perform highly on intelligence tests and are more likely to be successful in later life. Algebra helps
us develop our abstract reasoning skills and thus is of use to all students!
Where to get help

Fully worked
solutions
eLessons
to every
question
Digital
eWorkbook
documents

(−d)2 1
1. Evaluate , if c = and d = −6.
9c 3
√
2. If c = a2 + b2 , calculate c, if a = 4 and b = 3.
3. MC Given the integer values x = 3 and y = −2, state whether the Closure Law holds for 3y ÷ x.
A. Yes, the answer obtained is an integer value.
B. No, the answer obtained is a negative integer.
C. Yes, the answer obtained is a natural number.
D. No, the answer obtained is irrational.
E. No, the answer obtained is a terminating decimal.
4. Simplify the following:
y y
−
5 6
2 1
5. MC The expression − can be simplified to:
x + 1 (x + 1)2
1 1 x−1 2x 2x + 1
A. B. C. D. E.
2 2 2
x+1 (x + 1) (x + 1) (x + 1) (x + 1)2
5 1
6. MC The expression + simplified is:
2x 3x
6 17 18 5 17
A. B. C. D. E.
5x 6x 6x 6x2 6x2
7. Simplify the expression:
x −10
×
5 3y
8. If the side length of a cube is x cm, then the cube’s volume, V, is given by V = x3 . Calculate the side
length, in cm, of a cube that has a volume of 1 m3 .
2 (4r + 3) 3 (2r + 5)
9. Solve the equation = .
5 4
8x + 3 3 (x − 1) 1
10. Solve the equation − = .
5 2 2
√3
a
11. Solve the equation = −2.
4
12. At a charity fundraising event, three-eighths of the profit came from sales of tickets, one-fifth came
from donations. A third of the profit came from the major raffle and a pop up stall raised $2200.
Determine the amount of money raised at the event.
TOPIC 2 Algebra and equations 101

“c02AlgebraAndEquations_PrintPDF” — 2021/12/14 — 5:44 — page 102 — #4
x+4 a b
13. MC If = + , the values of a and b respectively are:
(x + 1) (x − 2) x + 1 x − 2
A. a = x and b = 4 B. a = 1 and b = 2 C. a = −1 and b = 2
D. a = 1 and b = −2 E. a = −1 and b = −2
1 1 1
14. MC Solve the literal equation + = for a.
a b c
bc 1 bc
A. a = B. a = C. a =
b−c b−c b+c
D. a = c − b E. a = b + c
pa + qb
15. MC Rearrange the literal equation m = to make p the subject.
p−q
qb q (m − b) q (m + b)
A. p = B. p = C. p =
−a m+a m+a
q (m + b) a+b
D. p = E. p =
m−a m+q
2.2 Substitution
LEARNING INTENTION
• evaluate expressions by substituting the numeric values of pronumerals
• understand and apply the Commutative, Associative, Identity and Inverse laws.
2.2.1 Substituting values into expressions

eles-4696
• An expression can be evaluated by substituting the numerical value of pronumerals into an
algebraic expression.
• The substituted values are placed in brackets when evaluating an expression.
WORKED EXAMPLE 1 Substituting values into an expression
If a = 4, b = 2 and c = −7, evaluate the following expressions.

a. a − b b. a3 + 9b − c
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Write the expression. a. a − b
2. Substitute a = 4 and b = 2 into the expression. =4−2

3. Simplify and write the answer. =2
3
b. 1. Write the expression. b. a + 9b − c
2. Substitute a = 4, b = 2 and c = −7 into the expression. = (4)3 + 9 (2) − (−7)

3. Simplify and write the answer. = 64 + 18 + 7
= 89

WORKED EXAMPLE 2 Substituting into the Pythagoras theorem
√
If c = a2 + b2 , calculate c if a = 12 and b = −5.
THINK WRITE
√
1. Write the expression. c= a2 + b2
√
2. Substitute a = 12 and b = −5 into the expression. = (12)2 + (−5)2
√
3. Simplify. = 144 + 25
√
= 169
4. Write the answer. = 13
√
In a new document, open a To type the equation, is on
calculator page. To substitute the Keyboard Math1 screen. The
values, use the symbol ∣. Press vertical line ∣ is on the Keyboard
CTRL and then = to bring up Math3 screen.
the palette; use the Touchpad Complete
√ the entry line as:
to select the ∣ symbol. Then c = a2 + b2 ∣ a = 12 and
type ‘and’ or find it in the b = −5
CATALOG. Then press EXE.
Complete
√ the entry line as:
c = a2 + b2 ∣ a = 12 and If a = 12 and b = −5, then
b = −5 √
c = a2 + b2 = 13.
Then press ENTER.
If a = 12√
and b = −5
then c = a2 + b2 = 13.
2.2.2 Number laws

eles-4697
• Recall from previous studies that when dealing with numbers and pronumerals, particular rules must be
obeyed. Before progressing further, let us briefly review the Commutative, Associative, Identity and
Inverse Laws.
• Consider any three pronumerals, y and z, where x, y and z are elements of the set of real numbers.
Commutative Law
• The Commutative Law holds true for addition and multiplication. That is, you can add or multiply in any
order, since the order in which two numbers or pronumerals are added or multiplied does not affect the
result.
• The Commutative Law does not hold true for subtraction or division.
Commutative Law
x+y=y+x For example: 3 + 2 = 5 and 2 + 3 = 5

x−y≠y−x For example: 3 − 2 = 1 but 2 − 3 = −1
x×y=y×x For example: 3 × 2 = 6 and 2 × 3 = 6
3 2
x÷y≠y÷x For example: 3 ÷ 2 = , but 2 ÷ 3 =
2 3

Associative Law
• The Associative Law holds true for addition and multiplication since grouping two or more numbers or
pronumerals and calculating them in a different order does not affect the result.
• The Associative Law does not hold true for subtraction or division.
Associative Law
x + (y + z) = (x + y) + z For example: 2 + (3 + 4) = 2 + 7 = 9 and (2 + 3) + 4 = 5 + 4 = 9

x − (y − z) ≠ (x − y) − z For example: 2 − (3 − 4) = 2 − −1 = 3 but (2 − 3) − 4 = −1 − 4 = −5
x × (y × z) = (x × y) × z For example: 2 × (3 × 4) = 2 × 12 = 24 and (2 × 3) × 4 = 6 × 4 = 24
3 4 8
x ÷ (y ÷ z) ≠ (x ÷ y) ÷ z For example: 2 ÷ (3 ÷ 4) = 2 ÷ = 2 × = but
4 3 3
2 2 1 2 1
(2 ÷ 3) ÷ 4 = ÷4= × = =
3 3 4 12 6
Identity Law
• Under the Identity Law, the sum of zero and any number is the number, and the product of 1 and any
number is the number. That is, x has not been changed (it has kept its identity) when zero is added to it or
it is multiplied by 1.
• The Identity Law does not hold true for subtraction or division.
Identity Law
x+0=0+x=x For example: 5 + 0 = 0 + 5 = 5

x−0≠0−x For example: 5 − 0 = 5 and 0 − 5 = −5
x×1=1×x=x For example: 7 × 1 = 1 × 7 = 7
1
x÷1≠1÷x For example: 8 ÷ 1 = 8 and 1 ÷ 8 =
8
Inverse Law
• The inverse of a real number x under addition is −x.
1
• The inverse of a real number x under multiplication is its reciprocal, .
x
• The Inverse Law states that in general:
• when the additive inverse of a number or pronumeral is added to itself, it equals 0.
• when the multiplicative inverse of a number or pronumeral is multiplied by itself, it equals 1.
Inverse Law
x + −x = −x + x = 0 For example: 5 + −5 = −5 + 5 = 0
1 1 1 1
x× = ×x=1 For example: 7 × = × 7 = 1
x x 7 7
• It is worth noting that the subtraction (5 − 2 = 3) is equivalent to adding an inverse (5 + (−2) = 3), and that
1
the division (10 ÷ 2 = 5) is equivalent to multiplication by an inverse (10 × = 5).
2

Closure Law
• The Closure Law states that, when an operation is performed on an element (or elements) of a set, the
result produced must also be an element of that set.
For example, addition is closed on natural numbers (that is, positive integers: 1, 2, 3, …) since adding a pair
of natural numbers produces a natural number.
• Subtraction is not closed on natural numbers.
For example, 5 and 7 are natural numbers and the result of adding them is 12, a natural number. However,
the result of subtracting 7 from 5 is −2, which is not a natural number.
WORKED EXAMPLE 3 Determining which operations with the integers are closed
Determine the value of the following expressions, given the integer values x = 4 and y = −12.
Comment on whether the Closure Law for integers holds for each of the expressions when these
values are substituted.
a. x + y b. x − y c. x × y d. x ÷ y
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Substitute each pronumeral into the expression. a. x + y = 4 + (−12)
2. Evaluate and write the answer. = −8

3. Determine whether the Closure Law holds; that is, The Closure Law holds for these substituted
is the result an integer? values.
b. Repeat steps 1–3 of part a. b. x − y = 4 − (−12)
= 16
The Closure Law holds for these substituted
values.
c. Repeat steps 1–3 of part a. c. x × y = 4 × (−12)
= −48
The Closure Law holds for these substituted
values.
d. Repeat steps 1–3 of part a. d. x ÷ y = 4 ÷ (−12)
4
=
−12
1
=−
3
The Closure Law does not hold for these
substituted values since the answer obtained
is a fraction, not an integer.
• It is important to note that, although a particular set of numbers may be closed under a given operation, for
example multiplication, another set of numbers may not be closed under that same operation.
For example, in part c of Worked example 3, integers were closed under multiplication. √ √
• In some cases, however, the set of irrational numbers is not closed under multiplication, since 3 × 3 =
√
9 = 3. In this example, two irrational numbers produced a rational number under multiplication.

Resources
Resourceseses
Digital documents SkillSHEET Like terms (doc-5183)
SkillSHEET Collecting like terms (doc-5184)
SkillSHEET Finding the highest common factor (doc-5185)
SkillSHEET Order of operations (doc-5189)
Video eLesson Substitution (eles-1892)
Interactivities Individual pathway interactivity: Substitution (int-4566)
Substituting positive and negative numbers (int-3765)
Commutative Law (int-6109)
Associative Law (int-6110)
Identity Law (int-6111)
Inverse Law (int-6112)
Exercise 2.2 Substitution

Individual pathways
1, 4, 8, 10, 13, 14, 17, 22 2, 5, 9, 11, 15, 18, 19, 23 3, 6, 7, 12, 16, 20, 21, 24
Fluency
WE1 For questions 1 to 3, if a = 2, b = 3 and c = 5, evaluate the following expressions.
1. a. a + b b. c − b c. c − a − b d. c − (a − b)
a b c
2. a. 7a + 8b − 11c b. + + c. abc d. ab (c − b)
2 3 5
3. a. a2 + b2 − c2 b. c2 + a c. −a × b × −c d. 2.3a − 3.2b
For questions 4 to 6, if d = −6 and k = −5, evaluate the following.

4. a. d + k b. d − k c. k − d
5. a. kd b. −d (k + 1) c. d2
k−1
6. a. k3 b. c. 3k − 5d
d
1 1
7. If x = and y = , evaluate the following.
3 4
a. x + y b. y − x c. xy
x 9x
d. e. x2 y3 f.
y y2
8. If x = 3, determine the value of the following.
2
a. x2 b. −x2 c. (−x)
2 2 2
d. 2x e. −2x f. (−2x)

9. If x = −3, determine the value of the following.
2
a. x2 b. −x2 c. (−x)
2
d. 2x2 e. −2x2 f. (−2x)
WE2 For questions 10 to 12, calculate the unknown variable in the following real-life mathematical formulas.
√
10. a. If c = a2 + b2 , calculate c if a = 8 and b = 15.
1
b. If A = bh, determine the value of A if b = 12 and h = 5.
2
c. The perimeter, P, of a rectangle is given by P = 2L + 2W. Calculate the perimeter, P, of a rectangle, given
L = 1.6 and W = 2.4.
C
11. a. If T = , determine the value of T if C = 20.4 and L = 5.1.
L
n+1
b. If K = , determine the value of K if n = 5.
n−1
9C
c. Given F = + 32, calculate F if C = 20.
5
12. a. If v = u + at, evaluate v if u = 16, a = 5, t = 6.
b. The area, A, of a circle is given by the formula A = 𝜋r2 . Calculate the area of a circle, correct to 1 decimal
place, if r = 6.
1
c. If E = mv2 , calculate m if E = 40, v = 4.
2 √
A
d. Given r = , evaluate A to 1 decimal place if r = 14.1.
𝜋
13. MC a. If p = −5 and q = 4, then pq is equal to:
5
A. 20 B. 1 C. −1 D. −20 E. −
4
b. If c2 = a2 + b2 , and a = 6 and b = 8, then c is equal to:
A. 28 B. 100 C. 10 D. 14 E. 44
c. Given h = 6 and k = 7, then kh2 is equal to:
A. 294 B. 252 C. 1764 D. 5776 E. 85
Understanding
14. Knowing the length of two sides of a right-angled triangle, the third side can be calculated using Pythagoras’
theorem. If the two shorter sides have lengths of 1.5 cm and 3.6 cm, calculate the length of the hypotenuse.
4 3
15. The volume of a sphere can be calculated using the formula 𝜋r . What is the
3
volume of a sphere with a radius of 2.5 cm? Give your answer correct to
2 decimal places.
2.5 cm
16. A rectangular park is 200 m by 300 m. If Blake runs along the diagonal of the park,
calculate how far he will run. Give your answer to the nearest metre.
Reasoning
17. WE3 Determine the value of the following expressions, given the integer values
x = 1, y = −2 and z = −1. Comment on whether the Closure Law for integers holds
true for each of the expressions when these values are substituted.
a. x + y b. y − z c. y × z

18. Determine the value of the following expressions, given the integer values x = 1, y = −2 and z = −1.
Comment on whether the Closure Law for integers holds true for each of the expressions when these values
are substituted.
a. x ÷ z b. z − x c. x ÷ y
19. For each of the following, complete the relationship to illustrate the stated law. Justify your reasoning.
a. (a + 2b) + 4c = _____________ Associative Law
b. (x × 3y) × 5c = _____________ Associative Law
c. 2p ÷ q ≠ _____________ Commutative Law
d. 5d + q = _____________ Commutative Law
20. Calculate the value of the following expressions, given the natural number values x = 8, y = 2 and z = 6.
Comment on whether the Closure Law for natural numbers holds true for each of the expressions.
a. x + y b. y − z c. y × z
d. x ÷ z e. z − x f. x ÷ y
21. For each of the following, complete the relationship to illustrate the stated law. Justify your reasoning.
a. 3z + 0 = _____________ Identity Law
b. 2x × _______ = ______ Inverse Law
c. (4x ÷ 3y) ÷ 5z ≠ _____________ Associative Law
d. 3d − 4y ≠ ____________ Commutative Law
Problem solving
1
22. s = ut + at2 where t is the time in seconds, s is the displacement
2
in metres, u is the initial velocity and a is the acceleration due
to gravity.
a. Calculate s when u = 16.5 m/s, t = 2.5 seconds and
a = 9.8 m/s2 .
b. A body has an initial velocity of 14.7 m/s and after t seconds
has a displacement of 137.2 metres. Determine the value of t
if a = 9.8 m/s2 .
√
1
23. Calculate the value of m if n = p 1 + , when n = 6 and p = 4.
m
√
L
24. The formula for the period (T) of a pendulum in seconds is T = 2𝜋 , where
g
L is the length in metres of the pendulum and g = 9.81 m/s2 is the acceleration
due to gravity.
Determine the period of a pendulum, to 1 decimal place, in a grandfather clock
with a pendulum length of 154 cm.

2.3 Adding and subtracting algebraic fractions
LEARNING INTENTION
• determine the lowest common denominator of two or more fractions with pronumerals in the
denominator
• add and subtract fractions involving algebraic expressions.
2.3.1 Algebraic fractions

eles-4698
• In an algebraic fraction, the denominator, the numerator or both are algebraic expressions.
x 3x + 1 1
For example, , and 2 are all algebraic fractions.
2 2x − 5 x +5
• As with all fractions, algebraic fractions must have a common denominator if they are to be added or
subtracted, so an important step is to determine the lowest common denominator (LCD).
WORKED EXAMPLE 4 Simplifying fractions with algebraic numerators
Simplify the following expressions.

2x x x+1 x+4
a. − b. +
3 2 6 4
THINK WRITE
2x x
a. 1. Write the expression. a. −
3 2
2x 2 x 3
2. Rewrite each fraction as an equivalent = × − ×
fraction using the LCD of 3 and 2, which 3 2 2 3
is 6. 4x 3x
= −
6 6
4x − 3x
3. Express as a single fraction. =
6
x
4. Simplify the numerator and write the answer. =
6
x+1 x+4
b. 1. Write the expression. b. +
6 4
x+1 2 x+4 3
2. Rewrite each fraction as an equivalent = × + ×
fraction using the LCD of 6 and 4, which 6 2 4 3
is 12. 2(x + 1) 3(x + 4)
= +
12 12
2(x + 1) + 3(x + 4)
12
2x + 2 + 3x + 12
4. Simplify the numerator by expanding =
brackets and collecting like terms. 12
5x + 14
12

2.3.2 Pronumerals in the denominator
eles-4699
• If pronumerals appear in the denominator, the process involved in adding and subtracting the fractions is to
determine a lowest common denominator as usual.
• When there is an algebraic expression in the denominator of each fraction, a common denominator
can be obtained by writing the product of the denominators. For example, if x + 3 and 2x − 5 are in the
denominator of each fraction, then a common denominator of the two fractions will be (x + 3) (2x − 5).
WORKED EXAMPLE 5 Simplifying fractions with algebraic denominators
2 1
Simplify − .
3x 4x
THINK WRITE
2 1
1. Write the expression. −
3x 4x
2 4 1 3
2. Rewrite each fraction as an equivalent fraction = × − ×
using the LCD of 3x and 4x, which is 12x. 3x 4 4x 3
Note: 12x2 is not the lowest LCD. 8 3
= −
12x 12x
8−3
12x
5
12x
WORKED EXAMPLE 6 Simplifying by finding the LCD of two algebriac expressions
x+1 2x − 1
Simplify + by writing it first as a single fraction.
x+3 x+2
THINK WRITE
x + 1 2x − 1
1. Write the expression. +
x+3 x+2
(x + 1) (x + 2) (2x − 1) (x + 3)
2. Rewrite each fraction as an equivalent fraction = × + ×
using the LCD of x + 3 and x + 2, which is the (x + 3) (x + 2) (x + 2) (x + 3)
product (x + 3)(x + 2). (x + 1) (x + 2) (2x − 1) (x + 3)
= +
(x + 3) (x + 2) (x + 3) (x + 2)
(x + 1) (x + 2) + (2x − 1) (x + 3)
(x + 3) (x + 2)
( 2 ) ( )
x + 2x + x + 2 + 2x2 + 6x − x − 3
4. Simplify the numerator by expanding brackets =
and collecting like terms. (x + 3) (x + 2)
( )
Note: The denominator is generally kept in x2 + 3x + 2 + 2x2 + 5x − 3
factorised form. That is, it is not expanded. =
(x + 3) (x + 2)
2
3x + 8x − 1
(x + 3) (x + 2)

WORKED EXAMPLE 7 Simplification involving repeated linear factors
x+2 x−1
Simplify + by writing it first as a single fraction.
x−3 (x − 3)2
THINK WRITE
x+2 x−1
1. Write the expression. +
x − 3 (x − 3)2
x+2 x−3 x−1
2. Rewrite each fraction as an equivalent fraction = × +
using the LCD of x − 3 and (x − 3)2 , which x − 3 x − 3 (x − 3)2
is (x − 3)2 . (x + 2) (x − 3) x−1
= 2
+
(x − 3) (x − 3)2
x2 − x − 6 x−1
= 2
+
(x − 3) (x − 3)2
x2 − x − 6 + x − 1
(x − 3)2
x2 − 7
(x − 3)2

On a Calculator page, press On the Main screen, complete
CTRL and ÷ to get the fraction the entry(line as: )
template, and then complete the x+2 x−1
entry line as: combine +
x − 3 (x − 3)2
x+2 x−1
+ Then press EXE.
x − 3 (x − 3)2
Then press ENTER.
x+2 x−1 x2 − 7
+ =
x−3 (x − 3)2 (x − 3)2
x+2 x−1 x2 − 7
+ =
x−3 (x − 3)2 (x − 3)2
DISCUSSION
Explain why we can’t just add the numerators and the denominators of fractions, as shown in the incorrect
expression below:
a c a+c
+ =
b d b+d

Resources
Resourceseses
Digital documents SkillSHEET Addition and subtraction of fractions (doc-5186)
SkillSHEET Writing equivalent algebraic fractions with the lowest common denominator
(doc-5190)
Interactivities Individual pathway interactivity: Adding and subtracting algebraic fractions (int-4567)
Adding and subtracting algebraic fractions (int-6113)
Lowest common denominators with pronumerals (int-6114)
Exercise 2.3 Adding and subtracting algebraic fractions

Individual pathways
1, 4, 7, 10, 13, 16, 19 2, 5, 8, 11, 14, 17, 20 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, 21
Fluency
For questions 1 to 3, simplify each of the following.
4 2 1 5 3 6
1. a. + b. + c. +
7 3 8 9 5 15
4 3 3 2 1 x
2. a. − b. − c. −
9 11 7 5 5 6
5x 4 3 2x 5 2
3. a. − b. − c. −
9 27 8 5 x 3
WE4 For questions 4 to 6, simplify the following expressions.
2y y y y 4x x 8x 2x
4. a. − b. − c. − d. +
3 4 8 5 3 4 9 3
2w w y y 12y y 10x 2x
5. a. − b. − c. + d. +
14 28 20 4 5 7 5 15
x+1 x+3 x+2 x+6 2x − 1 2x + 1 3x + 1 5x + 2
6. a. + b. + c. − d. +
5 2 4 3 5 6 2 3
WE5 For questions 7 to 9, simplify the following.
2 1 3 1 5 1
7. a. + b. − c. +
4x 8x 4x 3x 3x 7x
12 4 1 1 9 9
8. a. + b. + c. −
5x 15x 6x 8x 4x 5x
2 7 1 5 4 3
9. a. + b. + c. −
100x 20x 10x x 3x 2x
WE6,7 For questions 10 to 12, simplify the following by writing as single fractions.
2 3x 2x 5 5 x 2x 3
10. a. + b. + c. + d. −
x+4 x−2 x+5 x−1 2x + 1 x − 2 x + 1 2x − 7

4x 3x x+2 x−1 x + 8 2x + 1 x+5 x−1

11. a. + b. + c. − d. −
x+7 x−5 x+1 x+4 x+1 x+2 x+3 x−2
x + 1 2x − 5 2 3 4 3 3 1
12. a. − b. − c.
2
+ d. −
x + 2 3x − 1 x−1 1−x (x + 1) x+1 x − 1 (x − 1)2
Understanding
13. A classmate attempted to complete an algebraic fraction subtraction problem.
a. Identify the mistake she made.

b. Determine the correct answer.

y−x 3 4
a. b. +
x−y x−2 2−x
3 3x 1 2x x2
a. + b. − +
3 − x (x − 3)2 x − 2 (2 − x)2 (x − 2)3
Reasoning
1 2 1
a. + +
x+2 x+1 x+3
1 4 2
b. + +
x−1 x+2 x−4
3 2 1
a. + −
x+1 x+3 x+2
2 3 5
b. − +
x−4 x−1 x+3
c. Explain why the process that involves determining the lowest
common denominator is important in parts a and b.
18. The reverse process of adding or subtracting algebraic fractions is quite complex. Use trial and error, or
7x − 4 a 3
technology, to determine the value of a if = + .
(x − 8) (x + 5) x − 8 x + 5

Problem solving
3 1 2
19. Simplify
2
− 2 + 2 .
x + 7x + 12 x + x − 6 x + 2x − 8
x2 + 3x − 18 x2 − 3x + 2
20. Simplify − 2 .
x2 − x − 42 x − 5x + 4
x2 − 25 x2 + 12x + 32 2x2
21. Simplify + − .
x2 − 2x − 15 x2 + 4x − 32 x2 − x − 12
2.4 Multiplying and dividing algebraic fractions

LEARNING INTENTION
• cancel factors, including algebraic expressions, that are common to the numerator and denominator
of fractions
• multiply and divide fractions involving algebraic expression and simplify the result.
2.4.1 Multiplying algebraic fractions

eles-4700
• Algebraic fractions can be simplified using the index laws and by cancelling factors common to the
numerator and denominator.
• A fraction can only be simplified if:
• there is a common factor in the numerator and the denominator
• the numerator and denominator are both written in factorised form, that is, as the product of two or
more factors.
3ab 13 × 1a × b product of factors 3a + b 3 × a + b not a product of factors

= =
12a 4
12 × 1a product of factors 12a 12 × a product of factors
b
= Cannot be simplified
4
• Multiplication of algebraic fractions follows the same rules as multiplication of numerical fractions:
multiply the numerators, then multiply the denominators.
WORKED EXAMPLE 8 Multiplying algebraic fractions and simplifying the result

5y 6z 2x x+1
a. × b. ×
3x 7y (x + 1) (2x − 3) x
THINK WRITE
5y 6z
a. 1. Write the expression. a. ×
3x 7y

2
5y1 6 z
2. Cancel common factors in the numerator and denominator. = × 1
The y can be cancelled in the denominator and the x 7y
13
numerator. Also, the 3 in the denominator can divide into 5 2z

= ×
the 6 in the numerator. x 7
10z
3. Multiply the numerators, then multiply the denominators =
and write the answer. 7x
2x x+1
b. 1. Write the expression. b. ×
(x + 1) (2x − 3) x
2x1 x +
11
2. Cancel common factors in the numerator and the = ×
denominator. (x + 1) and the x are both common in the ( x +
1
1) (2x − 3) x
1
numerator and the denominator and can therefore be 2 1

= ×
cancelled. 2x − 3 1
2
and write the answer. 2x − 3
2.4.2 Dividing algebraic fractions

eles-4701
• When dividing algebraic fractions, follow the same rules as for division of numerical fractions: write the
division as a multiplication and invert the second fraction.
• This process is sometimes known as multiplying by the reciprocal.
WORKED EXAMPLE 9 Dividing algebraic fractions
Simplify the following expressions.

3xy 4x 4 x−7
a. ÷ b. ÷
2 9y (x + 1) (3x − 5) x+1
THINK WRITE
3xy 4x
a. 1. Write the expression. a. ÷
2 9y
3xy 9y
2. Change the division sign to a multiplication sign and write = ×
the second fraction as its reciprocal. 2 4x
3y 9y
3. Cancel common factors in the numerator and denominator. = ×
The pronumeral x is common to both the numerator and 2 4
denominator and can therefore be cancelled.
27y2
and write the answer. 8
4 x−7
(x + 1) (3x − 5) x + 1
4 x+1
2. Change the division sign to a multiplication sign and write = ×
the second fraction as its reciprocal. (x + 1) (3x − 5) x − 7

4 1
3. Cancel common factors in the numerator and denominator. = ×
(x + 1) is common to both the numerator and denominator 3x − 5 x − 7
and can therefore be cancelled.
4
and write the answer. (3x − 5) (x − 7)

a. a. a-b. a-b.
On a Calculator page the On the Main screen used the
fraction template, twice to fraction template, twice to
complete the entry line as: complete the entry line as:
3xy 4x 3 × xy 4x
÷ ÷
2 9y 2 9y
Then press ENTER. 4 x−7
÷
(x + 1) (3x − 5) x + 1
Press EXE after each entry.
3xy 4x 27y2
÷ =
2 9y 8
b. b.
3xy 4x 27y2
On a Calculator page, use ÷ =
the fraction template twice to 2 9y 8
complete the entry line as: 4 x−7
÷
4 x−7 (x + 1) (3x − 5) x+1
÷
(x + 1) (3x − 5) x + 1 4
Then press ENTER. =
(x − 7) (3x − 5)
4 x−7
÷
(x + 1) (3x − 5) x+1
4
=
(x − 7) (3x − 5)
DISCUSSION
Explain how multiplying and dividing algebraic fractions is different to adding and subtracting them.
Resources
Resourceseses
Digital documents SkillSHEET Multiplication of fractions (doc-5187)
SkillSHEET Division of fractions (doc-5188)
SkillSHEET Simplification of algebraic fractions (doc-5191)
Interactivities Individual pathway interactivity: Multiplying and dividing algebraic fractions (int-4568)
Simplifying algebraic fractions (int-6115)
Multiplying algebraic fractions (int-6116)
Dividing algebraic fractions (int-6117)

Exercise 2.4 Multiplying and dividing algebraic fractions
Individual pathways
1, 4, 7, 10, 13, 16, 19 2, 5, 8, 11, 14, 17, 20 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, 21
Fluency
WE8a For questions 1 to 3, simplify each of the following.
x 20 x 12 y 16 x 9
1. a. × b. × c. × d. ×
5 y 4 y 4 x 2 2y
x −25 3w −7 3y 8z −y 6z
2. a. × b. × c. × d. ×
10 2y −14 x 4x 7y 3x −7y
x −9z 5y x −20y −21z y x

3. a. × b. × c. × d. ×
3z 2y 3x 8y 7x 5y −3w 2y
WE8b For questions 4 to 6, simplify the following expressions.
2x x−1 5x 4x + 7
4. a. × b. ×
(x − 1)(3x − 2) x (x − 3)(4x + 7) x
9x 5x + 1 (x + 4) x+1
c. × d. ×
(5x + 1)(x − 6) 2x (x + 1)(x + 3) x + 4
2x x−1 2 x(x + 1)
5. a. × b. ×
x + 1 (x + 1)(x − 1) x(2x − 3) 4
2x 3a 15c 21d
c. × d. ×
4(a + 3) 15x 12(d − 3) 6c
6x2 15(x − 2) 7x2 (x − 3) 3(x − 3)(x + 1)

6. a. × b. ×
20(x − 2)2 16x4 5x(x + 1) 14(x − 3)2 (x − 1)
WE9a For questions 7 to 9, simplify the following expressions.
3 5 2 9 4 12 20 20
7. a. ÷ b. ÷ c. ÷ d. ÷
x x x x x x y 3y
1 5 7 3 3xy 3x 2xy 5x
8. a. ÷ b. ÷ c. ÷ d. ÷
5w w 2x 5x 7 4y 5 y
6y 3x 8wx 3w 2xy 3xy 10xy 20x
9. a. ÷ b. ÷ c. ÷ d. ÷
9 4xy 5 4y 5 5 7 14y
WE9b For questions 10 to 12, simplify the following expressions.
9 x+3 1 x−9
10. a. ÷ b. ÷
(x − 1)(3x − 7) x − 1 (x + 2)(2x − 5) 2x − 5
12(x − 3)2 4(x − 3) 13 3(x + 1)

11. a. ÷ b.
2
÷
(x + 5)(x − 9) 7(x − 9) 6(x − 4) (x − 1) 2(x − 4)(x − 1)

16 (x + 5) (x − 4)2 8 (x + 3) (x + 5) (x + 2) (x + 3) (x + 4) x2 + x − 12
12. a. ÷ b. ÷
(x + 3) (x + 4) (x − 4) (x + 4) (x − 2) (x + 3)2 x2 − 4
Understanding
For questions 13 to 15, determine the missing fraction.
x+2 3 1
13. a. × =5 b. ÷ =
3 x2 4
(x + 3) (x + 2) x−5 x2 (x − 3) 3x
14. a. × = b. ÷ =
(x − 4) x+2 (x + 4) (x − 5) 2 (x + 4)
x2 + 8x + 15 x2 − 25 x2 − 2x − 24 x2 + 12x + 36
15. a. × = b. ÷ =
x2 − 4x − 21 x2 − 11x + 28 x2 − 36 x2
Reasoning
3 1 1 1
16. Explain whether is the same as + + .
x+2 x+2 x+2 x+2
12xy + 16yz2 3 + 4z
17. Does simplify to ? Explain your reasoning.
20xyz 5
(x − 4) (x + 3) x2 − x
18. a. Simplify × .
4x − x2 (x + 3) (x − 1)
b. Identify and explain the error in the following reasoning.
(x − 4) (x + 3) x2 − x
×
4x − x2 (x + 3) (x − 1)
(x − 4) (x + 3) x (x − 1)
= × =1
x (4 − x) (x + 3) (x − 1)
Problem solving
x2 − 2x − 3 x2 + 4x − 5 x2 + 7x + 10
19. Simplify × 2 ÷ .
x4 − 1 x − 5x + 6 x4 − 3x2 − 4
x+1 x−1
20. Simplify x where a = x + 1 .
x− x
a
2
⎛ x +1 −x⎞ ⎛ ⎞
⎜ x−1 ⎟ ⎜ 2 ⎟
21. Simplify ⎜
2 ⎟ × ⎜1 − 1⎟
.
⎜ x − 1 + 1⎟ ⎜ 1+ ⎟
⎝ x+1 ⎠ ⎝ x⎠

2.5 Solving simple equations
LEARNING INTENTION
• solve one- and two-step equations using inverse operations.
• solve equations with pronumerals on both sides of the equals sign.
2.5.1 Solving equations using inverse operations

eles-4702
• Equations show the equivalence of two expressions.
• Equations can be solved using inverse operations.
Inverse operations
• Determining the solution of an equation involves calculating the
value or values of a variable that, when substituted into that + and − are inverse operations
equation, produces a true statement.
• When solving equations, the last operation performed on the × and ÷ are inverse operations
pronumeral when building the equation is the first operation undone 2
and √ are inverse operations
by applying inverse operations to both sides of the equation.
For example, the equation 2x + 3 = 5 is built from x by:
First operation: multiplying by 2 to give 2x
Second operation: adding 3 to give 2x + 3.
• In order to solve the equation, undo the second operation of adding 3 by subtracting 3, then undo the first
operation of multiplying by 2 by dividing by 2.
2x + 3 = 5
−3
2x = 2
÷2
x=1
• Equations that require one step to solve are called one-step equations.
WORKED EXAMPLE 10 Solving equations using inverse operations
Solve the following equations.

d 1 √ 4
a. a + 27 = 71 b. =3 c. e = 0.87 d. f 2 =
16 4 25
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Write the equation. a. a + 27 = 71
2. 27 has been added to a resulting in 71. The addition of a + 27 − 27 = 71 − 27
27 has to be reversed by subtracting 27 from both sides a = 44
of the equation to obtain the solution.
d 1
b. 1. Write the equation. b. =3
16 4
1 d 13
2. Express 3 as an improper fraction. =
4 16 4

d 13
3. The pronumeral d has been divided by 16 resulting =
×
16 4
×
16

16 1
4
13
in . Therefore the division has to be reversed d = 52
4
by multiplying both sides of the equation by 16 to obtain d.
√
c. 1. Write the equation. c. e =0.87
(√ )2
2. The square root of e has been taken to result in e = 0.872
0.87. Therefore, the square root has to be reversed
by squaring both sides of the equation to obtain e. e = 0.7569
4
d. 1. Write the equation. d. f2 =
25
√
4 4
2. The pronumeral f has been squared, resulting in . f =±
25 25
Therefore the squaring has to be reversed by taking 2
the square root of both sides of the equation to f =±
5
obtain f. Note that there are two possible solutions,
one positive and one negative, since two negative
numbers can also be multiplied together to produce
a positive result.
2.5.2 Two-step equations

eles-4704
• Two-step equations involve the inverse of two operations in their solutions.
WORKED EXAMPLE 11 Solving two-step equations

4x
a. 5y − 6 = 79 b. =5
9
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Write the equation. a. 5y − 6 = 79
2. Step 1: Add 6 to both sides of the equation. 5y − 6 + 6 =79 + 6
5y =85
5y 85
3. Step 2: Divide both sides of the equation by 5 to =
obtain y. 5 5
4. Write the answer. y = 17
4x
b. 1. Write the equation. b. =5
9
4x
2. Step 1: Multiply both sides of the equation by 9. ×9 = 5×9
9
4x = 45

4x 45
3. Step 2: Divide both sides of the equation by 4 to =
obtain x. 4 4
45
x=
4
1
4. Express the answer as a mixed number. x = 11
4

a. a. a-b. a-b.
On a Calculator page to solve On the Main screen, to solve the
equation press: equation tap:
• MENU • Action
• 3: Algebra • Advanced
• 1: Solve • slove
Then complete the line as: Then complete the entry
solve(5y − 6 = 79, y) line as:
The ‘comma y’ (,y) instructs solve(5y − 6 = 79, y)
the calculator to solve for the Then press EXE.
variable y. 5y − 6 = 79 The ‘comma y’ (,y) instructs
The press ENTER. ⇒ y = 17 the calculator to solve for the
b. b. variable y.
On a Calculator page, complete Then complete
( )the entry line as:
the entry 4x
( line as: ) solve =5
4x 9 5y − 6 = 79
solve = 5, x ⇒ y = 17
9 The result is given as an
The result is given as an improper fraction. 4x
=5
improper fraction. If required, to change to a y
To change to a proper fraction, proper fraction, tap: 1
⇒ x = 11
press: • Action 4
• MENU • Transformation
4x
• 2: Number =5 • Fraction
• 7: Fraction Tools y • propFrac
• 1: Proper Fraction 1
⇒ x = 11 Then complete as shown and
Then complete as shown and 4 press EXE.
press ENTER. If x is the only pronumeral, it is
not necessary to include x at the
end of the entry line.
2.5.3 Equations where the pronumeral appears on both sides

eles-4705
• In solving equations where the pronumeral appears on both sides, subtract the smaller pronumeral term so
that it is eliminated from both sides of the equation.
WORKED EXAMPLE 12 Solving equations with multiple pronumeral terms

a. 5h + 13 = 2h − 2 b. 14 − 4d = 27 − d c. 2 (x − 3) = 5 (2x + 4)
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Write the equation. a. 5h + 13 = 2h − 2
2. Eliminate the pronumeral from the right-hand side 3h + 13 = −2

by subtracting 2h from both sides of the equation.

3. Subtract 13 from both sides of the equation. 3h = −15
4. Divide both sides of the equation by 3 and write h = −5

the answer.
b. 1. Write the equation. b. 14 − 4d = 27 − d
2. Add 4d to both sides of the equation. 14 = 27 + 3d

3. Subtract 27 from both sides of the equation. −13 = 3d
13
4. Divide both sides of the equation by 3. − =d
3
1
5. Express the answer as a mixed number. −4 = d
3
1
6. Write the answer so that d is on the left-hand side. d = −4
3
c. 1. Write the equation. c. 2 (x − 3) = 5 (2x + 4)
2. Expand the brackets on both sides of the equation. 2x − 6 = 10x + 20
3. Subtract 2x from both sides of the equation. −6 = 8x + 20
4. Subtract 20 from both sides of the equation. −26 = 8x
26
5. Divide both sides of the equation by 8. − =x
8
13
6. Simplify and write the answer with the pronumeral x=−
on the left-hand side. 4
DISCUSSION
Describe in one sentence what it means to solve linear equations.
Resources
Resourceseses
Video eLessons Solving linear equations (eles-1895)
Solving linear equations with pronumerals on both sides (eles-1901)
Interactivity Individual pathway interactivity: Solving simple equations (int-4569)
Using algebra to solve problems (int-3805)
One-step equations (int-6118)
Two-step equations (int-6119)

Exercise 2.5 Solving simple equations
Individual pathways
1, 4, 7, 10, 13, 16, 18, 21, 25, 26, 2, 5, 8, 11, 14, 17, 19, 22, 23, 27, 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 20, 24, 29, 32, 35,
30, 33, 36, 40, 43, 46 28, 31, 34, 37, 41, 44, 47 38, 39, 42, 45, 48
Fluency
WE10a For questions 1 to 3, solve the following equations.
1. a. a + 61 = 85 b. k − 75 = 46 c. g + 9.3 = 12.2
2. a. r − 2.3 = 0.7 b. h + 0.84 = 1.1 c. i + 5 = 3
1 1
3. a. t − 12 = −7 b. q + = c. x − 2 = −2
3 2
WE10b For questions 4 to 6, solve the following equations.
f i
4. a. =3 b. = −6 c. 6z = −42
4 10
k 5
5. a. 9v = 63 b. 6w = −32 c. =
12 6
m 7 y 3
6. a. 4a = 1.7 b. = c. =5
19 8 4 8
WE10c, d For questions 7 to 12, solve the following equations.
√ √
7. a. t = 10 b. y2 = 289 c. q = 2.5
√ 4 9
8. a. f 2 = 1.44 b. h= c. p2 =
7 64
√ 15 196 7
9. a. g= b. j2 = c. a2 = 2
22 961 9
√ √
10. a. t−3=2 b. 5x2 = 180 c. 3 m = 12
√
d. −2t2 = −18 e. t2 + 11 = 111 f. m−5=0
√ √ 1
11. a. 3 x = 2 b. x3 = −27 c. 3 m =
2
3 27 √
3 3 5
d. x = e. m = 0.2 f. w = 15
64 8
√
12. a. x3 + 1 = 0 b. 3x3 = −24 c. 3 m + 5 = 6
√ √
3
d. −2 × 3 w = 16 e. t − 13 = −8 f. 2x3 − 14 = 2
WE11a For questions 13 to 20, solve the following.

13. a. 5a + 6 = 26 b. 6b + 8 = 44 c. 8i − 9 = 15
14. a. 7f − 18 = 45 b. 8q + 17 = 26 c. 10r − 21 = 33

15. a. 6s + 46 = 75 b. 5t − 28 = 21 c. 8a + 88 = 28
f g r
16. a. + 6 = 16 b. +4=9 c. +6=5
4 6 10
m n p
17. a. − 12 = −10 b. + 5 = 8.5 c. − 1.8 = 3.4
9 8 12
18. a. 6 (x + 8) = 56 b. 7 (y − 4) = 35 c. 5 (m − 3) = 7
19. a. 3 (2k + 5) = 24 b. 5 (3n − 1) = 80 c. 6 (2c + 7) = 58
20. a. 2 (x − 5) + 3 (x − 7) = 19 b. 3 (x + 5) − 5 (x − 1) = 12 c. 3 (2x − 7) − (x + 3) = −60
WE11b For questions 21 to 24, solve the following.

3k 9m 7p
21. a. = 15 b. = 18 c. = −8
5 8 10
8u 11x 4v
22. a. = −3 b. =2 c. = 0.8
11 4 15
x−5 2m + 1 3w − 1
23. a. =7 b. = −3 c. =6
3 3 4
t−5 6−x 3n − 5
24. a. =0 b. = −1 c. = −6
2 3 4
p
25. MC a. The solution to the equation + 2 = 7 is:
5
A. p = 5 B. p = 25 C. p = 45 D. p = 10 E. p = 1
b. If 5h + 8 = 53, then h is equal to:

1
A. B. 12.2 C. 225 D. 10 E. 9
5
c. The exact solution to the equation 14x = 75 is:
A. x = 5.357 142 857 B. x = 5.357 (to 3 decimal places)

5
C. x = 5 D. x = 5.4
14
E. x = 5.5
For questions 26 to 29, solve the following equations.

26. a. −5h = 10 b. 2 − d = 3 c. 5 − p = −2 d. −7 − x = 4
v r 1
27. a. −6t = −30 b. − =4 c. − = d. −4g = 3.2
5 12 4
28. a. 6 − 2x = 8 b. 10 − 3v = 7 c. 9 − 6l = −3 d. −3 − 2g = 1
3e k 4f
29. a. −5 − 4t = −17 b. − = 14 c. − −3=6 d. − +1=8
5 4 7
WE12a For questions 30 to 32, solve the following equations.
30. a. 6x + 5 = 5x + 7 b. 7b + 9 = 6b + 14 c. 11w + 17 = 6w + 27
31. a. 8f − 2 = 7f + 5 b. 10t − 11 = 5t + 4 c. 12r − 16 = 3r + 5

32. a. 12g − 19 = 3g − 31 b. 7h + 5 = 2h − 6 c. 5a − 2 = 3a − 2
WE12b For questions 33 to 35, solve the following equations.

33. a. 5 − 2x = 6 − x b. 10 − 3c = 8 − 2c c. 3r + 13 = 9r − 3
34. a. k − 5 = 2k − 6 b. 5y + 8 = 13y + 17 c. 17 − 3g = 3 − g
35. a. 14 − 5w = w + 8 b. 4m + 7 = 8 − m c. 14 − 5p = 9 − 2p
WE12c For questions 36 to 38, solve the following equations.

36. a. 3 (x + 5) = 2x b. 8 (y + 3) = 3y c. 6 (t − 5) = 4 (t + 3)
37. a. 10 (u + 1) = 3 (u − 3) b. 12(f − 10) = 4 (f − 5) c. 2 (4r + 3) = 3 (2r + 7)
38. a. 5 (2d + 9) = 3 (3d + 13) b. 5 (h − 3) = 3 (2h − 1) c. 2 (4x + 1) = 5 (3 − x)
39. MC a. The solution to 8 − 4k = −2 is:

1 1 1 1 2
A. k = 2 B. k = −2 C. k = 1 D. k = −1 E. k =
2 2 2 2 5
6n
b. The solution to − + 3 = −7 is:
5
1 1 1 1 1
A. n = 3 B. n = −3 C. n = D. n = 8 E. n = −8
3 3 3 3 3
c. The solution to p − 6 = 8 − 4p is:
2 4 2 2 4
A. p = B. p = 2 C. p = 4 D. p = E. p =
5 5 3 3 5
Understanding
40. If the side length of a cube is x cm, then its volume V is given by V = x3 . Calculate the
side length (correct to the nearest cm) of a cube that has a volume of:
a. 216 cm3 b. 2 m3 . x
41. The surface area of a cube with side length x cm is given by A = 6x2 . Determine the side
length (correct to the nearest cm) of a cube that has a surface area of:
a. 37.5 cm2 b. 1 m2 .
42. A pebble is dropped down a well. In time t seconds it falls a distance of d metres,
given by d = 5t2 .
a. Calculate the distance the pebble falls in 1 second.
b. Calculate the time the pebble will take to fall 40 m. (Answer in seconds correct
to 1 decimal place.)
Reasoning
43. The surface area of a sphere is given by the formula A = 4𝜋r2 , where r is the radius
of the sphere.
a. Determine the surface area of a sphere that has a radius of 5 cm. Show
your working.
b. Evaluate the radius of a sphere that has a surface area equal to 500 cm2 .
(Answer correct to the nearest mm.)
44. Determine the radius of a circle of area 10 cm2 . Show your working.

4 3
45. The volume of a sphere is given by the formula V = 𝜋r , where r is the radius of the sphere. If the sphere
3
can hold 1 litre of water, determine its radius correct to the nearest mm. Show your working.
Problem solving
46. The width of a room is three-fifths of its length. When the width is increased by
2 metres and the length is decreased by 2 metres, the resultant shape is a square.
Determine the dimensions of the room.
47. Four years ago, Leon was one third of James’ age. In six years’ time, the sum of
their ages will be 60. Determine their current ages.
48. A target board for a dart game has been designed as three concentric circles
where each coloured region is the same area. If the radius of the blue circle is
r cm and the radius of the outer circle is 10 cm, determine the value of r.
2.6 Solving multi-step equations

LEARNING INTENTION
• expand brackets and collect like terms in order to solve a multi-step equation
• solve equations involving algebraic fractions by determining the LCM of the denominators.
2.6.1 Equations with multiple brackets

eles-4706
• Equations can be simplified by expanding brackets and collecting like terms before they are solved.
WORKED EXAMPLE 13 Solving equations with brackets
Solve each of the following linear equations.

a. 6 (x + 1) − 4 (x − 2) = 0 b. 7 (5 − x) = 3 (x + 1) − 10
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Write the equation. a. 6 (x + 1) − 4 (x − 2) = 0
2. Expand all the brackets. (Be careful with 6x + 6 − 4x + 8 = 0
the −4.)
3. Collect like terms. 2x + 14 = 0
4. Subtract 14 from both sides of the equation. 2x = −14
5. Divide both sides of the equation by 2 to x = −7
obtain the value of x.
b. 1. Write the equation. b. 7 (5 − x) = 3 (x + 1) − 10
2. Expand all the brackets. 35 − 7x = 3x + 3 − 10
3. Collect like terms. 35 − 7x = 3x − 7
4. Create a single pronumeral term by adding 7x 35 = 10x − 7
to both sides of the equation.
5. Add 7 to both sides of the equation. 42 = 10x

42
6. Divide both sides of the equation by 10 to =x
solve for x and simplify. 10
21
=x
5
1
7. Express the improper fraction as a mixed 4 =x
number fraction. 5
1
8. Rewrite the equation so that x is on the x=4
left-hand side. 5
a−b. a–b. a−b. a−b.
On a Calculator page, complete On the Main screen, complete
the entry lines as: the entry lines as:
solve solve
(6(x + 1) − 4(x − 2) = 0, x) (6(x + 1) − 4(x − 2) = 0, x)
solve solve
(7(5 − x) = 3(x + 1) − 10, x) (7(5 − x) = 3(x + 1) − 10, x)
Press ENTER after each entry. Press EXE after each entry.
Convert b to a proper fraction. Convert b to a proper fraction.
6(x + 1) − 4(x − 2) = 0
⇒ x = −7
7(5 − x) = 3(x + 1) − 10 6(x + 1) − 4(x − 2) = 0
1 ⇒ x = −7
⇒x=4
5 7(5 − x) = 3(x + 1) − 10
1
⇒=4
5
2.6.2 Equations involving algebraic fractions

eles-4707
• To solve an equation containing algebraic fractions, multiply both sides of the equation by the lowest
common multiple (LCM) of the denominators. This gives an equivalent form of the equation
without fractions.
WORKED EXAMPLE 14 Solving equations with algebraic fractions
x−5 x+7
Solve the equation = and verify the solution.
3 4
THINK WRITE
x−5 x+7
1. Write the equation. =
3 4
4 (x − 5)

12 3 (x + 7)

12
2. The LCM is 3 × 4 = 12. Multiply both sides of =
1 1
the equation by 12. 3 4
3. Simplify the fractions. 4 (x − 5) = 3 (x + 7)

4. Expand the brackets. 4x − 20 = 3x + 21
5. Subtract 3x from both sides of the equation. x − 20 = 21

6. Add 20 to both sides of the equation and write x = 41
the answer.
7. To verify, check that the answer x = 41 is
true for both the left-hand side (LHS) and
the right-hand side (RHS) of the equation by
substitution.
41 − 5
Substitute x = 41 into the LHS. LHS =
3
36
=
3
= 12
41 + 7
Substitute x = 41 into the RHS. RHS =
4
48
=
4
= 12
8. Write the answer. Because the LHS = RHS, the solution
x = 41 is correct.
WORKED EXAMPLE 15 Solving involving algebraic fractions
Solve each of the following equations.

5 (x + 3) 3 (x − 1) 4 1
a. = 4+ b. =
6 5 3 (x − 1) x+1
THINK WRITE
5 (x + 3) 3 (x − 1)
a. 1. Write the equation. a. =4+
6 5
25 (x + 3) 120 18 (x − 1)
2. The lowest common denominator of 5 and = +
6 is 30. Write each term as an equivalent 30 30 30
fraction with a denominator of 30.
3. Multiply each term by 30. This effectively 25 (x + 3) = 120 + 18 (x − 1)
removes the denominator.
4. Expand the brackets and collect like terms. 25x + 75 = 120 + 18x − 18
25x + 75 = 102 + 18x
5. Subtract 18x from both sides of the equation. 7x + 75 = 102
6. Subtract 75 from both sides of the equation. 7x = 27
27
7. Divide both sides of the equation by 7 to x=
solve for x. 7
6
8. Express the answer as a mixed number. x=3
7

4 1
b. 1. Write the equation. b. =
3 (x − 1) x + 1
4 (x + 1) 3 (x − 1)
2. The lowest common denominator of 3, =
x + 1 and x − 1 is 3 (x − 1) (x + 1). Write each 3 (x − 1) (x + 1) 3 (x − 1) (x + 1)
term as an equivalent fraction with a common
denominator of 3 (x − 1) (x + 1).
3. Multiply each term by the common 4 (x + 1) = 3 (x − 1)
denominator.
4. Expand the brackets. 4x + 4 = 3x − 3
5. Subtract 3x from both sides of the equation. x + 4 = −3
6. Subtract 4 from both sides of the equation to x + 4 − 4 = −3 − 4
solve for x.
7. Write the answer. x = −7
DISCUSSION
Do the rules for the order of operations apply to algebraic fractions? Explain.
Resources
Resourceseses
Video eLesson Solving linear equations with algebraic fractions (eles-1857)
Interactivities Individual pathway interactivity: Solving multi-step equations (int-4570)
Expanding brackets: Distributive Law (int-3774)
Exercise 2.6 Solving multi-step equations

Individual pathways
1, 4, 7, 10, 13, 17, 20 2, 5, 8, 11, 14, 18, 21 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 16, 19, 22
Fluency
WE13 1 to 3, solve each of the following linear equations.
1. a. 6 (4x − 3) + 7 (x + 1) = 9 b. 9 (3 − 2x) + 2 (5x + 1) = 0
2. a. 8 (5 − 3x) − 4 (2 + 3x) = 3 b. 9 (1 + x) − 8 (x + 2) = 2x
3. a. 6 (4 + 3x) = 7 (x − 1) + 1 b. 10 (4x + 2) = 3 (8 − x) + 6

WE14 For questions 4 to 6, solve each of the following equations and verify the solutions.
x+1 x+3 x−7 x−8 x−6 x−2
4. a. = b. = c. =
2 3 5 4 4 2
8x + 3 2x − 1 x − 3 4x + 1 x + 2
5. a. = 2x b. = c. =
5 5 4 3 4
6 − x 2x − 1 8 − x 2x + 1 2 (x + 1) 3 − 2x
6. a. = b. = c. =
3 5 9 3 5 4
For questions 7 to 9, solve each of the following linear equations.
x 4x 1 x x 3 x 4x −3x x 1
7. a. + = b. − = c. − =2 d. + =
3 5 3 4 5 4 4 7 5 8 4
2x x 3 5x 2x 2 x 3x 4 1 2
8. a. − =− b. −8= c. − = d. − =
3 6 4 8 3 7 8 8 x 6 x
15 2 1 4 5 2x − 4 x 4x − 1 2x + 5
9. a. −4= b. + = c. +6= d. − =0
x x 3 x x 5 2 2 3
WE15 For questions 10 to 12, solve each of the following linear equations.
3 (x + 1) 5 (x + 1) 2 (x + 1) 3 (2x − 5)
10. a. + =4 b. + =0
2 3 7 8
2 (4x + 3) 6 (x − 2) 1 8 (x + 3) 3 (x + 2)
c. − = d. =
5 2 2 5 4
5 (7 − x) 2 (2x − 1) 2 (6 − x) 9 (x + 5) 1
11. a. = +1 b. = +
2 7 3 6 3
−5 (x − 2) 6 (2x − 1) 1 9 (2x − 1) 4 (x − 5)
c. − = d. =
3 5 3 7 3
1 3 8 3 5 5
12. a. + = b. + =
x−1 x+1 x+1 x+1 x−4 x+1
1 3 −1 4 5 −1
c. − = d. − =
x−1 x x−1 2x − 1 x x
Understanding
13. Last week Maya broke into her money box. She spent
one-quarter of the money on a birthday present for her
brother and one-third of the money on an evening out
with her friends, leaving her with $75.
Determine the amount of money in her money box.
14. At work Keith spends one-fifth of his time in planning
and buying merchandise. He spends seven-twelfths of his
time in customer service and one-twentieth of his time
training the staff. This leaves him ten hours to deal with
the accounts.
Determine the number of hours he works each week.

15. Last week’s school fete was a great success, raising a good
deal of money. Three-eighths of the profit came from sales of
food and drink, and the market stalls recorded one-fifth of the
total. A third of the profit came from the major raffle, and the
jumping castle raised $1100.
Determine the amount of money raised at the fete.
16. Lucy had half as much money as Mel, but since Grandma gave
them each $20 she now has three-fifths as much. Determine the
amount of money Lucy has.
Reasoning
17. Answer the following question and justify your answer:
a. Determine numbers smaller than 100 that have exactly 3 factors (including 1 and the number itself).
b. Determine the two numbers smaller than 100 that have exactly 5 factors.
c. Determine a number smaller than 100 that has exactly 7 factors.
18. To raise money for a charity, a Year 10 class has decided

to organise a school lunch. Tickets will cost $6 each.
The students have negotiated a special deal for delivery of
drinks and pizzas, and they have budgeted $200 for drinks
and $250 for pizzas. If they raise $1000 or more, they qualify
for a special award.
a. Write an equation to represent the minimum number of
tickets required to be sold to qualify for the award.
b. Solve the equation to find the number of tickets they must
sell to qualify for the award. Explain your answer.
x+7 a 4
19. If ≡ − , explain why a must be equal to 5.
(x + 2) (x + 3) x + 2 x + 3
(Note: ‘≡’ means identically equal to.)
Problem solving
20. Solve for x:
2 5 2 7
(x − 1) − (x − 2) = (x − 4) −
9 8 5 12
2 (4x + 3) a b
21. If ≡ + , determine the values of a and b.
(x − 3) (x + 7) x − 3 x + 7
7x + 20 a b a+b
22. If
2
= + + 2 , determine the values of a and b.
x + 7x + 12 x + 3 x + 4 x + 7x + 12

2.7 Literal equations
LEARNING INTENTION
• solve literal equations, which include multiple variables, by changing the subject of an equation to a
particular pronumeral
• determine any restriction on a variable in an equation due to limitations imposed by the equation or
context of the question.
2.7.1 Literal equations

eles-4708
• Literal equations are equations that include several pronumerals or variables. Solving literal equations
involves changing the subject of the equation to a particular pronumeral.
• A variable is the subject of an equation if it expressed in terms of the other variables. In v = u + at, the
subject of the equation is v as it is written in terms of the variables u, a and t.
• A formula is a literal equation that records an interesting or important real‐life relationship.
WORKED EXAMPLE 16 Solving literal equations
Solve the following literal equations for x.

a. ax2 + bd = c b. ax = cx + b
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Write the equation. a. ax2 + bd = c
2. Subtract bd from both sides of the equation. ax2 = c − bd

c − bd
3. Divide both sides by a. x2 =
a
√
c − bd
4. To solve for x, take the square root of both x=±
sides. This gives both a positive and negative a
result for x.
b. 1. Write the equation. b. ax = cx + b
2. Subtract cx from both sides. ax − cx = b
3. Factorise by taking x as a common factor. x (a − c) = b
b
4. To solve for x, divide both sides by a − c. x=
a−c

a−b. a–b. a−b. a−b.
In a new problem on a On the Main screen, complete
the entry lines as: solve (a × x2 + b × d = c, x)
solve (a × x2 + b × d = c, x) solve (a × x = c × x + b, x)
solve (a × x = c × x + b, x) Press EXE after each entry.
Press ENTER after each entry.
√
c − bd
x=±
a
b
x= √
a−c
c − bd
x=±
a
b
x=
a−c
WORKED EXAMPLE 17 Rearranging to make a variable the subject of an equation

√
Make b the subject of the formula D = b2 − 4ac.
THINK WRITE
√
1. Write the formula. D= b2 − 4ac
2. Square both sides. D2 = b2 − 4ac
3. Add 4ac to both sides of the equation. D2 + 4ac = b2

√
4. Take the square root of both sides. ± D2 + 4ac = b
√
5. Make b the subject of the formula by b = ± D2 + 4ac
solving for b.
2.7.2 Restrictions on variables

eles-4709
• Some variables may have implicit restrictions on the values that they may be assigned in an equation or
formula.
For example:
d
• if V = , then t cannot equal zero, otherwise the value of V would be undefined.
√t
• if d = x − 9, then:
• the value of d will be restricted to positive values or 0
• the value of x − 9 must be greater than or equal to zero because the square root of a negative number
cannot be found.
x−9 ≥0
x ≥9 (Hence x must be greater than or equal to 9)

• Other restrictions may arise once a formula is rearranged. For example, if we look at the formula V = ls2 ,
there are no restrictions on the values that the variables l and s can be assigned. (However, the sign of
V must always be the same as the sign of l because s2 is always positive.) If the formula is transposed to
make s the subject, then:
V = ls2
s
V
= s2
l √
V s
or s = ± l
l
V
This shows the restrictions that l ≠ 0 and≥ 0.
l
2
• If the formula V = ls represents the volume of the rectangular prism shown, additional restrictions become
evident: the variables
√ l and s represent a length and must be positive numbers. Hence, when we make s the
V
subject we get s = .
l
WORKED EXAMPLE 18 Identifying restrictions on variables
List any restrictions on the variables

√ in the equations below.
100 y + 4
a. The literal equation: x =
z − 10
bh
b. The area of a triangle: A = where b = base length and h = height
2
THINK WRITE
a. We cannot substitute a negative value into a square root. a. y + 4 ≥ 0
This affects the possible y ≥ −4
values for y.
A fraction is undefined if the denominator is z − 10 ≠ 0
equal to 0. This affects the possible values z ≠ 10
for z.
b. In this case the restrictions do not come from the b. b > 0 and h > 0
equation, but from the context of the equation. This also implies that A > 0.
Since b and h represent lengths of a shape, they
must have positive values or else the shape would
not exist.
DISCUSSION
Why is it important to consider restrictions on variables when solving literal equations?

Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivities Individual pathway interactivity: Literal equations (int-4571)
Restrictions on variables (int-6120)
Exercise 2.7 Literal equations

Individual pathways
1, 4, 7, 10, 13, 16 2, 5, 8, 11, 14, 17 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18
Fluency
WE16 For questions 1 to 3, solve the following literal equations for x.
ax x √
1. a. =d b. − bc = d c. x+n=m
bc a
a b x+m
2. a. acx2 = w b. = c. =w
x y n
a b
3. a. ab (x + b) = c b. = +m
x c
x c
c. mx = ay − bx d. +a=
m d
WE17 For questions 4 to 6, rearrange each of the following literal equations to make the variable in brackets
the subject.
4. a. V = lbh [l] b. P = 2l + 2b [b]
1 √
c. A = bh [h] d. c = a2 + b2 [a]
2
9C
5. a. F = + 32 [C] b. A = 𝜋r2 [r] c. v = u + at [a]
5
PRN 1 2
d. I = [N] e. E = mv [m]
100 2
1 2
6. a. E = mv [v] b. v2 = u2 + 2as [a] c. v2 = u2 + 2as [u]
2
1 1 1 nx1 + mx2
d. = + [a] e. x = [x1 ]
x a b m+n
For questions 7 to 9, complete the following.
√
7. a. If c = a2 + b2 , calculate a if c = 13 and b = 5.
1
b. If A = bh, calculate the value of h if A = 56 and b = 16.
2
9C
c. If F = + 32, calculate the value of C if F = 86.
5

8. a. If v = u + at, calculate the value of a if v = 83.6, u = 15 and t = 7.
b. If V = ls2 , calculate the value of s if V = 2028 and l = 12.
c. If v2 = u2 + 2as, calculate the value of u if v = 16, a = 10 and s = 6.75.
1
9. a. If A = h (a + b), calculate the value of a if A = 360, b = 15 and h = 18.
2
nx1 + mx2
b. If x = , calculate the value of x2 if x = 10, m = 2, n = 1 and x1 = 4.
m+n
Understanding
10. For the following equations:
i. WE18 list any restrictions on the variables in the equation.

ii. rearrange the equation to make the variable in brackets the subject.
iii. list any new restrictions on the variables in the equation formed in part ii.
2
a. y = x2 + 4 [x] b. y = [x] c. v = u + at [t]
x−3
i. list any restrictions on the variables in the equation.
√ a pb + qa
a. c = a2 + b2 [b] b. s = [r] c. m = [b]
1−r p+q
i. list any restrictions on the variables in the equation.
√
−b ± b2 − 4ac pb + qa 2 ( )2
a. x = [c] b. m = [p] c. E2 = (pc) + mc2 [m]
2a p+q
Reasoning
1
13. The area of a trapezium is given by A = (a + b) h, where a and b are the lengths of the top and the base and
2
h is the height of the trapezium.
a. State any restrictions on the variables in the formula. Justify your response.
b. Make b the subject of the equation.
c. Determine the length of the base of a trapezium with a height of 4 cm and top of 5 cm and a total area
of 32 cm2 . Show your working.
14. The volume of a cylinder is given by V = 𝜋r2 h, where r is the radius and h is the height of the cylinder.
a. State any restrictions on the values of the variables in this formula. Justify your response.
b. Make r the subject of the formula.
c. List any new restrictions on the variables in the formula. Justify your response.
15. T is the period of a pendulum whose length is l and g is the acceleration due to gravity. The formula relating
√
l
these variables is T = 2𝜋 .
g
a. State what restrictions are applied to the variables T and l. Justify your response.
b. Make l the subject of the equation.
c. Justify if the restrictions stated in part a still apply.
d. Determine the length of a pendulum that has a period of 3 seconds, given that g = 9.8 m/s2 . Give your
answer correct to 1 decimal place.
Problem solving
9
16. F = 32 + C is the formula relating degrees Celsius (C) to degrees Fahrenheit (F).
5
a. Transform the equation to make C the subject.
b. Determine the temperature when degrees Celsius is equal to degrees Fahrenheit.
m1 m2
17. Newton’s law of universal gravitation, F = G , tells us the gravitational force acting between two
r2
objects with masses m1 and m2 , at a distance r metres apart. In this equation, G is the gravitational constant
and has a fixed value of 6.67 × 10−11 .
a. Transform the equation to make m1 the subject.

b. Evaluate the mass of the Moon, to 2 decimal places, if the value of F between Earth and the Moon is
2.0 × 1020 N and the distance between Earth and the Moon is assumed to be 3.84 × 108 m. Take the mass
of Earth to be approximately 5.97 × 1024 kg.
18. Jing Jing and Pieter live on the same main road but Jing Jing lives a kilometres to the east of Pieter.
Both Jing Jing and Pieter set off on their bicycles at exactly the same time and both ride in a westerly
direction.
Jing Jing rides at j kilometres per hour and Pieter rides at p kilometres per hour. It is known that j > p.
Determine an equation in terms of a, j and p for the distance Jing Jing has ridden in order to catch up
with Pieter.

2.8 Review
2.8.1 Topic summary
Algebraic basics Substitution
• We can only add and subtract like terms: • When the numeric value of a pronumeral is known, it can
3x + 6y – 7x + 2z = 6y + 2z – 4x be substituted into an expression to evaluate the expression.
• Multiplying algebraic terms: 10x3y2 × 4x2z = 40x5y2z • It can be helpful to place substituted values inside brackets.
• Cancelling down fractions: only cancel what is common e.g. Evaluate the expression b2 – 4ac when a = –3,
to all terms in both the numerator and denominator. b = –2 and c = 4:
b2– 4ac = (–2)2 – 4 × (–3) × (4)
3ac + 5ab = 3ac + 5ab = 3c + 5b
– – – = 4 + 48
10abc 10abc 10bc = 52
• Expanding brackets: x(a + b) = ax + bx
Number laws
Solving equations
• Commutative law: the order in which an operation is
• Inverse operations are Solving complex carried out does not affect the result. It holds true for:
used to solve equations. equations • Addition: x + y = y + x
• Add (+) and subtract • Multiplication: x × y = y × x
(–) are inverses • Solving two-step and • Associative law: when calculating two or more numerals,
• Multiply (×) and multi-step equations will how they are grouped does not affect the result. It holds
divide (÷) are inverses involving the following. true for:
• Squares (x2) and • Using inverse • Addition: x + (y + z) = (x + y) + z
square roots ( x ) operations • Multiplication: x × (y × z)=(x × y) × z
are inverses • Expanding brackets • Identity law: an identity is any number the when applied
• One-step equations can • Collecting like terms
be solved using one • Finding the LCM of change the result.
inverse operation: algebraic fractions, • For Addition the identity is 0
e.g. x + 5 = 12 then multiplying by • For Multiplication the identity is 1
x + 5 – 5 = 12 – 5 the LCM to remove • Inverse law: an inverse is any number that when applied
x=7 all denominators to another number produce 0 for addition and 1 for
multiplication.
• Under addition, the inverse of x is –x as x + (–x) = 0
Literal equations 1 1
• Under multiplication, the inverse of x is – as x × – = 1
• Literal equations are equations that involve multiple x x
pronumerals or variables.
• The same processes (inverse operations etc.) are used
to solve literal equations. ALGEBRA & EQUATIONS
• Solving a literal equation is the same as making one
variable the subject of the equation. This means it is Closure
expressed in terms of the other variables.
nRT
e.g. P is the subject of the equation: P = –
V the result produced is also an element of the set.
PV e.g. For integers, multiplication is closed as the product
To make T the subject, transpose to get: T = –
nR of two integers is always an integer. (i.e. 3 × (–5) = –15)
For integers, division is not closed as
Algebraic fractions: + and – the quotient of two numbers is often
• Fractions can be added and Algebraic fractions: × not an integer.
3
subtracted if they have the same (i.e. 3 ÷ (–5) = – – )
• When multiplying fractions, multiply 5
common denominator.
e.g. the numerators together and the
5 4 15y 8x 15y + 8x denominators together. Algebraic fractions: ÷
–+–=– + –= – • Cancel any common factors in the
2x 3y 6xy 6xy 6xy
numerator and denominator. • When dividing two fractions, multiply
Or
3 2 3(x – 2) 2(x + 2) e.g.
––– =– –– 5y 7x2 (1)5y 7x2 7xy the second.
(x + 2) (x – 2) x2 – 4 x2 – 4 –×– = –× –= – a b
• The reciprocal of – is – .
3x – 6 – 2x – 4 12x 15z 12x (3)15z 36z b a
= – e.g.
x2 – 4 Cancel common factors from top
and bottom. 10x2 6x2 (5)10x2 (1)11y 5y
= –x – 10 – ÷ – = – × –2 = –
Write variables in alphabetical order. 33z 11y (3)33z (3)6x 9z
x2 – 4

Tick the column to indicate that you have completed the subtopic and how well you have understood it using the
traffic light system.
2.2 I can evaluate an expression by substituting in values for each pronumeral.
I understand the Commutative, Associative, Identity and Inverse laws and

determine in which situations they apply.
2.3 I can determine the lowest common denominator of two or more fractions
with pronumerals in the denominator.
I can add and subtract fractions involving algebraic expressions.
2.4 I can cancel factors, including algebraic expressions, that are common to the
numerator and denominator of fractions.
I can multiply and divide fractions involving algebraic expression and simplify
the result.
2.5 I can solve one and two-step equations using inverse operations.
I can solve equations with pronumerals on both sides of the equals sign.
2.6 I can expand brackets and collect like terms in order to solve a multi-step
equation.
I can solve equations involving algebraic fractions by determining the LCM of

the denominators.
2.7 I can solve a linear literal equation, which include multiple variables, by
changing the subject of an equation to a particular pronumeral.
I can determine any restrictions on a variable in an equation due to limitations

imposed by the equation or context of the question.
2.8.3 Project
Checking for data entry errors
When entering numbers into an electronic device, or even writing numbers

down, errors frequently occur. A common type of error is a transposition
error, which occurs when two digits are written in the reverse order. Take
the number 2869, for example. With this type of error, it could be written as
8269, 2689 or 2896. A common rule for checking these errors is as follows.
If the difference between the correct number and the recorded number is
a multiple of 9, a transposition error has occurred.
We can use algebraic expressions to check this rule. Let the digit in the
thousands position be represented by a, the digit in the hundreds position
by b, the digit in the tens position by c and the digit in the ones position by d. So the real number can be
represented as 1000a + 100b + 10c + d.

1. If the digits in the ones position and the tens position were written in the
reverse order, the number would be 1000a + 100b + 10d + c. The
difference between the correct number and the incorrect one would then
be: 1000a + 100b + 10c + d − (1000a + 100b + 10d + c).
a. Simplify this expression.
b. Is the expression a multiple of 9? Explain.
2. If a transposition error had occurred in the tens and hundreds position, the
incorrect number would be 1000a + 100c + 10b + d. Perform the
procedure shown in question 1 to determine whether the difference
between the correct number and the incorrect one is a multiple of 9.
3. Consider, lastly, a transposition error in the thousands and hundreds
positions. Is the difference between the two numbers a multiple of 9?
4. Comment on the checking rule for transposition errors.
Resources
Resourceseses

Fluency
1
1. MC Given E = mv2 where m = 0.2 and v = 0.5, the value of E is:
2
A. 0.000625 B. 0.1 C. 0.005 D. 0.025 E. 0.0025
2. MC The expression −6d + 3r − 4d − r simplifies to:

A. 2d + 2r B. −10d + 2r C. −10d − 4r D. 2d + 4r E. −8dr
3. MC The expression 5 (2f + 3) + 6 (4f − 7) simplifies to:

A. 34f + 2 B. 34f − 4 C. 34f − 27 D. 34f + 14 E. 116f − 14
4. MC The expression 7 (b − 1) − (8 − b) simplifies to:

A. 8b − 9 B. 8b − 15 C. 6b − 9 D. 6b − 15 E. 8b + 1
5. MC If 14p − 23 = 6p − 7 then p equals:

A. −3 B. −1 C. 1 D. 2 E. 4
6. Simplify the following by collecting like terms.

a. 3c − 5 + 4c − 8 b. −3k + 12m − 4k − 9m
c. −d + 3c − 8c − 4d d. 6y2 + 2y + y2 − 7y
1
7. If A = bh, determine the value of A if b = 10 and h = 7.
2

8. For each of the following, complete the relationship to illustrate the stated law.
a. (a + 3b) + 6c = _________ Associative Law
b. 12a − 3b ≠ _____________ Commutative Law
c. 7p × _____ = ___________ Inverse Law
d. (x × 5y) × 7z = __________ Associative Law
e. 12p + 0 = ______________ Identity Law
f. (3p ÷ 5q) ÷ 7r = _________ Associative Law
g. 9d + 11e = _____________ Commutative Law
h. 4a ÷ b ≠ _______________ Commutative Law
9. Determine the value of the following expressions given the natural number values x = 12, y = 8 and
z = 4. Comment on whether the Closure Law holds for each of the expressions when the values
are substituted.
a. x × y b. z ÷ x c. y − x

5y y x+4 x+2 5 1 x − 1 2x − 5
a. − b. + c. − d. +
3 2 5 2 3x 5x x+3 x+2

y 32 20y 35z x+6 5 (x + 1)
a. × b. × c. ×
4 x 7x 16y (x + 1) (x + 3) x+6
25 30 xy 10x 2x 9x + 1
d. ÷ e. ÷ f. ÷
x x 5 y (x + 8) (x − 1) x + 8
12. Solve the following equations.

a. p − 20 = 68 b. s − 0.56 = 2.45 c. 3b = 48
r √
d. = −5 e. x = 12 f. 2 (x + 5) = −3
7
y
g. − 3 = 12 h. a2 = 36 i. 5 − k = −7
4
13. Solve the following.

a. 42 − 7b = 14 b. 12t − 11 = 4t + 5 c. 2 (4p − 3) = 2 (3p − 5)
14. Solve each of the following linear equations.

a. 5 (x − 2) + 3 (x + 2) = 0 b. 7 (5 − 2x) − 3 (1 − 3x) = 1
c. 5 (x + 1) − 6 (2x − 1) = 7 (x + 2) d. 8 (3x − 2) + (4x − 5) = 7x
e. 7 (2x − 5) − 4 (x + 20) = x − 5 f. 3 (x + 1) + 6 (x + 5) = 3x + 40
15. Solve each of the following equations.

x x 3 x x 1 x x
a. + = b. − =3 c. − = −
2 5 5 3 5 21 7 6
3 2 5 2x − 3 3 x + 3 2 (x + 2) 3 5 (x + 1)
d. + = e. − = f. = +
x 5 x 2 5 5 3 7 3
d
16. a. Make x the subject of bx + cx = .
2
4 3
b. Make r the subject of V = 𝜋r .
3

Problem solving
17. A production is in town and many parents are taking their children. An adult ticket costs $15 and a
child’s ticket costs $8. Every child must be accompanied by an adult and each adult can have no more
than 4 children with them. It costs the company $12 per adult and $3 per child to run the production.
There is a seating limit of 300 people and all tickets are sold.
a. Determine how much profit the company makes on each adult ticket and on each child’s ticket.
b. To maximise profit, the company should sell as many children’s tickets as possible. Of the 300
available seats, determine how many should be allocated to children if there is a maximum of 4
children per adult.
c. Using your answer to part b, determine how many adults would make up the remaining seats.
d. Construct an equation to represent the profit that the company can make depending on the number of
children and adults attending the production.
e. Substitute your values to calculate the maximum profit the company can make.
18. You are investigating prices for having business cards printed for your new games store. A local
printing company charges a flat rate of $250 for the materials used and $40 per hour for labour.
a. If h is the number of hours of labour required to print the cards, construct an equation for the cost of
the cards, C.
b. You have budgeted $1000 for the printing job. Determine the number of hours of labour you can
afford. Give your answer to the nearest minute.
c. The printer estimates that it can print 1000 cards per hour of labour. Evaluate the number of cards
that will be printed with your current budget.
d. An alternative to printing is photocopying. The company charges 15 cents per side for the first 10 000
cards and then 10 cents per side for the remaining cards. Justify which is the cheaper option for 18
750 single-sided cards and by how much.
19. A scientist tried to use a mathematical formula to predict people’s

moods based on the number of hours of sleep they had the previous
night. One formula that he used was what he called the ‘grumpy
formula’, g = 0.16(h − 8)2 , which was valid on a ‘grumpy scale’
from 0 to 10 (least grumpy to most grumpy).
a. Calculate the number of hours needed to not be grumpy.
b. Evaluate the grumpy factor for somebody who has had:
i. 4 hours of sleep
ii. 6 hours of sleep
iii. 10 hours of sleep.
c. Determine the number of hours of sleep required to be most grumpy.
Another scientist already had his own grumpy formula and claims that the scientist above stole his
idea and has just simplified it. The second scientist’s grumpy formula was
0.16 (h − 8) 2 (8 − h) 2h
g= × ÷
8−h 3 (h − 8) 3(h − 8)2
d. Write the second scientist’s formula in simplified form.

e. Are the second scientist’s claims justified? Explain.

eWorkbook 2.3 Individual pathway interactivity: Adding and subtracting

algebraic fractions (int-4567) ⃞
Download the workbook for this topic, which includes Adding and subtracting algebraic fractions (int-6113) ⃞
worksheets, a code puzzle and a project (ewbk-2028) ⃞ Lowest common denominators with pronumerals
(int-6114) ⃞
Solutions 2.4 Individual pathway interactivity: Multiplying and dividing
Download a copy of the fully worked solutions to every algebraic fractions (int-4568) ⃞
question in this topic (sol-0736) ⃞ Simplifying algebraic fractions (int-6115) ⃞
Multiplying algebraic fractions (int-6116) ⃞
Digital documents Dividing algebraic fractions (int-6117) ⃞
2.5 Individual pathway interactivity: Solving simple equations
2.2 SkillSHEET Like terms (doc-5183) ⃞ (int-4569) ⃞
SkillSHEET Collecting like terms (doc-5184) ⃞ Using algebra to solve problems (int-3805) ⃞
SkillSHEET Finding the highest common factor One-step equations (int-6118) ⃞
(doc-5185) ⃞ Two-step equations (int-6119) ⃞
SkillSHEET Order of operations (doc-5189) ⃞ 2.6 Individual pathway interactivity: Solving multi-step
2.3 SkillSHEET Addition and subtraction of fractions equations (int-4570) ⃞
(doc-5186) ⃞ Expanding brackets: Distributive Law (int-3774) ⃞
SkillSHEET Writing equivalent algebraic fractions with the 2.7 Individual pathway interactivity: Literal equations
lowest common denominator (doc-5190) ⃞ (int-4571) ⃞
2.4 SkillSHEET Multiplication of fractions (doc-5187) ⃞ Restrictions on variables (int-6120) ⃞
SkillSHEET Division of fractions (doc-5188) ⃞ 2.8 Crossword (int-2830) ⃞
SkillSHEET Simplification of algebraic fractions Sudoku puzzle (int-3589) ⃞
(doc-5191) ⃞
Video eLessons Teacher resources
2.2 Substituting values into expressions (eles-4696) ⃞ There are many resources available exclusively for teachers
Number laws (eles-4697) ⃞ online.
Substitution (eles-1892) ⃞
2.3 Algebraic fractions (eles-4698) ⃞
Pronumerals in the denominator (eles-4699) ⃞
2.4 Multiplying algebraic fractions (eles-4700) ⃞
Dividing algebraic fractions (eles-4701) ⃞
2.5 Solving equations using inverse operations (eles-4702) ⃞
Two-step equations (eles-4704) ⃞
Equations where the pronumeral appears on both
sides (eles-4705) ⃞
Solving linear equations (eles-1895) ⃞
Solving linear equations with pronumerals on both sides
(eles-1901) ⃞
2.6 Equations with multiple brackets (eles-4706) ⃞
Equations involving algebraic fractions (eles-4707) ⃞
Solving linear equations with algebraic fractions
(eles-1857) ⃞
2.7 Literal equations (eles-4708) ⃞
Restrictions on variables (eles-4709) ⃞
Interactivities
2.2 Individual pathway interactivity: Substitution (int-4566) ⃞
Substituting positive and negative numbers (int-3765) ⃞
Commutative Law (int-6109) ⃞
Associative Law (int-6110) ⃞
Identity Law (int-6111) ⃞
Inverse Law (int-6112) ⃞

Answers 19. a.
b.
(a + 2b) + 4c = a + (2b + 4c)
( ) (
x × 3y × 5c = x × 3y × 5c
)
Topic 2 Algebra and equations c. 2p ÷ q ≠ q ÷ 2p

d. 5d + q = q + 5d
20. a. 10; in this case, addition is closed on natural numbers.
1. 12
b. −4; in this case, subtraction is not closed on natural
2. c = ±5
numbers.
3. A
y c. 12; in this case, multiplication is closed on natural
4. numbers.
30 4
5. E d. ; in this case, division is not closed on natural numbers.
6. B 3
−2x e. −2; in this case, subtraction is not closed on natural
7. numbers.
3y
f. 4; in this case, division is closed on natural numbers.
8. 100 cm
1 21. a. 3z + 0 = 0 + 3z = 3z
9. 25 1 1
2 b. 2x × = × 2x = 1
10. x = −16 ( 2x ) 2x ( )
c. 4x ÷ 3y ÷ 5z ≠ 4x ÷ 3y ÷ 5z
11. a = −512
d. 3d − 4y ≠ 4y − 3d
12. $24 000
22. a. s = 71.875 metres b. t = 4 seconds
13. C 4
14. A 23. m =
5
15. D 24. 2.5 seconds
Exercise 2.2 Substitution Exercise 2.3 Adding and subtracting algebraic

1. a. 5 b. 2 c. 0 d. 6 fractions
26 5 49
2. a. −17 b. 3 c. 30 d. 12 1. a. or 1 b. c. 1
21 21 72
3. a. −12 b. 27 c. 30 d. −5 17 1 6 − 5x
2. a. b. c.
4. a. −11 b. −1 c. 1 99 35 30
5. a. 30 b. −24 c. 36 15x − 4 15 − 16x 15 − 2x
3. a. b. c.
6. a. −125 b. 1 c. 15 27 40 3x
5y 3y 13x 14x
7 1 1 4. a. b. − c. d.
7. a. b. − c. 12 40 12 9
12 12 12
1 1 3w y 89y 32x
d. 1 e. f. 48 5. a. b. − c. d.
3 576 28 5 35 15
7x + 17 7x + 30
8. a. 9 b. −9 c. 9 6. a. b.
d. 18 e. −18 f. 36 10 12
2x − 11 19x + 7
9. a. 9 b. −9 c. 9 c. d.
30 6
d. 18 e. −18 f. 36 5 5 38
7. a. b. c.
10. a. 17 b. 30 c. 8 8x 12x 21x
11. a. 4 b. 1.5 c. 68 8 7 9
8. a. b. c.
12. a. 46 b. 113.1 c. 5 3x 24x 20x
d. 624.6 37 51 1
9. a. b. c. −
100x 10x 6x
13. a. D b. C c. B
3x2 + 14x − 4 2x2 + 3x + 25
14. 3.9 cm 10. a. b.
(x + 4) (x − 2) (x + 5) (x − 1)
15. 65.45 cm3
2x2 + 6x − 10 4x2 − 17x − 3
16. 361 m c. d.
(2x + 1) (x − 2) (x + 1) (2x − 7)
17. a. −1; in this case, addition is closed on integers.
b. −1; in this case, subtraction is closed on integers. 7x2 + x 2x2 + 6x + 7
11. a. b.
c. 2; in this case, multiplication is closed on integers. (x + 7) (x − 5) (x + 1) (x + 4)
−x2 + 7x + 15 x−7
18. a. −1; in this case, division is closed on integers. c. d.
(x + 1) (x + 2) (x + 3) (x − 2)
b. −2; in this case, subtraction is closed on integers.
1
c. − ; in this case, division is not closed on integers.
2

x2 + 3x + 9 5 − 5x 5 8y2 32xy 2
12. a. b. = 9. a. b. c. d. y2
(x + 2) (3x − 1) (x − 1) (1 − x) x − 1 9 15 3
3x + 7 3x − 4 9 1
c. d. 10. a. b.
2 2 (3x − 7) (x + 3) (x + 2) (x − 9)
(x + 1) (x − 1)
21 (x − 3) 13
13. a. The student transcribed the denominator incorrectly and 11. a. b.
wrote (x + 2) instead of (x − 2) in line 2. x+5 9 (x − 4) (x + 1)
Also, the student forgot that multiplying a negative 2(x − 4)3 (x + 2)2
12. a. b.
number by a negative number gives a positive number. (x + 3)2 (x + 3) (x − 3)
Line 3 should have +3 in the numerator, not −1. They
15 12
didn’t multiply. 13. a. b.
(x + 2) x2
x2 − 5x + 3
b. (x − 4) (x − 5) 2x (x − 3)
(x − 1) (x − 2) 14. a. b.
−1 (x + 3) (x + 2)2 3 (x − 5)
14. a. −1 b.
(x − 2) (x − 5) (x + 4) (x + 6)
15. a. b.
9 4 (x − 4) x2
15. a. b.
(x − 3)2 (x − 2)3 16. Yes, because all of the fractions have the same denominator
2 2 and therefore can be added together.
4x + 17x + 17 7x − 20x + 4
16. a. b. 17. No, x and z are not common to all terms so cannot be
(x + 2) (x + 1) (x + 3) (x − 1) (x + 2) (x − 4)
cancelled down.
( )
4x2 + 17x + 19 2 2x2 − 9x + 25 18. a. −1
17. a. b. b. 4 − x considered to be the same as x − 4.
(x + 1) (x + 3) (x + 2) (x − 4) (x − 1) (x + 3)
19. 1
c. The lowest common denominator may not always be (x + 1)2
the product of the denominators. Each fraction must 20.
be multiplied by the correct multiple. x2 + 1
−1
18. a=4 21.
x
4 (x − 1)
19.
(x + 3) (x + 4) (x − 2) Exercise 2.5 Solving simple equations
2 (x − 1) 1. a. a = 24 b. k = 121 c. g = 2.9
20.
(x − 7) (x − 4) 2. a. r=3 b. h = 0.26 c. i = −2
8(x − 1) 1
21.
(x − 4) (x + 3) 3. a. t=5 b. q = c. x=0
6
Exercise 2.4 Multiplying and dividing algebraic 4. a. f = 12 b. i = −60 c. z = −7
fractions 1
4y 5. a. v=7 b. w = −5 c. k = 10
4x 3x 9x 3
1. a. b. c. d.
y y x 4y 5 1
6. a. a = 0.425 b. m = 16 c. y = 21
−5x 3w 6z 2z 8 2
2. a. b. c. d.
4y 2x 7x 7x 7. a. t = 100 b. y = ±17 c. q = 6.25
−3x 5 12z −x 16 3
3. a. b. c. d. 8. a. f = ±1.2 b. h= c. p=±
2y 24 x 6w 49 8
2 5 9 1 225 14 2
4. a. b. c. d. 9. a. g= b. j = ± c. a = ±1
3x − 2 x−3 2 − 6)
(x x+3 484 31 3
2x x+1 10. a. t = 25 b. x = ±6 c. m = 16
5. a. b. d. t = ±3 e. t = ±10 f. m = 25
(x + 1)2 2 (2x − 3)
a 35d 1
c. d. 11. a. x=8 b. x = −3 c. m=
10 (a + 3) 8 (d − 3) 8
9 3x 3 1
6. a. b. d. x= e. m = 0.008 f. w = 2
32x2 (x − 2) 10 (x − 1) 4 2
3 2 1 12. a. x = −1 b. x = −2 c. m = 1
7. a. b. c. d. 3 d. w = −512 e. t = 125 f. x = 2
5 9 3
1 35 5 13. a. a=4 b. b=6 c. i=3
8. a. b. or 5
25 6 6 1 2
14. a. f=9 b. q = 1 c. r=5
4y2 2y2 8 5
c. d.
7 25

5 4 1
15. a. s=4 b. t=9 c. a = −7 46. Dimensions are 10 m by 6 m.
6 5 2
47. Leon
√ is 14 and James is 34.
16. a. f = 40 b. g = 30 c. r = −10
10 3
17. a. m = 18 b. n = 28 c. p = 62.4 48. cm
3
1 2
18. a. x=1 b. y=9 c. m=4 Exercise 2.6 Solving multi-step equations
3 5
1 2 1 20 5
19. a. k = 1 b. n=5 c. c = 1 1. a. x= b. x=3
2 3 3 31 8
1 29
20. a. x = 10 b. x=4 c. x = −7 2. a. x = b. x = −7
5 36
3 8 10
21. a. k = 25 b. m = 16 c. p = −11 3. a. x = −2 b. x=
7 11 43
1 8 4. a. x=3 b. x = 12 c. x = −2
22. a. u = −4 b. x= c. v=3
8 11 3 11 2
5. a. x= b. x=− or x = −3
25 2 3 3
23. a. x = 26 b. m = −5 c. w =
3 2
c. x =
19 13
24. a. t=5 b. x=9 c. n = −
3 5 7
6. a. x=3 b. x= c. x=
25. a. B b. E c. C 7 18
26. a. h = −2 b. d = −1 c. p=7 5
7. a. x= b. x = 15
d. x = −11 17
2 10
27. a. t=5 b. v = −20 c. r = −3 c. x = −6 d. x=−
9 19
d. g = −0.8
1
28. a. x = −1 b. v=1 c. l=2 8. a. x = −1 b. x = −192
2
d. g = −2 4
c. x = d. x = 12
1 7
29. a. t=3 b. e = −23 c. k = −36 1
3 9. a. x = 3 b. x=3
1 4
d. f = −12 5
4 c. x = 52 d. x=1
8
30. a. x=2 b. b=5 c. w=2
5 31
1 10. a. x= b. x=1
31. a. f=7 b. t=3 c. r = 2 19 58
3 11 15
1 1 c. x = 4 d. x = −3
32. a. g = −1 b. h = −2 c. a=0 14 17
3 5 20 10
2 11. a. x = 5 b. x = −1
33. a. x = −1 b. c=2 c. r=2 43 13
3 2 9
1 c. x = 1 d. x = −4
34. a. k=1 b. y = −1 c. g=7 61 26
8 1
1 2 12. a. x = 1.5 b. x = −4
35. a. w=1 b. m= c. p=1 3
5 3 c. x=3 d. x=1
4 13. $180
36. a. x = −15 b. y = −4 c. t = 21
5 14. 60 hours
5 1 1 15. $12000
37. a. u = −2 b. f = 12 c. r=7
7 2 2 16. $60
38. a. d = −6 b. h = −12 c. x=1 17. a. 4, 9, 25, 49 b. 16, 81 c. 64
39. a. A b. D c. B 18. a. 6x − 450 = 1000
1
40. a. 6 cm b. 1.26 m b. 241 tickets. This means they need to sell 242 tickets to
3
41. a. 2.5 cm b. 41 cm qualify, as the number of tickets must be a
42. a. 5m b. 2.8 s whole number.
2 19. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions in
43. a. 314 cm b. 6.3 cm
44. 1.8 cm
20. 4
45. 6.2 cm
21. a = 3, b = 5
22. a = −8 and b = 15

Exercise 2.7 Literal equations b. i. p ≠ −q
bcd q (a − m)
1. a. x= b. x = a (d + bc) c. x = (m − n)2 ii. p =
a m−b
√ iii. m ≠ b
w ay ( )
2. a. x=± b. x= c. x = nw − m c. i. E > pc
ac b √
c ac E2 − (pc)2
3. a. x= −b b. x=
ab b + mc ii. m =
c2
ay mc − amd iii. c ≠ 0
c. x= d. x=
m+b d 13. a. No restriction, but all values must be positive for the
V P − 2l trapezium to exist.
4. a. l= b. b=
bh 2 2A
√ b. b= −a
2A h
c. h= d. a = ± c2 − b2 c. b = 11 cm
b
√ 14. a. No restrictions, all values must be positive for a cylinder
5 A
5. a. C= (F − 32) b. r=± to exist.
√
9 𝜋
V
v−u 100I b. r=
c. a= d. N= 𝜋h
t PR c. h ≠ 0, no new restrictions
2E 15. a. T and l must be greater c. The restrictions still
e. m= 2
v than zero. hold.
√
2E v2 − u2 T 2g d. 2.2 m
6. a. v=± b. a= b. l=
m 2s 4𝜋 2
√ xb 5
c. u = ± v2 − 2as d. a = 16. a. C= (F − 32)
b−x 9
x (m + n) − mx2 b. −40°
e. x1 =
n Fr2
17. a. m1 = b. 7.41 × 1022 kg
7. a. a = ±12 b. h=7 c. C = 30 Gm2
8. a. a = 9.8 b. s = ±13 c. u = ±11 ja
18. Distance Jing Jing has ridden is kilometres.
9. a. a = 25 b. x2 = 13 j−p
10. a. i. No restrictions on x
√ Project
ii. x=± y−4
1. a. 9 (c − d)
iii. y≥4
b. Yes, this is a multiple of 9 as the number that multiples
b. i. x≠3 the brackets is 9.
2
ii. x= +3 2. 90 (b − c) ; 90 is a multiple of 9 so the difference between the
y correct and incorrect one is a multiple of 9.
iii. y≠0
3. 900 (a − b); again 900 is a multiple of 9.
c. i. No restrictions
v−u 4. If two adjacent digits are transposed, the difference between
ii. t= the correct number and the transposed number is a multiple
a
iii. a≠0 of 9.
11. a. i. c≥0
√ Exercise 2.8 Review questions
ii. b = ± c2 − a2
1. D
iii. |c| ≥ |a|
2. B
b. i. r≠1
s−a 3. C
ii. r=
s 4. B
iii. s≠0 5. D
c. i. p ≠ −q 7c − 13 −7k + 3m
( ) 6. a. b.
m p + q − qa c. −5c − 5d d. 7y2 − 5y
ii. b=
p 7. 35
iii. p≠0 8. a. (a + 3b) + 6c = a + (3b + 6c)
12. a. i. a ≠ 0, b2 ≥ 4ac b. 12a − 3b ≠ 3b − 12a
b2 − (2ax + b)2 1 1
ii. c= or c = −ax2 − bx c. 7p × = × 7p = 1
4a 7p 7p
iii. No new restrictions ( ) ( )
d. x × 5y × 7z = x × 5y × 7z

e. 12p + 0 = 0 + 12p = 12p
( ) ( )
f. 3p ÷ 5q ÷ 7r ≠ 3p ÷ 5q ÷ 7r
g. 9d + 11e = 11e + 9d
h. 4a ÷ b ≠ b ÷ 4a
9. a. 96; in this case, multiplication is closed on natural
numbers.
1
b. ; in this case, division is not closed on natural numbers.
3
c. −4; in this case, subtraction is not closed on natural
numbers.
7y 7x + 18
10. a. b.
6 10
22 3x2 + 2x − 17
c. d.
15x (x + 3) (x + 2)
8y 25z 5
11. a. b. c.
x 4x x+3
5 y2 2x
d. e. f.
6 50 (x − 1) (9x + 1)
12. a. p = 88 b. s = 3.01 c. b = 16
13
d. r = −35 e. x = 144 f. x = −
2
g. y = 60 h. a = ±6 i. k = 12
13. a. b=4 b. t=2 c. p = −2

1 1 3
14. a. x = b. x=6 c. x=−
2 5 14
2 1
d. x=1 e. x = 12 f. x = 1
9 6
6 1
15. a. x= b. x = 22 c. x=2
7 2
3 16
d. x=5 e. x=3 f. x=−
8 21
√
d 3 3V
16. a. x= b. r=
2 (b + c) 4𝜋
17. a. $3 per adult ticket; $5 per child’s ticket.
b. 240
c. 60
d. P = 3a + 5c, where a = number of adults and
c = number of children.
e. $1380
18. a. C = 250 + 40h
b. 18 hours 45 minutes
c. 18 750
d. Printing is the cheaper option by $1375.
19. a. 8 hours
b. i. 2.56
ii. 0.64
0.64
iii.
c.0.094 hours or 15.9 hours
0.16(h − 8)2
d. g =
h
e. No, the formula is not the same.

3 Coordinate geometry
LEARNING SEQUENCE
3.1 Overview ................................................................................................................................................................. 150
3.2 Sketching linear graphs .................................................................................................................................... 152
3.3 Determining linear equations .......................................................................................................................... 163
3.4 Parallel and perpendicular lines ..................................................................................................................... 173
3.5 The distance between two points ................................................................................................................. 178
3.6 The midpoint of a line segment ......................................................................................................................182
3.7 Applications and collinearity ........................................................................................................................... 187
3.8 Review ..................................................................................................................................................................... 194
3.1 Overview
Why learn this?
Coordinate geometry in many ways represents the foundation upon
which your understanding in maths will be built upon over the final
years of your secondary schooling. The principles you learn in this
topic will be applied to a variety of contexts you encounter as you learn
about higher order polynomial functions and conic sections. Indeed,
skills presented in this subject, such as determining the midpoint
and length of a line segment, are regularly applicable to the study of
differential calculus, which forms a large part of your study in the final
years of high-school mathematics.
In the world beyond education, understanding the principles of
coordinate geometry will help you model real-world data and
behaviour, interpret the nature of market trends and population trends,
and determine points of market equilibrium in the finance sector. A
knowledge of algebra, linear quadratic and simultaneous equations is
used to create the computer games. Establishing a relationship between
variables is also fundamental to the study of science, and the principles
learned in this topic will help inform your understanding of the world
around us!
Where to get help

Fully worked
solutions
eLessons
to every
question
Digital
eWorkbook
documents

1. MC Lines that have the same gradient are:
A. parallel B. collinear C. perpendicular
D. of same lengths E. of different lengths
2. Determine the x-intercept of the line 6x + y − 3 = 0.
3. Sammy has $35 credit from an App Store. She only buys apps that cost $2.50 each.
Calculate the number of apps Sammy can buy and still have $27.50 credit.
4. Determine the equation of the line, in the form y = mx + c.

y
5
4
3
2
1
x
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5
–1
–2
–3
–4
–5
5. MC The distance between the points (−3a, 6b) and (a, 2b) is:
√ √ √ √ √
A. 4a2 + 16b2 B. 2a2 + 4b2 C. 2a2 + 8b2 D. 4 a2 + b2 E. 16 a2 + b2
6. MC Identify the equation of the vertical line passing through the point (−2, 3).
A. y = −2 B. x = −2 C. y = 3 D. x = 3 E. x = 2
7. The distance between the points (−3, 10) and (6, a) is 15 units. Determine the possible values of a.
Write the lowest value first.
8. MC The midpoint of a line segment AB is (3, −2). If the coordinates of A are (10, 7), the coordinates
of B are:
( ) ( ) ( )
13 5 7 9 7 5
A. , B. , C. , D. (5, 9) E. (−4, 11)
2 2 2 2 2 2
9. MC The equation of the straight line, in the form y = mx + c, passing through the point (3, −1) with a
gradient of −2 is:
A. y = −2x + 2 B. y = −2x + 5 C. y = −2x + 3 D. y = −2x − 1 E. y = 3x − 1
( )
1
10. MC The equation of the straight line, in the form by + ax = k, that passes through 2, − and
( ) 2
3
−6, is:
2
A. 2y − 4x = 15 B. 2y + 4x = 7 C. 2y + 8x = 7 D. 2y + 8x = 15 E. 2y − 8x = 15
TOPIC 3 Coordinate geometry 151

11. ABCD is a parallelogram. The coordinates are A(3, 8), B(6, 1), C(4, −1) and D(1, a).
Calculate the value of a.
12. Determine the equation of the straight line, in the form y = mx + c, that passes through the midpoint of
A(0.5, −3) and B(−2.5, 7) and has a gradient of −2.
13. If 2y + 5x = 7 is perpendicular to 3y + 12 = nx, determine the value of n.
14. MC A is the point (−3, 2) and B is the point (7, −4).

The equation of the perpendicular bisector of AB, in the form y = mx + c, is:
5 13 5 11 3 1 3 7 3 11
A. y = x − B. y = x + C. y = − x + D. y = − x + E. y = − x +
3 3 3 3 5 5 5 5 5 5
15. Write the equation of the straight line 8(y − 2) = −2(x + 3) in the standard form y = mx + c.
3.2 Sketching linear graphs

LEARNING INTENTION
• plot points on a graph using a rule and a table of values
• sketch linear graphs by determining the x and y intercept
• sketch the graphs of horizontal and vertical lines
• model linear graphs from a worded context.
3.2.1 Plotting linear graphs

eles-4736
• If a series of points (x, y) is plotted using the rule y = mx + c, then the points y
10 y = 2x + 5
always lie in a straight line whose gradient equals m and whose y-intercept
equals c. Quadrant 2 Quadrant 1
5
• The rule y = mx + c is called the equation of a straight line written in
‘gradient–intercept’ form.
• To plot a linear graph, complete a table of values to determine the points. 0 x
–10 –5 5 10
Quadrant 3 Quadrant 4
–5
–10
WORKED EXAMPLE 1 Plotting linear graphs
Plot the linear graph defined by the rule y = 2x − 5 for the x-values −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2 and 3.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1. Create a table of values using the given
x −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
x-values.
y

2. Determine the corresponding y-values by
x −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
substituting each x-value into the rule.
y −11 −9 −7 −5 −3 −1 1
3. Plot the points on a Cartesian plane and rule a y

straight line through them. Since the x-values 2 (3, 1)
1
have been specified, the line should only be
drawn between the x-values of −3 and 3. –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3
x
4. Label the graph. –1 (2, –1)
–2
–3 (1, –3)
–4
–5
(0, –5)
–6
(–1, –7) –7
–8
(–2, –9)
–9
y = 2x – 5
–10
–11
(–3, –11)
–12

1. In a new document, on a 1. On the Spreadsheet
Lists & Spreadsheet page, screen, enter the x-values
label column A as x and into column A.
label column B as y. Then in cell B1, complete
Enter the x-values into the entry line as:
column A. = 2A1 − 5
Then in cell B1, complete Then press EXE.
the entry line as:
= 2a1 − 5
Then press ENTER.
2. Highlight cell B1, then 2. Highlight cell B1 to B7,

press CTRL then click then tap:
(the button in the middle • Edit
of the direction arrows). • Fill
Press the down arrow • Fill Range
until you reach cell • OK
B7 then press ENTER.

3. Open a Data & Statistics 3. Highlight cells A1 to B7,
page. then tap:
Press TAB to locate the • Graph
label of the horizontal • Scatter
axis and select the
variable x.
Press TAB again to
locate the label of the
vertical axis and select the
variable y. The graph will
be plotted as shown.
4. To join the dots with a 4. To join the dots with a

line, press: line, tap:
• MENU • Calc
• 2: Plot Properties • Regression
• 1: Connect Data Points • Linear Reg
Note that the equation is
given, if required.
3.2.2 Sketching linear graphs

eles-4737
Sketching a straight line using the x- and y-intercepts
• We only need two points in order to sketch a straight-line (linear) graph.
• Since we need to label all critical points, it is most efficient to plot these graphs by determining the x- and
y-intercepts.
• We determine the x-intercept by substituting y = 0.
• We determine the y-intercept by substituting x = 0.
Sketching a straight-line graph

• The x- and y-intercepts need to be labelled.
• The equation needs to be labelled.
y = mx + c Let y = 0 to determine
the x-intercept
(x, 0)
(0, y) x
Let x = 0 to determine
the y-intercept

WORKED EXAMPLE 2 Sketching linear graphs
Sketch graphs of the following linear equations.

a. 2x + y = 6 b. y = −3x − 12
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a. 1. Write the equation. a. 2x + y = 6
2. Determine the x-intercept by substituting y = 0. x-intercept: when y = 0,

2x + 0 = 6
2x = 6
x=3
x-intercept is (3, 0).
3. Determine the y-intercept by substituting x = 0. y-intercept: when x = 0,
2(0) + y = 6
y=6
y-intercept is (0, 6).
4. Plot both points and rule the line. y
5. Label the graph.
2x + y = 6
(0, 6)
0 (3, 0) x
b. 1. Write the equation. b. y = −3x − 12
2. Determine the x-intercept by substituting y = 0 x-intercept: when y = 0,

i. Add 12 to both sides of the equation. −3x − 12 = 0
ii. Divide both sides of the equation by −3. −3x = 12
x = −4
x-intercept is (−4, 0).
3. Determine the y-intercept. The equation is in the c = −12
form y = mx + c, so compare this with our equation y-intercept is (0, −12).
to determine the y-intercept, c.
4. Plot both points and rule the line. y
5. Label the graph.
(–4, 0)
0 x
(0, –12) y = –3x – 12

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Sketching a straight line using the gradient–intercept method

• This method is often used if the equation is in the form y = mx + c, where m represents the gradient (slope)
of the straight line, and c represents the y-intercept.
• The steps below outline how to use the gradient–intercept method to sketch a linear graph.
Step 1: Plot a point at the y-intercept.
rise
Step 2: Write the gradient in the form m = . (To write a whole number as a fraction, place it over a
run
denominator of 1.)
Step 3: Starting from the y-intercept, move up the number of units suggested by the rise (move down if
the gradient is negative).
Step 4: Move to the right the number of units suggested by the run and plot the second point.
Step 5: Rule a straight line through the two points.
WORKED EXAMPLE 3 Sketching more linear graphs
2
Sketch the graph of y = x − 3 using the gradient–intercept method.
5
THINK WRITE
2
1. Write the equation of the line. y= x−3
5
2. Identify the value of c (that is, the y-intercept) and plot c = −3, so y-intercept: (0, −3)
this point.
2
3. Write the gradient, m, as a fraction. m=
5
rise
4. m = , note the rise and run. So rise = 2; run = 5.
run
5. Starting from the y-intercept at (0, −3), move 2 units up y
and 5 units to the right to find the second point (5, −1). 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 x
We have still not found the x-intercept. –1
–2 (5, –1)
–3 (0, –3)
–4
Sketching linear graphs of the form y = mx

eles-4738 • Graphs given by y = mx pass through the origin (0, 0), since c = 0.
• A second point may be determined using the rule y = mx by substituting a value for x to determine y.
WORKED EXAMPLE 4 Sketching linear graphs of the form y = mx
Sketch the graph of y = 3x.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1. Write the equation. y = 3x
2. Determine the x- and y-intercepts. x-intercept: when y = 0,
Note: By recognising the form of this linear 0 = 3x
equation, y = mx you can simply state that the x=0
graph passes through the origin, (0, 0). y-intercept: (0, 0)
Both the x- and y-intercepts are at (0, 0).

3. Determine another point to plot by calculating When x = 1, y = 3×1

the y-value when x = 1. =3
Another point on the line is (1, 3).
4. Plot the two points (0, 0) and (1, 3) and rule a
straight line through them.
5. Label the graph.
(0, 0)
3.2.3 Sketching linear graphs of the form y = c and x = a

eles-4739
• The line y = c is parallel to the x-axis, having a gradient of zero and a y-intercept of c.
• The line x = a is parallel to the y-axis and has an undefined (infinite) gradient.
Horizontal and vertical lines

• Horizontal lines are in the form y = c.
• Vertical lines are in the form x = a.
y y
x=a
y=c
(0, c)
(a, 0)
0 x 0 x
WORKED EXAMPLE 5 Sketching graphs of the form y = c and x = a
Sketch graphs of the following linear equations.

a. y = −3 b. x = 4
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a. 1. Write the equation. a. y = −3
2. The y-intercept is −3. As x does not appear in the equation, the y-intercept = −3, (0, −3)
line is parallel to the x-axis, such that all points on the line have
a y-coordinate equal to −3. That is, this line is the set of points
(x, −3) where x is an element of the set of real numbers.

y
3. Sketch a horizontal line through (0, −3).
4. Label the graph.

0 x
(0, –3) y = –3
b. 1. Write the equation. b. x = 4

2. The x-intercept is 4. As y does not appear in the equation, the x-intercept = 4, (4, 0)
line is parallel to the y-axis, such that all points on the line have
an x-coordinate equal to 4. That is, this line is the set of points
(4, y) where y is an element of the set of real numbers.
3. Sketch a vertical line through (4, 0). y
x=4
4. Label the graph.
0 (4, 0) x
3.2.4 Using linear graphs to model real-life contexts

eles-5359
• If a real-life situation involves a constant increase or decrease at regular intervals, then it can be modelled
by a linear equation. Examples include water being poured from a tap into a container at a constant rate, or
money being deposited into a savings account at regular intervals.
• To model a linear situation, we first need to determine which of the two given variables is the independent
variable and which is the dependent variable.
• With numerical bivariate data, we often see the independent variable being referred to as the explanatory
variable. Likewise, another way to reference the dependent variable is to call it the response variable.
• The independent variable does not depend on the value of the other variable, whereas the dependent
variable takes its value depending on (or in response to) the value of the other variable. When plotting
a graph of a linear model, the independent variable will be on the x-axis (horizontal) and the dependent
variable will be on the y-axis (vertical).
• Real-life examples identifying the variables are shown in the following table.
Situation Independent variable Dependent variable

(explanatory variable) (response variable)
Money being deposited into a savings Time Money in account
account at regular intervals
The age of a person in years and their Age in years Height in cm
height in cm
The temperature at a snow resort and the Temperature Depth of snow
depth of the snow
The length of Pinocchio’s nose and the Number of lies Pinocchio Length of Pinocchio’s nose
number of lies he told told
The number of workers building a house Number of workers Time
and the time taken to complete the project
• Note that if time is one of the variables, it will usually be the independent variable. The final example
above is a rare case of time being the dependent variable. Also, some of the above cases can’t be modelled
by linear graphs, as the increases or decreases aren’t necessarily happening at constant rates.

WORKED EXAMPLE 6 Using linear graphs to model real-life situations
Water is leaking from a bucket at a constant rate. After 1 minute there is 45 litres in the bucket; after
3 minutes there is 35 litres in the bucket; after 5 minutes there is 25 litres in the bucket; and after
7 minutes there is 15 litres in the bucket.
a. Define two variables to represent the given information.
b. Determine which variable is the explanatory variable and which is the response variable.
c. Represent the given information in a table of values.
d. Plot a graph to represent how the amount of water in the bucket is changing.
e. Use your graph to determine how much water was in the bucket at the start and how long it will take
for the bucket to be empty.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a. Determine which two values change a. The two variables are ‘time’ and ‘amount of water in
in the relationship given. bucket’.
b. The response variable takes its b. Explanatory variable = time
value in response to the value of Response variable = amount of water in bucket
the explanatory variable.
In this situation the amount of water
depends on the amount of time
elapsed, not the other way round.
c. The explanatory variable should c.
Time (minutes) 1 3 5 7
appear in the top row of the table of
Amount of water in
values, with the response variable 45 35 25 15
bucket (litres)
appearing in the second row.
d. The values in the top row of the d.

Amount of water in bucket (litres)
table represent the values on the 50

45
horizontal axis, and the values in the
40
bottom row of the table represent 35
the values on the vertical axis. As 30
the value for time can’t be negative 25
and there can’t be a negative amount 20
15
of water in the bucket, only the first
10
quadrant needs to be drawn for the 5
graph. Plot the 4 points and rule a
0 x
straight line through them. Extend 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time (minutes)
the graph to meet the vertical and
horizontal axes.
e. The amount of water in the bucket e. There was 50 litres of water in the bucket at the start,
at the start is the value at which the and it will take 10 minutes for the bucket to be empty.
line meets the vertical axis, and
the time taken for the bucket to be
empty is the value at which the line
meets the horizontal axis.
Note: Determining the time when
the bucket will be empty is an
example of extrapolation as this
time is determined by extending
the graph beyond the known data
points.

DISCUSSION
What types of straight lines have an x- and y-intercept of the same value?
Resources
Resourceseses
Digital documents SkillSHEET Describing the gradient of a line (doc-5197)
SkillSHEET Plotting a line using a table of values (doc-5198)
SkillSHEET Stating the y-intercept from a graph (doc-5199)
SkillSHEET Solving linear equations that arise when determining x- and y-intercepts (doc-5200)
SkillSHEET Using Pythagoras’ theorem (doc-5201)
SkillSHEET Substitution into a linear rule (doc-5202)
SkillSHEET Transposing linear equations to standard form (doc-5203)
Video eLessons Sketching linear graphs (eles-1919)
Sketching linear graphs using the gradient-intercept method (eles-1920)
Interactivities Individual pathway interactivity: Sketching graphs (int-4572)
Plottling linear graphs (int-3834)
The gradient-intercept method (int-3839)
The intercept method (int-3840)
Equations of straight lines (int-6485)
Exercise 3.2 Sketching linear graphs

Individual pathways
1, 4, 7, 10, 13, 16, 21, 24 2, 5, 8, 11, 14, 17, 19, 22, 25 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, 20, 23, 26
Fluency
1. WE1 Generate a table of values and then plot the linear graphs defined by the following rules for the given
range of x-values.
Rule x-values
a. y = 10x + 25 −5, −4, −3, −2, −1, 0, 1
b. y = 5x − 12 −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4
c. y = −0.5x + 10 −6, −4, −2, 0, 2, 4
2. Generate a table of values and then plot the linear graphs defined by the following rules for the given range
of x-values.
Rule x-values
a. y = 100x − 240 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
b. y = −5x + 3 −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2
c. y = 7 − 4x −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2

3. Plot the linear graphs defined by the following rules for the given range of x-values.
Rule x-values
a. y = −3x + 2
x −6 −4 −2 0 2 4 6
y
b. y = −x + 3
x −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
y
c. y = −2x + 3
x −6 −4 −2 0 2 4 6
y
WE2 For questions 4 to 6, sketch graphs of the following linear equations by determining the x- and
y-intercepts.
4. a. 5x − 3y = 10 b. 5x + 3y = 10 c. −5x + 3y = 10 d. −5x − 3y = 10 e. 2x − 8y = 20
5. a. 4x + 4y = 40 b. −x + 6y = 120 c. −2x + 8y = −20

d. 10x + 30y = −150 e. 5x + 30y = −150
1
6. a. −9x + 4y = 36 b. 6x − 4y = −24 c. y = 2x − 10 d. y = −5x + 20 e. y = − x − 4
2
WE3 For questions 7 to 9, sketch graphs of the following using the gradient–intercept method.
7. a. y = 4x + 1 b. y = 3x − 7 c. y = −2x + 3
1 2
8. a. y = −5x − 4 b. y = x−2 c. y = − x + 3
2 7
9. a. y = 0.6x + 0.5 b. y = 8x c. y = x − 7
WE4 For questions 10 to 12, sketch the graphs of the following linear equations on the same set of axes.
1
10. a. y = 2x b. y= x c. y = −2x
2
1 5
11. a. y = 5x b. y= x c. y=− x
3 2
2 3
12. a. y= x b. y = −3x c. y=− x
3 2
WE5 For questions 13 to 15, sketch the graphs of the following linear equations.
13. a. y = 10 b. x = −10 c. x = 0
14. a. y = −10 b. y = 100 c. x = −100
15. a. x = 10 b. y = 0 c. y = −12
Understanding
For questions 16 to 18, transpose each of the equations to standard form (that is, y = mx + c). State the x- and
y-intercept for each.
16. a. 5(y + 2) = 4(x + 3) b. 5(y − 2) = 4(x − 3) c. 2(y + 3) = 3(x + 2)

17. a. 10(y − 20) = 40(x − 2) b. 4(y + 2) = −4(x + 2) c. 2(y − 2) = −(x + 5)
18. a. −5(y + 1) = 4(x − 4) b. 5(y + 2.5) = 2(x − 3.5) c. 2.5(y − 2) = −6.5(x − 1)
19. Determine the x- and y-intercepts of the following lines.

a. −y = 8 − 4x b. 6x − y + 3 = 0 c. 2y − 10x = 50
20. Explain why the gradient of a horizontal line is equal to zero and the gradient of a vertical line is undefined.
Reasoning
21. WE6 Your friend loves to download music. She earns $50 and spends
some of it buying music online at $1.75 per song. She saves the
remainder. Her saving is given by the function y = 50 − 1.75x.
a. Determine which variable is the explanatory variable and which is
the response variable.
b. Sketch the function.
c. Determine the number of songs your friend can buy and still
save $25.
x y 7
22. Determine whether − = is the equation of a straight line by
3 2 6
rearranging into an appropriate form and hence sketch the graph,
showing all relevant features.
23. Nikita works a part-time job and is interested in sketching a graph of her weekly earnings. She knows that in
a week where she does not work any hours, she will still earn $25.00 for being ‘on call’. On top of this initial
payment, Nikita earns $20.00 per hour for her regular work. Nikita can work a maximum of 8 hours per day
as her employer is unwilling to pay her overtime.
a. Write a linear equation that represents the amount of money Nikita could earn in a week.
(Hint: You might want to consider the ‘on call’ amount as an amount of money earned for zero
hours worked.)
b. Sketch a graph of Nikita’s weekly potential earnings.
c. Determine the maximum amount of money that Nikita can earn in a single week.
Problem solving
24. The temperature in a room is rising at a constant rate. Initially (when time equals zero), the temperature
of the room is 15 °C. After 1 hour, the temperature of the room has risen to 18 °C. After 3 hours, the
temperature has risen to 24 °C.
a. Using the variables t to represent the time in hours and T to represent the temperature of the room,
identify the response and the explanatory variable in this linear relationship.
b. i. Construct a table of values to represent this information.
ii. Plot this relationship on a suitable axis.
c. If the maximum temperature of the room was recorded to be 30 °C, evaluate after how many hours was
this recording taken.
25. Water is flowing from a tank at a constant rate. The equation relating the volume of water in the tank,
V litres , to the time the water has been flowing from the tank, t minutes, is given by V = 80 − 4t, t ≥ 0.
a. Determine which variable is the explanatory variable and which is the response variable.
b. Calculate how much water is in the tank initially.
c. Explain why it is important that t ≥ 0.
d. Determine the rate the water is flowing from the tank.
e. Determine how long it takes for the tank to empty.
f. Sketch the graph of V versus t.

26. A straight line has a general equation defined by y = mx + c. This line intersects the lines defined by the rules
y = 7 and x = 3. The lines y = mx + c and y = 7 have the same y-intercept while y = mx + c and x = 3 have the
same x-intercept.
a. On the one set of axes, sketch all three graphs.
b. Determine the y-axis intercept for y = mx + c.
c. Determine the gradient for y = mx + c.
d. MC The equation of the line defined by y = mx + c is:
A. x + y = 3 B. 7x + 3y = 21 C. 3x + 7y = 21 D. x + y = 7 E. 7x + 3y = 7
3.3 Determining linear equations

LEARNING INTENTION
• determine the equation of a straight line when given its graph
• determine the equation of a straight line when given the gradient and the y-intercept
• determine the equation of a straight line passing through two points
• formulate the equation of a straight line from a written context.
3.3.1 Determining a linear equation given two points

eles-4741
• The gradient of a straight line can be calculated from the coordinates of two points (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ) that
lie on the line.
• The equation of the straight line can then be found in the form y = mx + c, where c is the y-intercept.
Gradient of a straight line
y B
y2
(x2, y2)
rise = y2 – y1
A
y1 (x1, y1)
run = x2 – x1
x1 x2 x
y-intercept
• The equation of a straight line is given by y = mx + c.

• m is the value of the gradient and c is the value of the y-intercept.
rise y2 − y1
Gradient = m = =
run x2 − x1

WORKED EXAMPLE 7 Determining equations with a known y-intercept
Determine the equation of the straight line shown in the graph.

y
0 x
3
THINK WRITE
1. There are two points given on the straight line: (3, 0), (0, 6)
the x-intercept (3, 0) and the y-intercept (0, 6).
rise
2. Calculate the gradient of the line by applying the m=
rise y2 − y1 run
formula m = = , where y2 − y1
run x2 − x1 =
(x1 , y1 ) = (3, 0) and (x2 , y2 ) = (0, 6). x2 − x1
6−0
=
0−3
6
=
−3
= −2
The gradient m = −2 .
3. The graph has a y-intercept of 6, so c = 6. y = mx + c

Substitute m = −2, and c = 6 into y = mx + c to y = −2x + 6
determine the equation.
WORKED EXAMPLE 8 Determining equations that pass through the origin
Determine the equation of the straight line shown in the graph.

y
1 (2, 1)
0 x
2
THINK WRITE
1. There are two points given on the straight line: the (0, 0), (2, 1)
x- and y-intercept (0, 0) and another point (2, 1).

rise
2. Calculate the gradient of the line by applying the m=
rise y2 − y1 run
formula m = = , where y2 − y1
run x2 − x1 =
(x1 , y1 ) = (0, 0) and (x2 , y2 ) = (2, 1). x2 − x1
1−0
=
2−0
1
=
2
1
The gradient m = .
2
1
3. The y-intercept is 0, so c = 0. Substitute m = and y = mx + c
2
c = 0 into y = mx + c to determine the equation.
1
y = x+0
2
1
y= x
2
3.3.2 A simple formula

eles-5360
• The diagram shows a line of gradient m passing y
through the point (x1 , y1 ). y
(x, y)
• If (x, y) is any other point on the line, then:
rise (x1, y1)

m=
run y1
y − y1
m=
x − x1
m(x − x1 ) = y − y1
y − y1 = m(x − x1 )
• The formula y − y1 = m(x − x1 ) can be used to write

0 x1 x x
down the equation of a line, given the gradient and
the coordinates of one point.
The equation of a straight line

• Determining the equation of a straight line with
coordinates of one point (x1 , y1 ) and the gradient (m):
y − y1 = m(x − x1 )

WORKED EXAMPLE 9 Determining the equation using the gradient and the y-intercept
Determine the equation of the straight line with a gradient of 2 and a y-intercept of −5.
THINK WRITE
1. Write the gradient formula. y − y1 = m(x − x1 )
2. State the known variables. m = 2, (x1 , y1 ) = (0, −5)
3. Substitute the values into the formula. y − (−5) = 2(x − 0)
y + 5 = 2x
4. Rearrange the formula. y = 2x−5

Note: You could also solve this by using the
equation y = mx + c and substituting directly
for m and c.
WORKED EXAMPLE 10 Determining the equation using the gradient and another point
Determine the equation of the straight line with a gradient of 3 and passing through the point (5, −1).
THINK WRITE
1. Write out the gradient formula. y − y1 = m(x − x1 )
2. State the known variables. m = 3 , x1 = 5, y1 = −1
3. Substitute the values m = 3, x1 = 5, y1 = −1 y − (−1) = 3(x − 5)
into the formula. y + 1 = 3x − 15
4. Rearrange the formula to state the equation y = 3x − 16

of the line in the form y = mx + c.

In a new problem on a On the Main screen,
Calculator page, complete complete the entry lines as:
the entry lines as: solve (y = 3x + c, c)
y = m × x + c|m = 3 |x = 5|y = −1
solve (y = 3x + c, c)|x = 5 Press EXE.
and y = −1
y = 3x + c|c = −16
Press ENTER after each
entry.
The equation is y = 3x − 16.
The equation is y = 3x − 16.

WORKED EXAMPLE 11 Determining the equation of a line using two points
Determine the equation of the straight line passing through the points (−2, 5) and (1, −1).
THINK WRITE
1. Write out the gradient formula. y − y1 = m(x − x1 )
2. State the known variables. (x1 , y1 ) = (−2, 5)
(x2 , y2 ) = (1, −1)
y2 − y1
3. Substitute the values (x1 , y1 ) = (−2, 5) and m=
(x2 , y2 ) = (1, −1) to calculate the gradient from x2 − x1
the given points. −1 − 5
m=
1 − −2
−6
m=
3
= −2
4. Substitute the values m = −2, (x1 , y1 ) = (−2, 5) y − y1 = m(x − x1 )

into the formula for the equation of a straight line. y − 5 = −2(x − −2)
5. Rearrange the formula to state the equation of y − 5 = −2(x + 2)

the line in the form y = mx + c. y = −2x − 4 + 5
y = −2x + 1
WORKED EXAMPLE 12 Writing an equation in the form ax + by + c = 0
Determine the equation of the line with a gradient of −2 which passes through the point (3, −4). Write
the equation in general form, that is in the form ax + by + c = 0.
THINK WRITE
1. Use the formula y − y1 = m(x − x1 ). Write the m = −2, x1 = 3, y1 = −4

values of x1 , y1 , and m. y − y1 = m(x − x1 )
2. Substitute for x1 , y1 , and m into the equation. y − (−4) = −2(x − 3)

y + 4 = −2x + 6
3. Transpose the equation into the form y + 4 + 2x − 6 = 0

ax + by + c = 0. 2x + y − 2 = 0

WORKED EXAMPLE 13 Applying equations of lines to model real-life situations
A printer prints pages at a constant rate. It can print 165 pages in 3 minutes and 275 pages in
5 minutes.
a. Identify which variable is the explanatory variable (x) and which is the response variable (y).
b. Calculate the gradient of the equation and explain what this means in the context of the question.
c. Write an equation, in algebraic form, linking the explanatory and response variables.
d. Rewrite your equation in words.
e. Using the equation, determine how many pages can be printed in 11 minutes.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a. The value of the response variable is explained a. Explanatory variable = time
by the value of the explanatory variable. In this Response variable = number of pages
situation the number of pages is explained by (or
is in response to) the time elapsed, not the other
way round.
b. 1. Determine the two points given by the information b. (x1 , y1 ) = (3, 165)
in the question. (x2 , y2 ) = (5, 275)
y2 − y1
2. Substitute the values of these two points into the m=
formula to calculate the gradient. x2 − x1
275 − 165
=
5−3
110
=
2
= 55
3. The gradient states how much the response In the context of the question, this means that
variable increases for each increase of 1 unit in the each minute 55 pages are printed.
explanatory variable.
c. The graph travels through the origin, as the time c. y = mx
elapsed for the printer to print 0 pages is 0 seconds. y = 55x
Therefore, the equation will be in the form y = mx.
Substitute in the value of m.
d. Replace x and y in the equation with the d. Number of pages = 55 × time
explanatory and response variables.
e. 1. Substitute x = 11 into the equation. e. y = 55x
= 55 × 11
= 605
2. Write the answer in words. The printer can print 605 pages in 11 minutes.

DISCUSSION
What problems might you encounter when calculating the equation of a line whose graph is actually
parallel to one of the axes?
Resources
Resourceseses
Digital documents SkillSHEET Measuring the rise and the run (doc-5196)
SkillSHEET Determining the gradient given two points (doc-5204)
Video eLesson The equation of a straight line (eles-2313)
Interactivities Individual pathway interactivity: Determining the equation (int-4573)
Linear graphs (int-6484)
Exercise 3.3 Determining linear equations

Individual pathways
1, 4, 7, 10, 13, 16 2, 5, 8, 11, 14, 17 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18
Fluency
1. WE7 Determine the equation for each of the straight lines shown.
a. y b. y c. y d. y
5
4 12
0 x
4
0 x 0 x
−2 5
0 x
4 −8
2. Determine the equation for each of the straight lines shown.

a. y b. y c. y d. y
3
0 x
0 x −16 0 x
−6 −4 0 x −5
5
–
7
−5 −15

3. WE8 Determine the equation of each of the straight lines shown.
a. y b. y
(−4, 12) 12
6 (3, 6)
0 x
3
x
−4 0
c. y d. y
6
(−8, 6)
0 x
−4
(−4, −2) −2 0 x
−8
4. WE9 Determine the linear equation given the information in each case below.
a. Gradient = 3, y-intercept = 3 b. Gradient = −3, y-intercept = 4
c. Gradient = − 4, y-intercept = 2 d. Gradient = 4, y-intercept = 2
e. Gradient = −1, y-intercept = 4
5. Determine the linear equation given the information in each case below.
a. Gradient = 0.5, y-intercept = −4 b. Gradient = 5, y-intercept = 2.5
c. Gradient = −6, y-intercept = 3 d. Gradient = −2.5, y-intercept = 1.5
e. Gradient = 3.5, y-intercept = 6.5
6. WE10 For each of the following, determine the equation of the straight line with the given gradient and
passing through the given point.
a. Gradient = 5, point = (5, 6) b. Gradient = −5, point = (5, 6)
c. Gradient = −4, point = (−2, 7) d. Gradient = 4, point = (8, −2)
e. Gradient = 3, point = (10, −5)
7. For each of the following, determine the equation of the straight line with the given gradient and passing
through the given point.
a. Gradient = −3, point = (3, −3) b. Gradient = −2, point = (20, −10)
c. Gradient = 2, point = (2, −0.5) d. Gradient = 0.5, point = (6, −16)
e. Gradient = −0.5, point = (5, 3)
8. WE11 Determine the equation of the straight line that passes through each pair of points.
a. (1, 4) and (3, 6)
b. (0, −1) and (3, 5)
c. (−1, 4) and (3, 2)
9. Determine the equation of the straight line that passes through each pair of points.
a. (3, 2) and (−1, 0)
b. (−4, 6) and (2, −6)
c. (−3, −5) and (−1, −7)

Understanding
10. WE13 a. Determine which variable (time or cost) is the explanatory
variable and which is the response variable in the Supa-Bowl Save $$$ with Supa-Bowl!!!
NEW Ten-Pin Bowling Alley
advertisement on the right.
Shoe rental just $2 (fixed fee)
b. If t represents the time in hours and C represents cost ($), construct Rent a lane for ONLY $6/hour!
a table of values for 0−3 hours for the cost of playing ten-pin
bowling at the new alley.
c. Use your table of values to plot a graph of time versus cost. (Hint: Ensure your
time axis (horizontal axis) extends to 6 hours and your cost axis (vertical axis)
extends to $40.)
d. i. Identify the y-intercept.
ii. Describe what the y-intercept represents in terms of the cost.
e. Calculate the gradient and explain what this means in the context of the
question.
f. Write a linear equation to describe the relationship between cost and time.
g. Use your linear equation from part f to calculate the cost of a 5-hour
tournament.
h. Use your graph to check your answer to part g.
11. A local store has started renting out scooters to tour groups who pass through the
city. Groups are charged based on the number of people hiring the equipment. There is a flat charge of
$10.00 any time you book a day of rentals and it is known that the cost for 20 people to hire scooters is
$310.00. The cost for 40 people to hire scooters is $610.00.
a. Label the cost in dollars for hiring scooters for a day as the variable C. Let the number of people
hiring scooters be the variable n. Identify which is the response variable and which is the
explanatory variable.
b. Formulate a linear equation that models the cost of hiring scooters for a day.
c. Calculate how much it will cost to hire 30 scooters.
d. Sketch a graph of the cost function you created in part b.
12. The Robinsons’ water tank sprang a leak and has been losing water at a steady rate. Four days after the leak
occurred, the tank contained 552 L of water, and ten days later it held only 312 L.
a. Determine the rule linking the amount of water in the tank (w) and the number of days (t) since the
leak occurred.
b. Calculate how much water was in the tank initially.
c. If water loss continues at the same rate, determine when the tank will be empty.
Reasoning
13. When using the gradient to draw a line, does it matter if you rise before you run or run before you rise?
Explain your answer.
14. a. Using the graph shown, write a general formula for the gradient m in terms of y
x, y and c. y
(0, c)
b. Transpose your formula to make y the subject. Explain what you notice.
(x, y)
0 x x

15. The points A(x1 , y1 ), B(x2 , y2 ) and P(x, y) all lie on the same line. y
P is a general point that lies anywhere on the line. Given that the B(x2, y2)
gradient from A to P must be equal to the gradient from P to B,
show that an equation relating these three points is given by:
y2 − y1 P(x, y)
y − y1 = (x − x1 )
x2 − x1
A(x1, y1)
0 x
Problem solving
16. ABCD is a parallelogram with coordinates A(2, 1), B(3, 6) and y
C(7, 10).
C
a. Calculate the value of the gradient of the line AB.
b. Determine the equation of the line AB.
B
c. Calculate the value of the gradient of the line CD.
d. Determine the coordinates of the point D.
A
17. Show that the quadrilateral ABCD is a parallelogram. x
y
8
C(7, 8)
7
B(3, 6)
6
4
D(5, 4)
3
2
A(1, 2)
1
0 x
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
18. 2x + 3y = 5 and ax − 6y = b are the equations of two lines.

a. If both lines have the same y intercept, determine the value of b.
b. If both lines have the same gradient (but a different y intercept), determine the value of a.

3.4 Parallel and perpendicular lines
LEARNING INTENTION
• determine whether two lines are parallel, perpendicular or neither
• determine the equation of a straight line that is parallel to a given line
• determine the equation of a straight line that is perpendicular to a given line.
3.4.1 Parallel lines y

eles-4743
• Lines that have the same gradient are 15
parallel lines.
• The three lines (pink, green and blue) on 10 y=x+2
the graph shown all have a gradient of
1 and are parallel to each other. 5 y=x
• Parallel lines will never intersect with
on another. 0 x
–6 –4 –2 2 4 6
–5
y = x – 10
–10
–15
WORKED EXAMPLE 14 Proving that two lines are parallel
Show that AB is parallel to CD given that A has coordinates (−1, −5), B has coordinates (5, 7),
C has coordinates (−3, 1) and D has coordinates (4, 15).
THINK WRITE
1. Calculate the value of the gradient of AB by Let A(−1, −5) = (x1 , y1 ) and B(5, 7) = (x2 , y2 )
y − y1 y − y1
applying the formula m = 2 . Since m = 2
x2 − x1 x2 − x1
7 − (−5)
mAB =
5 − (−1)
12
=
6
=2
2. Calculate the value of the gradient of CD. Let C(−3, 1) = (x1 , y1 ) and D(4, 15) = (x2 , y2 )
15 − 1
mCD =
4 − (−3)
14
=
7
=2
3. Draw a conclusion. Since mAB = mCD = 2, then AB || CD.
(Note: || means ‘is parallel to’.)

3.4.2 Perpendicular lines
eles-4744
• Perpendicular lines are lines that intersect at right angles as seen in the diagram. y =−x + 2
2 6 y = 2x − 6
We can think of these lines as each having opposite gradients.
4
• More formally, we would state that perpendicular lines have gradients in which
2
one gradient is the negative reciprocal of the other.
• Mathematically, we denote this as m1 × m2 = −1. –6 –4 –2 0 2 4 6
–2
• The gradient properties of parallel and perpendicular lines can be used to solve –4
many problems. –6
Parallel and perpendicular lines

• If we have two equations:
y1 = m1 x + c1 and y2 = m2 x + c2
• the lines will be parallel if, and only if, m1 = m2

• the lines will be perpendicular if, and only if, m1 × m2 = −1.
WORKED EXAMPLE 15 Proving two lines are perpendicular
Show that the lines y = −5x + 2 and 5y − x + 15 = 0 are perpendicular.
THINK WRITE
1. Identify the gradient of the first line y1 = −5x + 2
y1 = −5x + 2. m1 = −5
2. Identify the gradient of the second line 5y − x + 15 = 0

5y − x + 15 = 0 by rearranging the equation 5y = x − 15
in the form y = mx + c.
x
y = −3
5
1
m2 =
5
1
3. Test if the two points are perpendicular by m1 × m2 = −5 ×
checking whether the product of the two 5
= −1
gradients is equal to −1.
4. Write the answer in a sentence. As the product of the two gradients is equal to −1,
therefore these two lines are perpendicular.

WORKED EXAMPLE 16 Determining the equation of a parallel line
Determine the equation of the line that passes through the point (3, 1) and is parallel to the line with
equation y − 2x + 1 = 0.
THINK WRITE
1. To determine the equation of a line, we need both a (x1 , y1 ) = (3, 1)
gradient and a point. State the known values.
2. Identify the gradient of the line y − 2x + 1 = 0 to which y − 2x + 1 = 0
another line is parallel. y = 2x − 1
m=2
3. Determine the line equation by using the y − y1 = m(x − x1 )

gradient = 2 and the point (3, 1). Rearrange and write y − 1 = 2(x − 3)
the answer. y − 1 = 2x − 6
y = 2x − 5
WORKED EXAMPLE 17 Determining the equation of a perpendicular line
Determine the equation of the line that passes through the point (2, 1) and is perpendicular to the line
with a gradient of 5.
THINK WRITE
1. To determine the equation of a line, we need both (x1 , y1 ) = (2, 1)
a gradient and a point. State the known values. m1 = 5
2. As the lines are perpendicular so m1 × m2 = −1. m1 × m2 = −1

Calculate the value of the gradient of the other 5 × m2 = −1
line using this formula.
−1
m2 =
5
3. Determine the line equation by using the y − y1 = m(x − x1 )
−1
gradient = and the point (2, 1). −1
5 y−1 = (x − 2)
Rearrange and write the answer. 5
−x 2
y−1 = +
5 5
−x 7
y= + or 5y + x = 7
5 5
Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivities Individual pathway interactivity: Parallel and perpendicular lines (int-4576)
Parallel lines (int-3841)
Perpendicular lines (int-6124)

Exercise 3.4 Parallel and perpendicular lines
Individual pathways
1, 3, 7, 8, 13, 14, 18, 19, 22 2, 4, 9, 12, 17, 20, 23 5, 6, 10, 11, 15, 16, 21, 24
Fluency
WE14 For questions 1 to 4, determine whether AB is parallel to CD given the following sets of points.
1. a. A(4, 13), B(2, 9), C(0, −10), D(15, 0)
b. A(2, 4), B(8, 1), C(−6, −2), D(2, −6)
c. A(−3, −10), B(1, 2), C(1, 10), D(8, 16)
2. a. A(1, −1), B(4, 11), C(2, 10), D(−1, −5)

b. A(1, 0), B(2, 5), C(3, 15), D(7, 35)
c. A(1, −6), B(−5, 0), C(0, 0), D(5, −4)
3. a. A(1, 6), B(3, 8), C(4, − 6), D(−3, 1)

b. A(2, 12), B(−1, − 9), C(0, 2), D(7, 1)
c. A(1, 3), B(4, 18), C(−5, 4), D(5, 0)
4. a. A(1, − 5), B(0, 0), C(5, 11), D(−10, 8)

b. A(−4, 9), B(2, − 6), C(−5, 8), D(10, 14)
c. A(4, 4), B(−8, 5), C(−6, 2), D(3, 11)
5. Determine which pairs of the following straight lines are parallel.

a. 2x + y + 1 = 0 b. y = 3x − 1
c. 2y − x = 3 d. y = 4x + 3
x
e. y = −1 f. 6x − 2y = 0
2
g. 3y = x + 4 h. 2y = 5 − x
6. WE15 Show that the lines y = 6x − 3 and x + 6y − 6 = 0 are perpendicular to one another.
7. WE16 Determine the equation of the line that passes through the point (4, −1) and is parallel to the line with
equation y = 2x − 5.
8. WE17 Determine the equation of the line that passes through the point (−2, 7) and is perpendicular to a line
2
with a gradient of .
3
9. Determine the equations of the following lines.
a. Gradient 3 and passing through the point (1, 5)
b. Gradient −4 and passing through the point (2, 1)
c. Passing through the points (2, −1) and (4, 2)
d. Passing through the points (1, −3) and (6, −5)
e. Passing through the point (5, −2) and parallel to x + 5y + 15 = 0
f. Passing through the point (1, 6) and parallel to x − 3y − 2 = 0
g. Passing through the point (−1, −5) and perpendicular to 3x + y + 2 = 0
10. Determine the equation of the line that passes through the point (−2, 1) and is:
a. parallel to the line with equation 2x − y − 3 = 0
b. perpendicular to the line with equation 2x − y − 3 = 0.

11. Determine the equation of the line that contains the point (1, 1) and is:
a. parallel to the line with equation 3x − 5y = 0
b. perpendicular to the line with equation 3x − 5y = 0.
Understanding
12. MC a. The vertical line passing through the point (3, −4) is given by:
A. y = −4 B. x = 3 C. y = 3x − 4 D. y = −4x + 3 E. x = −4
b. Select the point which passes through the horizontal line given by the equation y = −5.
A. (−5, 4) B. (4, 5) C. (3, −5) D. (5, −4) E. (5, 5)
c. Select which of the following statements is true.
A. Vertical lines have a gradient of zero.
B. The y-coordinates of all points on a vertical line are the same.
C. Horizontal lines have an undefined gradient.
D. The x-coordinates of all points on a vertical line are the same.
E. A horizontal line has the general equation x = a.
d. Select which of the following statements is false.
A. Horizontal lines have a gradient of zero.
B. The line joining the points (1, −1) and (−7, −1) is vertical.
C. Vertical lines have an undefined gradient.
D. The line joining the points (1, 1) and (−7, 1) is horizontal.
E. A horizontal line has the general equation y = c.
13. MC The point (−1, 5) lies on a line parallel to 4x + y + 5 = 0. Another point on the same line as (−1, 5) is:
A. (2, 9) B. (4, 2) C. (4, 0) D. (−2, 3) E. (3, −11)
14. Determine the equation of the straight line given the following conditions.
a. Passes through the point (−1, 3) and parallel to y = −2x + 5
b. Passes through the point (4, −3) and parallel to 3y + 2x = −3
15. Determine which pairs of the following lines are perpendicular.

a. x + 3y − 5 = 0 b. y = 4x − 7 c. y = x d. 2y = x + 1
e. y = 3x + 2 f. x + 4y − 9 = 0 g. 2x + y = 6 h. x + y = 0
16. Determine the equation of the straight line that cuts the x-axis at 3 and is perpendicular to the line with
equation 3y − 6x = 12.
17. Calculate the value of m for which lines with the following pairs of equations are perpendicular to
each other.
a. 2y − 5x = 7 and 4y + 12 = mx
b. 5x − 6y = −27 and 15 + mx = −3y
18. MC The gradient of the line perpendicular to the line with equation 3x − 6y = 2 is:
1
A. 3 B. −6 C. 2 D. E. −2
2
Reasoning
19. Determine the equation of a line, in the form of ax + by + c = 0, that is perpendicular to the line with
equation 2x − y = 3 and passes through the point (2, 3).
20. Form the equation of the line, in the form of ax + by + c = 0, that is perpendicular to the line with equation
−4x − 3y = 3 and passes through the point (−1, 4).

21. MC Triangle ABC has a right angle at B. The vertices are A(−2, 9), B(2, 8) and C(1, z). The value of z is:
1 3
A. 8 B. 4 C. 12 D. 7 E. −4
4 4
Problem solving
22. a. Sketch the graph of the equation y = 2x − 4.
b. On the same set of axes, sketch the graph of the line parallel to y = 2x − 4 that has a y-intercept of −2.
c. Sketch the graph of the line that is perpendicular to the lines found in part a and b that also passes
through the origin.
23. Determine the value(s) of a such that there would be no point of intersection between the lines
ay + 3x = 4a and 2x − y = 5.
24. A family of parallel lines has the equation 3x − 2y = k where k is a real number.
a. Determine the gradient of each member of this family of lines.
b. Show that all lines in the family contain the point (k, k).
3.5 The distance between two points

LEARNING INTENTION
• calculate the straight-line distance between two points
• determine the value of an unknown coordinate given the distance between two points.
3.5.1 The distance between two points

eles-4745
• The distance between two points can be calculated using y
Pythagoras’ theorem. B
y2 (x2, y2)
• Consider two points A(x1 , y1 ) and B(x2 , y2 ) on the Cartesian plane
as shown.
• If point C is placed as shown, ABC is a right-angled triangle and A
y1 C
AB is the hypotenuse. (x1, y1)
AC = x2 − x1
BC = y2 − y1 0 x1 x2 x
By Pythagoras’ theorem:
AB2 = AC2 + BC2
= (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2
√
Hence AB = (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2
The distance between two points
The distance between two points A(x1 , y1 ) and B(x2 , y2 ) is:

√
AB = (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2
• This distance formula can be used to calculate the distance between any two points on the Cartesian plane.
• The distance formula has many geometric applications.

Note: If the coordinates were named in the reverse order, the formula would still give the same answer. Check
this for yourself using (x1 , y1 ) = (3, 4) and (x2 , y2 ) = (−3, 1).
WORKED EXAMPLE 18 Determining the distance between two points on a graph
Determine the distance between the points A and B in the figure.

y
4
B
3
2
A
1
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 x
THINK WRITE
1. From the graph, locate points A and B. A(−3, 1) and B(3, 4)
2. Let A have coordinates (x1 , y1 ). Let (x1 , y1 ) = (−3, 1)
3. Let B have coordinates (x2 , y2 ). Let (x2 , y2 ) = (3, 4)
√
4. Calculate the length AB by applying the formula AB = (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2
√
for calculating the distance between two points.
= (3 − (−3))2 + (4 − 1)2
√
= (6)2 + (3)2
√
= 36 + 9
√
= 45
√
=3 5
WORKED EXAMPLE 19 Calculating the distance between two points
Calculate the distance between the points P(−1, 5) and Q(3, −2).
THINK WRITE
1. Let P have coordinates (x1 , y1 ). Let (x1 , y1 ) = (−1, 5)
2. Let Q have coordinates (x2 , y2 ). Let (x2 , y2 ) = (3, −2)
√
3. Calculate the length PQ by applying the PQ = (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2
√
formula for the distance between two points.
= (3 − (−1))2 + (−2 − 5)2
√
= (4)2 + (−7)2
√
= 16 + 49
√
= 65

On a Calculator page, On the Main screen, complete

complete the entry lines as: the entry lines as:
x1: = −1 √
y1: = 5 (x − a)2 + (y − b)2 |x = −1
x2: = 3 |y = 5|a = 3|b = −2
x1 = x = −1
√ = −2
y2:
y1 = y = 5
(x2 − x1)2 + (y2 − y1)2 x2 = a = 3
Press ENTER after each y2 = b = −2
entry.
√ between the two
The distance
points is 65.
√
The distance between the
two points is 65.
WORKED EXAMPLE 20 Applying the distance formula
Prove that the points A(1, 1), B(3, −1) and C(−1, −3) are the vertices of an isosceles triangle.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1. Plot the points and draw the triangle. y
A
Note: For triangle ABC to be isosceles, two 1
sides must have the same magnitude. 0 x
–1–1 1 3
B
C
–3
√
2. AC and BC seem to be equal. AC = [1 − (−1)]2 + [1 − (−3)]2
√
Calculate the length AC.
= (2)2 + (4)2
A(1, 1) = (x2 , y2 ) √
= 20
C(−1, −3) = (x1 , y1 ) √
=2 5
√
3. Calculate the length BC. BC = [3 − (−1)]2 + [−1 − (−3)]2
√
B(3, −1) = (x2 , y2 )
= (4)2 + (2)2
C(−1, −3) = (x1 , y1 ) √
= 20
√
=2 5
√
4. Calculate the length AB. AB = [3 − (1)]2 + [−1 − (1)]2
√
A(1, 1) = (x1 , y1 )
= (2)2 + (−2)2
B(3, −1) = (x2 , y2 ) √
= 4+4
√
=2 2
5. Write your conclusion. Since AC = BC ≠ AB, triangle ABC is an
isosceles triangle.

DISCUSSION
How could you use the distance formula to show that a series of points lay on the circumference of a circle
with centre C?
Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivities Individual pathway interactivity: The distance between two points (int-4574)
Distance between two points (int-6051)
Exercise 3.5 The distance between two points

Individual pathways
1, 4, 7, 11 2, 5, 8, 9, 12 3, 6, 10, 13
Fluency
1. WE18 Determine the distance between each pair of y

points shown in the graph. 8
G 7 O
2. WE19 Calculate the distance between the following pairs 6
K B
of points. 5
4
a. (2, 5), (6, 8) b. (−1, 2), (4, 14) P
3
c. (−1, 3), (−7, −5) d. (5, −1), (10, 4) C
E 2
e. (4, −5), (1, 1) H A N
1
L
3. Calculate the distance between the following pairs x
of points. –8 –7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
–1
a. (−3, 1), (5, 13) b. (5, 0), (−8, 0) F –2
c. (1, 7), (1, −6) d. (a, b), (2a, −b) M –3 D
I –4 J
e. (−a, 2b), (2a, −b) –5
4. The vertices of a quadrilateral are –6
A(1, 4), B(−1, 8), C(1, 9) and D(3, 5). –7
–8
a. Determine the lengths of the sides.
b. Determine the lengths of the diagonals.
c. State the type of quadrilateral.
Understanding
5. MC If the distance between the points (3, b) and (−5, 2) is 10 units, then the value of b is:
A. −8 B. −4 C. 4 D. 0 E. 2
6. MC A rhombus has vertices A(1, 6), B(6, 6), C(−2, 2) and D(x, y). The coordinates of D are:
A. (2, −3) B. (2, 3) C. (−2, 3) D. (3, 2) E. (3, −2)

Reasoning
7. WE20 Prove that the points A(0, −3), B(−2, −1) and C(4, 3) are the vertices of an isosceles triangle.
√
8. The points P(2, −1), Q(−4, −1) and R(−1, 3 3 − 1) are joined to form a triangle. Prove that triangle PQR
is equilateral.
9. Prove that the triangle with vertices D(5, 6), E(9, 3) and F(5, 3) is a right-angled triangle.
10. A rectangle has vertices A(1, 5), B(10.6, z), C(7.6, −6.2) and D(−2, 1). Determine:
a. the length of CD b. the length of AD
c. the length of the diagonal AC d. the value of z.
Problem solving y
11. Triangle ABC is an isosceles triangle where AB = AC, B is the point
(−1, 2), C is the point (6, 3) and A is the point (a, 3a). Determine A (a, 3a)
the value of the integer constant a.
12. Show that the triangle ABC with coordinates A(a, a), B(m, −a) and
C(−a, m) is isosceles.
C (6, 3)
B (–1, 2)
0 x
13. ABCD is a parallelogram. y

a. Evaluate the gradients of AB and BC. B (3, 8)
b. Determine the coordinates of the point D(x, y).
c. Show that the diagonals AC and BD bisect each other.
A (1, 6)
C (6, 1)
0 x
D (x, y)
3.6 The midpoint of a line segment

LEARNING INTENTION
• calculate the midpoint between two points
• determine the value of an unknown coordinate given the midpoint between two points.
3.6.1 Midpoint of a line segment

eles-4746
• The midpoint of a line segment is the halfway point.
• The x- and y-coordinates of the midpoint are halfway between those of the coordinates of the end points.
• The following diagram shows the line interval AB joining points A(x1 , y1 ) and B(x2 , y2 ).

The midpoint of AB is P, so AP = PB.
Points C(x, y1 ) and D(x2 , y) are added to the diagram and are used to make the two right-angled triangles ΔABC
and ΔPBD.
The two triangles are congruent:
y
B (x2, y2)
y2
P
y D
(x, y)
y1 A
(x1, y1) C
0 x1 x x2 x
AP = PB (given)
∠APC = ∠PBD (corresponding angles)
∠CAP = ∠DPB (corresponding angles)
So ΔAPC = ΔPBD (ASA)
This means that AC = PD;

i.e. x − x1 = x2 − x (solve for x)
i.e. 2x = x1 + x2
x + x2
x= 1
2
In other words, x is simply the average x1 and x2 .

y1 + y2
Similarly, y = .
2
The midpoint formula
To calculate the midpoint (x, y) of the two points A (x1 , y1 ) and B (x2 , y2 ): y
• The x-value is the average of x1 and x2 . (x2, y2)
• The y-value is the average of y1 and y2 .
M
( )
Midpoint =
x1 + x2 y1 + y2
,
(x_____
1
2
2
2 )
+ x , _____
y +y
1 2
(x1, y1)
2 2
0 x

WORKED EXAMPLE 21 Calculating the midpoint
Calculate the coordinates of the midpoint of the line segment joining (−2, 5) and (7, 1).
THINK WRITE
1. Label the given points (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ). Let (x1 , y1 ) = (−2, 5) and (x2 , y2 ) = (7, 1)
x1 + x2
2. Determine the x-coordinate of the midpoint. x=
2
−2 + 7
=
2
5
=
2
1
=2
2
y1 + y2
3. Determine the y-coordinate of the midpoint. y=
2
5+1
=
2
6
=
2
=3
( )
1
4. Write the coordinates of the midpoint. The midpoint is 2 ,3 .
2

On a Calculator page, On the Main screen,
complete the entry lines as: complete the entry lines as:
x1 + x2 x+a
|x1 = −2 and x2 = 7 |x = −2|a = 7
2 2
y1 + y2 y+b
|y1 = 5 and y2 = 1 |y = 5|b = 1
2 2
Press ENTER after each Press EXE after each entry.
entry.
( )
1
The midpoint is 2 , 3 .
2
( )
1
The midpoint is 2 ,3 .
2

WORKED EXAMPLE 22 Determining an unknown coordinate
The coordinates of the midpoint, M, of the line segment AB are (7, 2). If the coordinates of A are
(1, −4), determine the coordinates of B.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1. Let the start of the line segment be (x1 , y1 ) Let (x1 , y1 ) = (1, −4) and (x, y) = (7, 2)
and the midpoint be (x, y).
x1 + x2
2. The average of the x-coordinates is 7. x=
Determine the x-coordinate of the end point. 2
1 + x2
7=
2
14 = 1 + x2
x2 = 13
y1 + y2
3. The average of the y-coordinates is 2. y=
Determine the y-coordinate of the end point. 2
−4 + y2
2=
2
4 = −4 + y2
y2 = 8
4. Write the coordinates of the end point. The coordinates of the point B are (13, 8).
5. Check that the coordinates are feasible by y B (13, 8)
drawing a diagram. 8
6
4
M
2 (7, 2)
0 x
2 4 6 8 10 12 14
–4
A (1, −4)
DISCUSSION
If the midpoint of a line segment is the origin, what are the possible values of the x- and y- coordinates of
the end points?
Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivities Individual pathway interactivity: The midpoint of a line segment (int-4575)
Midpoints (int-6052)

Exercise 3.6 The midpoint of a line segment
Individual pathways
1, 3, 6, 7, 12, 15 4, 5, 8, 9, 13, 16 2, 10, 11, 14, 17
Fluency
1. WE21 Calculate the coordinates of the midpoint of the line segment joining the following pairs of points.
a. (−5, 1), (−1, −8) b. (4, 2), (11, −2) c. (0, 4), (−2, −2)
2. Calculate the coordinates of the midpoint of the line segment joining the following pairs of points.
a. (3, 4), (−3, −1) b. (a, 2b), (3a, −b) c. (a + 3b, b), (a − b, a − b)
3. WE 22 The coordinates of the midpoint, M, of the line segment AB are (2, −3). If the coordinates of A are
(7, 4), determine the coordinates of B.
4. Determine the midpoint of the following sets of coordinates.
a. (1, 2) and (3, −4) b. (7, −2) and (−4, 13) c. (3, a) and (1, 4a)
5. If M(2, −2) is the midpoint of the line segment joining the points X(4, y) and Y(x, −1), then calculate the
value of x + y.
Understanding
6. A square has vertices A(0, 0), B(2, 4), C(6, 2) and D(4, −2). Determine:
a. the coordinates of the centre b. the length of a side c. the length of a diagonal.
7. MC The midpoint of the line segment joining the points (−2, 1) and (8, −3) is:
A. (6, −2) B. (5, 2) C. (6, 2) D. (3, −1) E. (5, −2)
8. MC If the midpoint of AB is (−1, 5) and the coordinates of B are (3, 8), then A has coordinates:
A. (1, 6.5) B. (2, 13) C. (−5, 2) D. (4, 3) E. (7, 11)
9. a. The vertices of a triangle are A(2, 5), B(1, −3) and C(−4, 3). Determine:
i. the coordinates of P, the midpoint of AC

ii. the coordinates of Q, the midpoint of AB
iii. the length of PQ.
b. Show that BC = 2PQ.
10. a. A quadrilateral has vertices A(6, 2), B(4, −3), C(−4, −3) and D(−2, 2). Determine:
i. the midpoint of the diagonal AC

ii. the midpoint of the diagonal BD.
b. State what you can infer about the quadrilateral.
11. a. The points A(−5, 3.5), B(1, 0.5) and C(−6, −6) are the vertices of a triangle. Determine:
i. the midpoint, P, of AB ii. the length of PC

iii. the length of AC iv. the length of BC.
b. Describe the triangle. State what PC represents.

Reasoning
12. a. Plot the following points on a Cartesian plane: A(−1, −4), B(2, 3), C(−3, 8) and D(4, −5).
b. Show that the midpoint of the interval AC is (−2, 2).
c. Calculate the exact distance between the points A and C.
d. If B is the midpoint of an interval CM, determine the coordinates of point M.
7
e. Show that the gradient of the line segment AB is .
3
f. Determine the equation of the line that passes through the points B and D.
13. Write down the coordinates of the midpoint of the line joining the points (3k − 1, 4 − 5k) and
(5k − 1, 3 − 5k). Show that this point lies on the line with equation 5x + 4y = 9.
14. The points A (2m, 3m), B (5m, −2m) and C (−3m, 0) are the vertices of a triangle. Show that this is a
right-angled triangle.
y
A (2m, 3m)
0 x
C (–3m, 0)
B (5m, –2m)
Problem solving
15. Determine the equation of the straight line that passes through the midpoint of A(−2, 5) and B(−2, 3), and
has a gradient of −3.
16. Determine the equation of the straight line that passes through the midpoint of A(−1, −3) and B(3, −5),
2
and has a gradient of .
3
17. Determine the equation of the straight line passing through the midpoint of (3, 2) and (5, −2) that is also
perpendicular to the line 3x − 2y = 7.
3.7 Applications and collinearity

LEARNING INTENTION
• determine whether a set of coordinates are collinear
• determine the equation of a perpendicular bisector
• apply your understanding from multiple skills learned in this topic to a single problem.

3.7.1 Collinear points
eles-4747
• Collinear points are points that all lie on the same straight line. y
• If A, B and C are collinear, then mAB = mBC .
C
0 x
WORKED EXAMPLE 23 Proving points are collinear
Show that the points A(2, 0), B(4, 1) and C(10, 4) are collinear.
THINK WRITE
1. Calculate the gradient of AB. Let A(2, 0) = (x1 , y1 ) and B(4, 1) = (x2 , y2 )
y − y1
since m = 2
x2 − x1
1−0
mAB =
4−2
1
=
2
2. Calculate the gradient of BC. Let B(4, 1) = (x1 , y1 ) and C(10, 4) = (x2 , y2 )
4−1
mBC =
10 − 4
3
=
6
1
=
2
1
3. Show that A, B and C are collinear. Since mAB = mBC = and B is common to both line
2
segments, A, B and C are collinear.
3.7.2 Equations of horizontal and vertical lines

eles-4748
• Horizontal lines are parallel to the x-axis, have a gradient of zero, are y x=4
expressed in the form y = c and have no x-intercept. 4
• Vertical lines are parallel to the y-axis, have an undefined (infinite) y=2
gradient, are expressed in the form x = a and have no y-intercept. 2
0 x
–2 2 4 6
–2
–4

WORKED EXAMPLE 24 Determining the equation of vertical and horizontal lines
Determine the equation of:

a. the vertical line that passes through the point (2, −3)
b. the horizontal line that passes through the point (−2, 6).
THINK WRITE
a. The equation of a vertical line is x = a. a. x = 2
The x-coordinate of the given point is 2.
b. The equation of a horizontal line is y = c. The b. y = 6
y-coordinate of the given point is 6.
3.7.3 Perpendicular bisectors

eles-4749
• A perpendicular bisector is a line that intersects another line at a B
right angle and cuts it into two equal lengths.
• A perpendicular bisector passes through the midpoint of a line
segment. Perpendicular bisector,
Midpoint (x1, y1)
gradient = m
The perpendicular bisector

• The equation of a perpendicular bisector can be found by using the formula:
y − y1 = m(x − x1 )
where (x1 , y1 ) represents the midpoint of a given set of coordinates and m is the gradient perpendicular
to the gradient of the given line (i.e. the gradient of the perpendicular bisector).
WORKED EXAMPLE 25 Determining the equation of a perpendicular bisector
Determine the equation of the perpendicular bisector of the line joining the points (0, −4) and (6, 5).
(A bisector is a line that crosses another line at right angles and cuts it into two equal lengths.)
THINK WRITE
1. Determine the gradient of the line joining the given Let (0, −4) = (x1 , y1 ).
points by applying the formula. Let (6, 5) = (x2 , y2 ).
y − y1 y − y1
m= 2 . m1 = 2
x2 − x1 x2 − x1
5 − (−4)
m1 =
6−0
9
=
6
3
=
2

3
2. Calculate the gradient of the perpendicular line. m1 =
m1 × m2 = −1 2
2
m2 = −
3
x1 + x2 y1 + y2
3. Determine the midpoint of the line joining the given x= y=
points. 2 2
( )
x1 + x2 y1 + y2 0+6 −4 + 5
M= , where (x1 , y1 ) = (0, −4) = =
2 2 2 2
and (x2 , y2 ) = (6, 5). =3 1
=
2
( )
1
Hence 3, are the coordinates of
2
the midpoint.
2
4. Determine the equation of the line with gradient − Since y − y1 = m(x − x1 ),
( ) 3
1 1 2
that passes through 3, . then y − = − (x − 3)
2 2 3
( )
1
5. Simplify by removing the fractions. 3 y− = −2(x − 3)
Multiply both sides by 3. 2
Multiply both sides by 2. 3
3y − = −2x + 6
2
6y − 3 = −4x + 12
4x + 6y − 15 = 0
DISCUSSION
How could you use coordinate geometry to design a logo for an organisation?
Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivities Individual pathway interactivity: Applications and collinearity (int-8469)
Vertical and horizontal lines (int-6049)

Exercise 3.7 Applications and collinearity
Individual pathways
1, 3, 4, 11, 12, 13, 18, 19 2, 7, 9, 14, 15, 20 5, 6, 8, 10, 16, 17, 21
Fluency
1. WE23 Show that the points A(0, −2), B(5, 1) and C(−5, −5) are collinear.
2. Show that the line that passes through the points (−4, 9) and (0, 3) also passes through the point (6, −6).
3. WE24 Determine the equation of:

a. the vertical line that passes through the point (1, −8)
b. the horizontal line that passes through the point (−5, −7).
4. WE25Determine the equation of the perpendicular bisector of the line joining the points (1, 2)
and (−5, −4).
( ) ( )
7 5
5. a. Show that the following three points are collinear: 1, , , 2 and (5, 3).
5 2 ( )
7
b. Determine the equation of the perpendicular bisector of the line joining the points 1, and (5, 3).
5
6. The triangle ABC has vertices A(9, − 2), B(3, 6), and C(1, 4).
a. Determine the midpoint, M, of BC.
b. Determine the gradient of BC.
c. Show that AM is the perpendicular bisector
of BC.
d. Describe triangle ABC.
7. Determine the equation of the perpendicular

bisector of the line joining the points (−2, 9)
and (4, 0).
8. ABCD is a parallelogram. The coordinates of A, B
and C are (4, 1), (1, −2) and (−2, 1) respectively.
Determine:
a. the equation of AD
b. the equation of DC
c. the coordinates of D.

Understanding
9. In each of the following, show that ABCD is a parallelogram.
a. A(2, 0), B(4, − 3), C (2, − 4), D(0, − 1)
b. A(2, 2), B(0, − 2), C(−2, − 3), D(0, 1)
c. A(2.5, 3.5), B(10, − 4), C(2.5, − 2.5), D(−5, 5)
10. In each of the following, show that ABCD is a trapezium.

a. A(0, 6), B(2, 2), C(0, − 4), D(−5, − 9)
b. A(26, 32), B(18, 16), C(1, − 1), D(−3, 3)
c. A(2, 7), B(1, − 1), C(−0.6, − 2.6), D(−2, 3)
11. MC The line that passes through the points (0, −6) and (7, 8) also passes through:
A. (4, 3) B. (5, 4) C. (−2, 10) D. (1, −8) E. (1, 4)
Reasoning
12. The map shows the proposed course for a yacht race. Buoys y
Scale: 1 unit ⇐
⇒1 km
have been positioned at A(1, 5), B(8, 8), C(12, 6), and D(10, w). 12 N
11
a. Calculate how far it is from the start, O, to buoy A.
10
b. The race marshall boat, M, is situated halfway between buoys 9
A and C. Determine the coordinates of the boat’s position. Buoy B
8
c. Stage 4 of the race (from C to D) is perpendicular to stage 7
3 (from B to C). Evaluate the gradient of CD. Buoy
6 A M Buoy C
d. Determine the linear equation that describes stage 4. 5
e. Hence determine the exact position of buoy D. 4
f. An emergency boat is to be placed at point E, (7, 3). 3 E
Determine how far the emergency boat is from the hospital, H2 Buoy D
located at H, 2 km north of the start. 1
O
x
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
(Start)
13. Prove that the quadrilateral ABCD is a rectangle with A(2, 5), B(6, 1), C (3, −2) and D(−1, 2).
14. Show that the following sets of points form the vertices of a right-angled triangle.
a. A(1, − 4), B(2, − 3), C(4, − 7) b. A(3, 13), B(1, 3), C(−4, 4)
c. A(0, 5), B(9, 12), C(3, 14)
15. a. A square has vertices at (0, 0) and (2, 0). Determine where the other 2 vertices are. (There are 3 sets
of answers.)
b. An equilateral triangle has vertices at (0, 0) and (2, 0). Determine where the other vertex is. (There are
2 answers.)
c. A parallelogram has vertices at (0, 0) and (2, 0) and (1, 1). Determine where the other vertex is. (There
are 3 sets of answers.)
16. Prove that the quadrilateral ABCD is a rhombus, given A(2, 3), B(3, 5), C(5, 6) and D(4, 4).
Hint: A rhombus is a parallelogram with diagonals that intersect at right angles.
17. A is the point (0, 0) and B is the point (0, 2).
a. Determine the perpendicular bisector of AB.
b. Show that any point on this line is equidistant from A and B.

Problem solving
Questions 18 and 19 relate to the diagram. y
7
M is the midpoint of OA. A (4, 6)
6
N is the midpoint of AB.
5
P is the midpoint of OB.
4
18. A simple investigation:
3 M N
a. Show that MN is parallel to OB.
b. Is PN parallel to OA? Explain. 2
c. Is PM parallel to AB? Explain. 1
P B
19. A difficult investigation: 0 x
1 2 3 4 5 6
a. Determine the perpendicular bisectors of OA and OB.
b. Determine the point W where the two bisectors intersect.
c. Show that the perpendicular bisector of AB also passes through W.
d. Explain why W is equidistant from O, A and B.
e. W is called the circumcentre of triangle OAB. Using W as the centre, draw a circle through O, A, and B.
20. Line A is parallel to the line with equation 2x − y = 7 and passes through the point (2, 3). Line B is
perpendicular to the line with equation 4x − 3y + 3 = 0 and also passes through the point (2, 3). Line C
intersects with line A where it cuts the y-axis and intersects with line B where it cuts the x-axis.
a. Determine the equations for all three lines. Give answers in the form ax + by + c = 0.
b. Sketch all three lines on the one set of axes.
c. Determine whether the triangle formed by the three lines is scalene, isosceles or equilateral.
21. The lines l1 and l2 are at right angles to each other. The line l1 has the equation px + py + r = 0. Show that
r
the distance from M to the origin is given by √ .
p2 + p2
y
l1
0 x
l2

3.8 Review
3.8.1 Topic summary
Sketching linear graphs Equation of a straight line
• To plot linear graphs, complete a table of values to • The equation of a straight line is:
determine the points and use a rule. y = mx + c
• Only two points are needed in order to sketch a Where: m is the gradient and c is the y-intercept
straight-line graph. e.g. y = 2x + 5 y-intercept
• The x- and y-intercept method involves calculating both
axis intercepts, then drawing the line through them. gradient
• Determine the x-intercept but substituting y = 0. • The rule y = mx + c is called the equation of a straight
• Determine the y-intercept but substituting x = 0. line in the gradient-intercept form.
• Graphs given by y = mx pass through the origin (0, 0), • The gradient of a straight line can be determined by
since c = 0. the formulas:
rise y2 – y1
• The line y = c is parallel to the x-axis, having a gradient m= – = –
of zero and a y-intercept of c. run x2 – x1
• The line x = a is parallel to the y-axis, having a
x-intercept of a.
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
The midpoint of a line segment Determining linear equations
• The midpoint of two points, (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) is: • The formula:
x1 + x2 y1 + y2 y – y1 = m(x – x1)
M= –, – can be used to write the equation of a line, given
2 2
the gradient and the coordinates of one point.
y
(x2, y2)
M
• Parallel lines will never intersect with each other.
(x_____
1
2
2
2 )
y +y
+ x , _____
1 2
• Two lines are parallel if they have the same gradient.
(x1, y1) e.g. y = 3x – 6
0 x y = 3x + 1
• Perpendicular lines are lines that intersect at right angles.
• Two lines are perpendicular if the product of their
gradients is –1.
The distance between two points e.g. y = 2x + 3
x
• The distance between two points, (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) is: y=–––4
2
1
d= (x2 – x1)2 + (y2 – y1)2 m1 × m 2 = 2 × – – = –1
2
Applications and collinearity Perpendicular bisector

• Collinear points are points that all lie on the same • A perpendicular bisector is B
straight line. a line that intersects another
• Horizontal lines are parallel to the x-axis, have a line at a right angle and cuts
gradient of zero, are expressed in the form y = c and it into two equal lengths.
have no x-intercept. • A perpendicular bisector Midpoint
• Vertical lines are parallel to the y-axis, have an passes through the midpoint
of a line segment.
x = a and have no y-intercept.
A

3.2 I can plot points on a graph using a rule and a table of values.
I can sketch linear graphs by determining the x- and y-intercepts.
I can sketch the graphs of horizontal and vertical lines.
I can model linear graphs from a worded context.
3.3 I can determine the equation of a straight line when given its graph.
I can determine the equation of a straight line when given the gradient and
the y-intercept.
I can determine the equation of a straight line passing through two points.
I can formulate the equation of a straight line from a written context.
3.4 I can determine whether two lines are parallel, perpendicular or neither.
I can determine the equation of a straight line that is parallel to a given line.
I can determine the equation of a straight line that is perpendicular to a

given line.
3.5 I can calculate the straight-line distance between two points.
I can determine the value of an unknown coordinate given the distance

between two points.
3.6 I can calculate the midpoint between two points.
I can determine the value of an unknown coordinate given the midpoint

between two points.
3.7 I can determine whether a set of coordinates are collinear.
I can determine the equation of a perpendicular bisector.
I can apply my understanding from multiple skills learned in this topic to a

single problem.

3.8.3 Project
What common computer symbol is this?
On computer hardware, and on many different software applications, a broad range of symbols is used.
These symbols help us to identify where things need to be plugged into, what buttons we need to push,
or what option needs to be selected. The main focus of this task involves constructing a common symbol
found on the computer. The instructions are given below. Use grid paper to construct the symbol.
The construction part of this task requires you to graph nine lines to reveal a common computer symbol.
Draw the scale of your graph to accommodate x- and y-values in the following ranges: −10 ≤ x ≤ 16 and
−10 ≤ y ≤ 16. Centre the axes on the grid lines.
• Line 1 has an equation y = x − 1. Graph this line in the range −7 ≤ x ≤ −2.
• Line 2 is perpendicular to line 1 and has a y-intercept of −5. Determine the equation of this line, and
then draw the line in the range −5 ≤ x ≤ −1.
• Line 3 is parallel to line 1, with a y-intercept of 3. Determine the equation of the line, and then graph
the line in the range −9 ≤ x ≤ −4.
• Line 4 is parallel to line 1, with a y-intercept of −3. Determine the equation of the line, and then graph
the line in the range −1 ≤ x ≤ 2.
• Line 5 has the same length as line 4 and is parallel to it. The point (−2, 3) is the starting point of the
line, which decreases in both x- and y-values from there.
• Line 6 commences at the same starting point as line 5, and then runs at right angles to line 5. It has an
x-intercept of 1 and is the same length as line 2.
• Line 7 commences at the same starting point as both lines 5 and 6. Its equation is y = 6x + 15. The point
(−1, 9) lies at the midpoint.
• Line 8 has the equation y = −x + 15. Its midpoint is the point (7, 8) and its extremities are the points
where the line meets line 7 and line 9.
• Line 9 has the equation 6y − x + 8 = 0. It runs from the intersection of lines 4 and 6 until it meets line 8.
1. Determine what common computer symbol you have drawn.
2. The top section of your figure is a familiar geometric shape. Use the coordinates on your graph, together
with the distance formula to determine the necessary lengths to calculate the area of this figure.
3. Using any symbol of interest to you, draw your symbol on grid lines and provide instructions for your
design. Ensure that your design involves aspects of coordinate geometry that have been used throughout
this task.

Resources
Resourceseses

Fluency
1. MC The equation of the following line is:
y
3
0 x
2
A. 3x + 2y = 6 B. 3x − 2y = 6 C. 2x + 3y = 6
D. 2x − 3y = 6 E. 2x − 3y = −6
2. MC The equation of a linear graph with gradient −3 and x-intercept of 4 is:

A. y = −3x − 12 B. y = −3x + 4 C. y = −3x − 4
D. y = −3x + 12 E. y = 4x − 3
3. MC The equation of a linear graph which passes through (2, −7) and (−2, −2) is:
A. 4x − 5y + 18 = 0 B. 5x + 4y + 18 = 0 C. 5x + 4y − 18 = 0
D. 5x − 4y − 18 = 0 E. 4x + 5y + 18 = 0
4. MC
√The distance between the points (1, 5) and (6, −7) is:
√ √
A. 53 B. 29 C. 13 D. 193 E. 12
5. MC The midpoint of the line segment joining the points (−4, 3) and (2, 7) is:
A. (−1, 5) B. (−2, 10) C. (−6, 4) D. (−2, 4) E. (−1, 2)
6. MC If the midpoint of the line segment joining the points A(3, 7) and B(x, y) has coordinates (6, 2),
then the coordinates of B are:

A. (15, 3) B. (0, −6) C. (9, −3) D. (4.5, 4.5) E. (−9, 3)
7. MC If the points (−6, −11), (2, 1) and (x, 4) are collinear, then the value of x is:
1 5
A. 4 B. 3.2 C. D. E. 3
4 16
8. MC The gradient of the line perpendicular to 3x − 4y + 7 = 0 is:

3 4 4
A. B. C. − D. 3 E. −4
4 3 3

9. MC The equation of the line perpendicular to 2x + y − 1 = 0 and passing through the point (1, 4) is:
A. 2x + y − 6 = 0 B. 2x + y − 2 = 0 C. x − 2y + 7 = 0 D. x + 2y + 9 = 0 E. x − 2y = 0
10. Produce a table of values, and sketch the graph of the equation y = −5x + 15 for values of x between
−10 and +10.
11. Sketch the graph of the following linear equations, labelling the x- and y-intercepts.
2 7
a. y = 3x − 2 b. y = −5x + 15 c. y = − x + 1 d. y = x−3
3 5
12. Determine the x- and y-intercepts of the following straight lines.

3 4 3
a. y = −7x + 6 b. y = x−5 c. y = x− d. y = 0.5x + 2.8
8 7 4
13. Sketch graphs of the following linear equations by finding the x- and y-intercepts.
a. 2x − 3y = 6 b. 3x + y = 0 c. 5x + y = −3 d. x + y + 3 = 0
14. Sketch the graph of each of the following.

1
a. y = x b. y = − 4x c. x = −2 d. y = 7
2
15. Sketch the graph of the equation 3(y − 5) = 6(x + 1).
16. Determine the equations of the straight lines in the following graphs.
a. y b. y c. y
0 x 2
−4
0 x x
1 0
6
−4
−2
d. y e. y f. y
(2, 8)
0 x
0 x 3
−– 0 x
4 5
17. Determine the linear equation given the information in each case below.
a. Gradient = 3, y-intercept = −4 b. Gradient = −2, y-intercept = −5
1
c. Gradient = , y-intercept = 5 d. Gradient = 0, y-intercept = 6
2

18. For each of the following, determine the equation of the straight line with the given gradient and
passing through the given point.
a. Gradient = 7, point (2, 1) b. Gradient = −3, point (1, 1)
1 3
c. Gradient = , point (−2, 5) d. Gradient = , point (1, −3)
2 5
19. Determine the distance between the points (1, 3) and (7, −2) in exact form.
20. Prove that triangle ABC is isosceles given A(3, 1), B(−3, 7) and C(−1, 3).
21. Show that the points A(1, 1), B(2, 3) and C(8, 0) are the vertices of a right-angled triangle.
22. The midpoint of the line segment AB is (6, −4). If B has coordinates (12, 10), determine the
coordinates of A.
23. Show that the points A(3, 1), B(5, 2) and C(11, 5) are collinear.
24. Show that the lines y = 2x − 4 and x + 2y − 10 = 0 are perpendicular to one another.
25. Determine the equation of the straight line passing through the point (6, −2) and parallel to the line
x + 2y − 1 = 0.
26. Determine the equation of the line perpendicular to 3x − 2y + 6 = 0 and having the same y-intercept.
27. Determine the equation of the perpendicular bisector of the line joining the points (−2, 7) and (4, 11).
28. Determine the equation of the straight line joining the point (−2, 5) and the point of intersection of the
straight lines with equations y = 3x − 1 and y = 2x + 5.
29. Use the information given in the diagram to complete the following. y
B (4, 9)
a. Determine: 9
i. the gradient of AD
C
ii. the gradient of AB
4 A
iii. the equation of BC
iv. the equation of DC D
v. the coordinates of C. 0 x
45 9
b. Describe quadrilateral ABCD.
30. In triangle ABC, A is (1, 5), B is (−2, −3) and C is (8, −2).
a. Determine:
i. the gradient of BC
ii. the midpoint, P, of AB
iii. the midpoint, Q, of AC.
b. Hence show that:
i. PQ is parallel to BC
ii. PQ is half the length of BC.

Problem solving
31. John has a part-time job working as a gardener and is paid $13.50 per hour.
a. Complete the following table of values relating the amount of money received to the number of
hours worked.
Number of hours 0 2 4 6 8 10
Pay $
b. Determine a linear equation relating the amount of money received to the number of hours worked.
c. Sketch the linear equation on a Cartesian plane over a suitable domain.
3
d. Using algebra, calculate the pay that John will receive if he works for 6 hours.
4
32. A fun park charges a $12.50 entry fee and an additional $2.50 per ride.
a. Complete the following table of values relating the total cost to the number of rides.
Number of rides 0 2 4 6 8 10
Cost $
b. Determine a linear equation relating total cost to the number of rides.

c. Sketch the linear equation on a Cartesian plane over a suitable domain.
d. Using algebra, calculate the cost for 7 rides.
33. The cost of hiring a boat is $160 plus $22.50 per hour.
a. Sketch a graph showing the total cost for between 0 and 12 hours.
b. State the equation relating cost to time rented.
c. Predict the cost of hiring a boat for 12 hours and 15 minutes.
34. ABCD is a quadrilateral with vertices A(4, 9), B(7, 4), C(1, 2) and D(a, 10).
Given that the diagonals are perpendicular to each other, determine:
a. the equation of the diagonal AC
b. the equation of the diagonal BD
c. the value of a.

35. An architect decides to design a building with a 14-metre-square base such that the external walls are
initially vertical to a height of 50 metres, but taper so that their separation is 8 metres at its peak height
of 90 metres. A profile of the building is shown with the point (0, 0) marked as a reference at the centre
of the base.
a. Write the equation of the vertical line connecting A and B.
b. Write the coordinates of B and C.
c. Determine the length of the tapered section of wall from B to C.
8m
C
B
90 m
50 m
0
A 14 m x
36. In a game of lawn bowls, the object is to bowl a biased ball so that it gets as close as possible to a
smaller white ball called a jack. During a game, a player will sometimes bowl a ball quite quickly so
that it travels in a straight line in order to displace an opponents ‘guard balls’. In a particular game,
player x has 2 guard balls
( close ) to the jack.
( The coordinates
) of the jack are (0, 0) and the coordinates of
4 1 57
the guard balls are A −1, and B − , . Player Y bowls a ball so that it travels in a straight
5 2 40
line toward the jack. The ball is bowled from the position S, with the coordinates (−30, 24).
y
S (–30, 24) 24
(
1 57
B ––, –
2 40 ) 57
–
40
(
4
A –1, –
5 ) –4
5
0 x
–30 –1 – –1
2
(Not to scale)
a. Will player Y displace one of the guard balls? If so, which one? Explain your answer.
b. Due to bias, the displaced guard ball is knocked so that it begins to travel in a straight line (at right
angles to the path found in part a. Determine the equation of the line of the guard ball.
c. Show that guard ball A is initially heading directly toward guard ball B.
d. Given its initial velocity, guard ball A can travel in a straight line for 1 metre before its bias affects it
path. Calculate and explain whether guard ball A will collide with guard ball B.

37. The graph shows the line p passing through the points A(−1, 1) and B(5, 5). Given that C is the point
(4, 1), determine:
a. the gradient of p
b. the equation of p
c. the area of ΔABC
d. the length BC, giving your answer correct to 2 decimal places.
y
6
B (5, 5)
5
4
3
2
A (–1, 1) 1 C (4, 1)
0 x
–4 –3 –2 –1
–1 1 2 3 4 5 6
–2
–3
–4
38. The temperature of the air (T °C) is related to the height

above sea level (h metres) by the formula T = 18 − 0.005h.
a. Evaluate the temperature at the heights of:
i. 600 m
ii. 1000 m
iii. 3000 m
b. Draw a graph using the results from part a.
c. Use the graph to determine the temperature at 1200 m and
2500 m.
d. Predict the height at which the temperature is 9 °C.
39. An old theory is that the number of hours of sleep (h) that a
child of c years of age should have each night is
18 − c
h=8+ .
2
a. Determine how many hours a 10-year-old should have.
b. Evaluate the age of a child that requires 10 hours sleep.
c. For every year, determine how much less sleep a child
requires.

eWorkbook Interactivities
Download the workbook for this topic, which includes 3.2 Individual pathway interactivity: Sketching graphs
worksheets, a code puzzle and a project (ewbk-2029) ⃞ (int-4572) ⃞
Plotting linear graphs (int-3834) ⃞
Solutions The gradient–intercept method (int-3839) ⃞
The intercept method (int-3840) ⃞
Download a copy of the fully worked solutions to every
Equations of straight lines (int-6485) ⃞
question in this topic (sol-0737) ⃞
3.3 Individual pathway interactivity: Determining the
equation (int-4573) ⃞
Digital documents
Linear graphs (int-6484) ⃞
3.2 SkillSHEET Describing the gradient of a line (doc-5197) ⃞ 3.4 Individual pathway interactivity: Parallel and
SkillSHEET Plotting a line using a table of values perpendicular lines (int-4576) ⃞
(doc-5198) ⃞ Parallel lines (int-3841) ⃞
SkillSHEET Stating the y-intercept from a graph Perpendicular lines (int-6124) ⃞
(doc-5199) ⃞ 3.5 Individual pathway interactivity: The distance between
SkillSHEET Solving linear equations that arise when two points (int-4574) ⃞
finding x- and y-intercepts (doc-5200) ⃞ Distance between two points (int-6051) ⃞
SkillSHEET Using Pythagoras’ theorem (doc-5201) ⃞ 3.6 Individual pathway interactivity: The midpoint of a line
SkillSHEET Substitution into a linear rule (doc-5202) ⃞ segment (int-4575) ⃞
SkillSHEET Transposing linear equations to standard Midpoints (int-6052) ⃞
form (doc-5203) ⃞ 3.7 Individual pathway interactivity: Applications and
3.3 SkillSHEET Measuring the rise and the run (doc-5196) ⃞ collinearity (int-8469) ⃞
SkillSHEET Determining the gradient given two points Vertical and horizontal lines (int-6049) ⃞
(doc-5204) ⃞ 3.8 Crossword (int-2833) ⃞
Sudoku puzzle (int-3590) ⃞
Video eLessons
3.2 Plotting linear graphs (eles-4736) ⃞ Teacher resources
Sketching linear graphs (eles-4737) ⃞
There are many resources available exclusively for teachers
Sketching linear graphs of the form y = mx (eles-4738) ⃞
online.
Sketching linear graphs of the form y = c and x = a
(eles-4739) ⃞
Using linear graphs to model real-life contexts
(eles-4740) ⃞
Sketching linear graphs (eles-1919) ⃞
Sketching linear graphs using the gradient–intercept
method (eles-1920) ⃞
3.3 Determining a linear equation given two points
(eles-4741) ⃞
A simple formula (eles-4742) ⃞
The equation of a straight line (eles-2313) ⃞
3.4 Parallel lines (eles-4743) ⃞
Perpendicular lines (eles-4744) ⃞
3.5 The distance between two points (eles-4745) ⃞
3.6 Midpoint of a line segment (eles-4746) ⃞
3.7 Collinear points (eles-4747) ⃞
Equations of horizontal and vertical lines (eles-4748) ⃞
Perpendicular bisectors (eles-4749) ⃞

Answers c.
x y 14
y
y = –0.5x + 10
12
Topic 3 Coordinate geometry −6 13
10
Exercise 3.1 Pre-test −4 12 8
6
1. A −2 11
1 4
2. x= 2
2 0 10
3. 3 apps x
2 9 –8 –6 –4 –2 0 2 4 6 8
4. y = 3x − 3 –1
5. D 4 8
6. B
7. a = −2 or a = 22 2. a. y
x y
8. E 300 y = 100x – 240
250
9. B 0 −240
200
10. D
1 −140 150
11. a=6 100
12. y = −2x 2 − 40 50
6 x
13. n= 3 60 0 12 3 4 5
5 –50
14. A 4 160 –100
1 5 –150
15. y=− x+ 5 260
4 4 –200
–250
Exercise 3.2 Sketching linear graphs
1. a. y
x y 35
b. x y y
30 20
−5 −25 y = 10x + 25 y = –5x + 3
25 15
−3 18
−4 −15 20 10
15 −2 13 5
−3 −5 10
−1 x
5 8 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3
−2 5 –5
x –10
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 0 3
−1 15 –5
–10 1 −2
0 25 –15
–20 2 −7
1 35 –25
c. x y y
b. y 20
x y y = 7 – 4x
15 −3 19 15
y = 5x – 12 10
−1 −17 10
5 −2 15 5
0 −12 x x
–2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 −1 11 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3
–5 –5
1 −7 –10 0 7
2 −2 –15
–20 1 3
3 3
2 −1
4 8

3. a. y c. y
x y
20 4
15 y = –3x + 2 2
−6 20
10
x
−4 14 5 –4 –2 0 2 4
–2
x –5x + 3y = 10
−2 8 –10 –5 0 5 10
–5
0 2
–10 d. y
–15 4
2 −4 –20 2
x
4 −10 –4 –2 0 2 4
–2
–4
6 −16
–5x – 3y = 10
b. x y y e. y
5
−3 6 6
x
5 –10 –5 0 5 10
–5
−2 5 4
y = –x + 3 2x – 8y = 20
3
−1 4 2 5. a. y
0 3 1 10 4x + 4y = 40
0 5
1 2 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 x
x
–10 –5 0 5 10
2 1 –5
3 0 b. y
20
–x + 6y = 120
10
c. x y y
x
20 –100 –50 0 50 100
−6 15 15 –10
y = –2x + 3
10
c. y
−4 11 5
–2x + 8y = –20
−2 7 x 5
–10 –5 0 5 10
–5
–10 –10 –5 0 x
0 3 5 10
–5
2 −1
d. y
4 −5 5
x
6 −9 –15 –10 –5 0 5 10
–5
–10
4. a. y
5x – 3y = 10 10x + 30y = –150
4
2 e. y
x 10
–2 0 2 4 5
–2
–4 x
–30 –20 –10 0 10 20
–5
b. y –10
4 5x + 30y = –150
3
5x + 3y = 10 6. a.
2 y
1 10
5
0
–3 –2 –1 1 2 3 x
x
–10 –5 0 5 10
–5
–10
–9x + 4y = 36

b. y c. y
10 4
5 3
x 2
–10 –5 0 5 10 1
(1, 1)
–5
–10 x
–1 0 1 2 3 4
6x – 4y = –24 –1
–2
y = –2x + 3
c. y y = 2x – 10
8. a. y
0 x
–1 1 2 3 4 5
0 1 2 3 4 x
–2 –1
–3 –2
–4 –3
y = –5x – 4
–5 –4
–6 –5
–7 –6
–8 –7
–9 –8
–10 –9
(1, –9)
d. y b. y
20 2
y = 1x – 2
18 1 2
16
x
14
y = –5x + 20 –2 –1 0 12 3 4
–1 (2, –1)
12 –2
10 –3
(1, –9)
8
6 c. y
4 3
y = –2x + 3
2 2 7
(7, 1)
1
0 x
2 4 6 8 10
0 x
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
e. y
x
–8 –7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 9. a. y
–1 y = 0.6x + 0.5
4
y = – 1x – 4 –2
2 –3
(5, 3.5)
–4 2
7. a. y x
y = 4x + 1 0 1 2 3 4 5
5
(1, 5)
4
3 b. y
2 8
(1, 8)
1 (0, 1) 7
6
0 x
1 2 3 4 5
4 y = 8x
b. y 3
y = 3x – 7 2
0 1 2 3 4 x 1
–1
–2 x
0 1 2 3
–3
–4 (1, –4)
–5
–6
–7 (0, –7)

c. y c. y
y=x–7
0 10
x x=0
–1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 5
–2
x
–3 –5 0 5
–5
–4 –10
–5
–6 14. a. y
(1, –6)
–7 5
x
10. y –10 –5 0 5 10
–5
4 –10
y = 2x y = –10
3
2 b. y y = 100
1 y = 1x 100
2
x 50
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4
–1 x
–2 –10 –5 0 5 10
–50
–3
y = –2x
–4 c. y
10
11. y 5
4 y = 5x
x
3 –100 –50 0 50
2 y = 1– x –5
3 –10
1
x = –100
x
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4
–1 15. a. y
–2
y = − 5x 10
–3 2 5
–4
x
–5 0 5 10
12. –5
y –10
4 y = –3x
3 x = 10
2 b. y
1 y = 2x 5
3 y=0
x x
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 –10 –5 0 5 10
–1 –5
–2 y = –3x
–3 2 c. y
–4 x
0
13. a. y y = 10
10
–12 y = –12
5
x
–10 –5 0 5 10
–5 16. a. x-intercept: −0.5; y-intercept: 0.4
b. x-intercept: 0.5; y-intercept: −0.4
b. y
10 c. x-intercept: 0; y-intercept: 0
5 17. a. x-intercept: −3; y-intercept: 12
x b. x-intercept: −4; y-intercept: −4
–10 –5 0 5 10
–5 c. x-intercept: −1; y-intercept: −0.5
–10
18. a. x-intercept: 2.75; y-intercept: 2.2
–15
b. x-intercept: 9.75; y-intercept: −3.9
x = –10
23
c. x-intercept: − ≈ 1.77; y-intercept: 4.6
13

19. a. (2, 0) , (0, −8) b. i. t 0 1 2 3 4 5

( )
1
b. − , 0 , (0, 3) T 15 18 21 24 27 30
2
c. (−5, 0) , (0, 25) ii. T (5, 30)
20. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions in 30
the online resources. 27 (3, 24) (4, 27)
Temperature (°C)
24 (1, 18)
21. a. Explanatory variable = number of songs bought,
21 (2, 21)
response variable = amount of money saved
18
b. y 15 (0, 15)
50 (0, 50) 12
40 9
30 6
y = 50 –1.75x
20 3
10
(0, 28.57) 0 t
1 2 3 4 5
0 x
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 Time (hours)
c. 5 hours
c. 14 songs 25. a. Explanatory variable = time,
response variable = amount of water in the tank
2 7
22. y= x− b. Initially there are 80 litres of water.
3 3
c. Time cannot be negative.
y
1 x-intercept d. 4 litres per minute
(3.5, 0) e. 20 minutes
0 x f.
1 2 3 4 80
–1
60
V litres
–2
y-intercept
40
(0, –2.3)
–3
20
23. a. y = 20x + 25
b. 0
y 4 8 12 16 20
Nikita’s potential weekly earnings ($)
55 t minutes
50 26. a. y
45 (1, 45) 8
y-intercept
40 7
y = 20x + 25 (0, 7) y=7
35 6
30 5
25 4
(0, 25) x=3
20 3
15 2
1 x-intercept
10
(3, 0)
5 0 x
1 2 3 4
0 x
1 2 3 4 5 b. 7
Time (hours) 7
Nikita can earn a maximum of $1145.00 in a
c. c. −
3
single week. d. B
24. a. T is the response variable (temperature) and t is the
explanatory variable (time). Exercise 3.3 Determining linear equations
1. a. y = 2x + 4 b. y = −3x + 12
c. y = −x + 5 d. y = 2x − 8
1 1
2. a. y= x+3 b. y=− x−4
2 4
c. y = 7x − 5 d. y = −3x − 15
3. a. y = 2x b. y = −3x
1 3
c. y = x d. y = − x
2 4

4. a. y = 3x + 3 b. y = −3x + 4 c. y = − 4x + 2 12. a. W = −40t + 712

d. y = 4x + 2 e. y = −x − 4 b.712 L
5. a. y = 0.5x − 4 b. y = 5x + 2.5 c. 18 days
c. y = −6x + 3 d. y = −2.5x + 1.5 13. It does not matter if you rise before you run or run before
e. y = 3.5x + 6.5 you rise, as long as you take into account whether the rise or
6. a. y = 5x − 19 b. y = −5x + 31 run is negative.
c. y = −4x − 1 d. y = 4x − 34 y−c
e. y = 3x − 35 14. a. m= b. y = mx + c
x
7. a. y = −3x + 6 b. y = −2x + 30 15. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions in
c. y = 2x − 4.5 d. y = 0.5x − 19 the online resources.
e. y = −0.5x + 5.5 16. a. mAB = 5 b. y = 5x − 3
1 7 c. mCD = 5 d. D = (6, 5)
8. a. y=x+3 b. y = 2x − 1 c. y=− x+
2 2 1
17. mAB = mCD = 2 and mBC = mAD = . As opposite sides have
1 1 2
9. a. y = x + b. y = −2x − 2 c. y = −x − 8 the same gradients, this quadrilateral is a parallelogram.
2 2
18. a. b = −10 b. a = −4
10. a. Explanatory variable = time (in hours), response
variable = cost (in $)
Exercise 3.4 Parallel and perpendicular lines
b. t 0 1 2 3
1. a. No b. Yes c. No
c 2 8 14 20
2. a. No b. Yes c. No
c. C 3. a. No b. No c. No
40 (6, 38)
36 4. a. No b. No c. No
32 C = 6t + 2 5. b and f are parallel. c and e are parallel.
28 6. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions in
Cost ($)
24 the online resources.

20
7. y = 2x − 9
16
12 8. 3x + 2y − 8 = 0
8 9. a. y = 3x + 2 b. y = −4x + 9
4
3x −2x 13
(0, 2) c. y = −4 d. y = −
2 5 5
0 t x x 17
1 2 3 4 5 6
e. y = − 1 f. y = +
Time (hours) 5 3 3
d. i. (0, 2) x 14
g. y = −
ii. The y-intercept represents the initial cost of bowling 3 3
at the alley, which is the shoe rental. 10. a. 2x − y + 5 = 0 b. x + 2y = 0
e. m = 6, which represents the cost to hire a lane for an 11. a. 3x − 5y + 2 = 0 b. 5x + 3y − 8 = 0
additional hour.
12. a. B b. C c. D d. B
f. C = 6t + 2
13. E
g. $32 −2x 1
h. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions 14. a. y = −2x + 1 b. y= −
3 3
in the online resources. 15. a and e are perpendicular; b and f are perpendicular; c and h
11. a. C = response variable, n = explanatory variable are perpendicular; d and g are perpendicular.
b. C = 15n + 10 −x 3
16. y= +
c. $460.00 2 2
d. −8 18
y 17. a. m = b. m =
600 (40, 610) 5 5
Cost of hiring
500 (30, 460) 18. E

scooters ($)
400 19. 2y + x − 8 = 0
300
(20, 310) 20. 4y − 3x + 15 = 0
200
100 21. B
0 x
10 20 30 40
Number of
scooters (n)

22. a.
7
y 13. a. mAB = 1 and mBC = −
4 3
3 b. D (4, −1)
2 c. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions
1 (2, 0) in the online resources.
x
–4 –3 – 2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 Exercise 3.6 The midpoint of a line segment
–1 ( ) ( )
–2 1 1
–3 1. a. −3, −3 b. 7 , 0 c. (−1, 1)
2 2
–4 (0, –4) ( ) ( ) ( )
1 1 1
2. a. 0, 1 b. 2a, b c. a + b, a
b. y 2 2 2
4 3. (−3, −10)
3 ( ) ( )
3 11 5a
2 (1, 0) 4. a. (2, −1) b. , c. 2,
2 2 2
1
(2, 0) 5. x + y = −3
x
–4 –3 – 2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 6. a. (3, 1) b. 4.47 c. 6.32
(0, –2) – 1
–2 7. D
–3 8. C
–4 (0, –4)
( )
1
9. a. i. (−1, 4) ii. 1 ,1 iii. 3.91
2
c. y
4 b. BC = 7.8 = 2PQ
3 10. a. i. (1, −0.5) ii. (1, −0.5)
2 (1, 0) b. The diagonals bisect each other, so it is a parallelogram.
1 11. a. i. (−2, 2) ii. 8.94 iii. 9.55 iv. 9.55
(0, 0) (2, 0)
x b. Isosceles. PC is the perpendicular height of the triangle.
–4 –3 – 2 –1 0 1 2 3 4
(0, –2) –1 (2, –1) 12. a. y
–2
–3 8
C (–3, 8)
–4 (0, –4) 7
6
−3 5
23. a=
2 4
3 3 B (2, 3)
24. a.
2 2
b. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions 1
in the online resources. x
–8 – 7 –6 –5 –4 –3 – 2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
–1
Exercise 3.5 The distance between two points –2
√ √ –3
1. AB = 5,√CD = 2 10 or 6.32, EF = √3 2 or 4.24, A (–1, –4) –4
GH = 2 √5 or 4.47, IJ = 5,√KL = 26 or 5.10, –5
D (4, –5)
MN = 4 2 or 5.66, OP = 10 or 3.16 –6
2. a. 5 b. 13 c. 10 d. 7.07 e. 6.71 –7
–8
3. a. 14.42
√ b. 13√ c. 13
d. a2 + 4b2 e. 3 a2 + b2 ( )
−1 + −3 −4 + 8
4. a. AB = 4.47, BC = 2.24, CD = 4.47, DA = 2.24 b. M= ,
2 2
b.AC = 5, BD = 5 = (−2, 2)
√
c. Rectangle c. 2 37
5. B d. (7, −2)
6. D 3 − (−4) 7
e. =
7. 8. and 9. Sample responses can be found in the worked 2 − (−1) 3
solutions in the online resources. f. y = −4x + 11
10. a. 12 b. 5 c. 13 d. −2.2 13. (4k − 1, 3.5 − 5k)
11. a=2 14. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions in
12. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions in the online resources.
the online resources. 15. y = −3x − 2

16. 3y − 2x + 14 = 0 b. y
−2x 8 5
17. y = +
3 3 4
3 A (2, 3)
Exercise 3.7 Applications and collinearity 2
1 B (6, 0)
1. and 2. Sample responses can be found in the worked
solutions in the online resources. x
–1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
3. a. x = 1 b. y = −7 –1 C (0, –1)
–2
4. x+y+3=0
( )
2 5 c. Scalene
5. a. Since m1 = m2 = and , 2 is common to both line
5 2 21. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions in
segments, these three points are collinear.
−5 97
b. y = x+
2 10 Project
6. a. (2, 5)
y
b. 1 16
c. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions 14
in the online resources. 12
10
d. Isosceles triangle
8
7. 4x − 6y + 23 = 0
6
8. a. y = −x + 5 b. y = x + 3 c. (1, 4) 4
9. and 10. Sample responses can be found in the worked 2
solutions in the online resources. x
–8 –6 –4 –2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
11. B –2
–4
12. a. 5.10 km b. (6.5, 5.5) c. 2
–6
d. y = 2x − 18 e. (10, 2) f. 7.07 km
–8
13. and 14. Sample responses can be found in the worked
solutions in the online solutions.
1. The symbol is the one used to represent a speaker.
15. a. (0, 2) , (2, 2) or (0, − 2) , (−2, −2) or (1, 1) , (1, −1)
( √ ) ( √ ) 2. The shape is a trapezium.
b. 1, 3 or 1, − 3
1( )
c. (3, 1) , (−1, 1) or (1, −1) Area = length line 6 + length line 8
2
16. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions in × Perpendicular distance between these lines.
17. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions in 1( √ √ ) √
= 4 2 + 14 2 × 7 2
the online resources. 2
a. y = 1 = 126 units2
b. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions
in the online resources. 3. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions in the
18. a. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions
online resources. You could use any symbol of interest and
in the online resources. provide instructions for your design. Ensure that your design
involves aspects of coordinate geometry that have been used
b. Yes
throughout this task.
c. Yes
19. a. OA: 2x + 3y − 13 = 0; OB: x = 3 Exercise 3.8 Review questions
( )
7 1. A
b. 3,
3 2. D
c. d. and e. Sample responses can be found in the worked
3. B
solutions in the online resources.
4. C
20. a. Line A: 2x − y − 1 = 0, Line B: 3x + 4y − 18 = 0, Line
C: x − 6y − 6 = 0 5. A
6. C
7. A
8. C
9. C

10. See table at the bottom of the page.* 13. a. y

y 2x – 3y = 6
80
60 0 3 x
40 –2
20
x b. y
–10 –8 –6 –4 –2 0 2 4 6 8 10
–20
–40 3
–60
–80
0 x
–1
y = –3x
11. a. y
y = 3x – 2
2– , 0
( )
3
1 (1, 1) c. y
0 x 5x + y = –3
1
0 x
–2 (0, –2) – 3–
5
–3
b. y
y = –5x + 15
15 d. y
(0, 15)
(1, 10) x+y+3=0
10
–3 0 x
(3, 0) –3
0 x
1
14. a. y
c. y
(0, 1)
y = –2 x + 1 1
(1, 12)
3 3
1 –, 0
2 ( ) 2
0 x
0 x 1
3
–1 y= 1x
(3, –1) 2
d. y b. y
4
0 1 x
(2 71– , 0) y = – 4x
0 5 x –4
y = –7 x – 3
5 c. y
–3 (0, –3)
x = –2
6 0 x
12. a. x-intercept: = ; y-intercept: b = 6 –2
7 ( )
40 1
b. x-intercept: = , = 13 , y-intercept: = −5
3 3 d. y
( )
21 5 3
c. x-intercept: = , =1 , y-intercept: = − 7 y=7
16 16 4
d. x-intercept: −5.6 y-intercept: = 2.8 0 x
*10. x −10 −8 −6 −4 −2 0 2 4 6 8 10
y 65 55 45 35 25 15 5 −5 −15 −25 −35

15. y d. $91.13
7 (0, 7) 32. a. See table at the bottom of the page.*
b. Cost = $2.50 × number of rides + $12.50
0 x c.
– –7
Total cost ($)

2 40
30
3( y – 5) = 6(x + 1)
20
1 10
16. a. y = 2x − 2 b. y = −x − 4 c. y=− x+2
3 0
3 2 4 6 8 10
d. y = 4x e. y=− f. x=5 Number of rides
4
17. a. y = 3x − 4 b. y = −2x − 5 d. $30
1 33. a.
c. y = x + 5 d. y = 6 500
2 400
Cost ($)
18. a. y = 7x − 13 b. y = −3x + 4 300
1 3 18 200
c. y = x + 6 d. y = x −
2 5 5 100
√
19. 61 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
20. and 21. Sample responses can be found in the worked Time (hours)
solutions in the online resources. b. C = 22.50h + 160
22. (0, −18) c. Approximately $436
23. and 24. Sample responses can be found in the worked 34. a. 7x − 3y − 1 = 0
b. 3x + 7y − 49 = 0
25. x + 2y − 2 = 0
c. −7
26. 2x + 3y − 9 = 0
35. a. x = −7
27. 3x + 2y − 21 = 0
b. B (−7, 50) , C (−4, 90)
28. 3x − 2y + 16 = 0
c. 40.11 metres
4 5
29. a. i. − ii. 36. a. Since the gradient of SA equals the gradient of
5 4
iii. 4x + 5y − 61 = 0 iv. 5x − 4y − 25 = 0 SO = −0.8, the points S, A and O are collinear. Player Y
v. (9, 5) will displace guard ball A.
5 41
b. Square b. y= x+ or 25x − 20y + 41 = 0
( ) ( ) 4 20
1 1 1 1
30. a. i. ii. − ,1 iii. 4 , 1 5
10 2 2 2 c. Since the gradient of the path AB is , which is the
4
b. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions same as the gradient of the known path of travel from the
in the online resources. common point A, the direction of travel is toward B.
31. a. See table at the bottom of the page.* d. dAB = 0.80 m. Yes, guard ball A will collide with guard
b. Pay = $13.50 × (number of hours worked) ball B as it will not be deviated from its linear path under
c. 1 metre of travel.
50 5−1 4 2
37. a. Gradient = m = = =
40 5 − −1 6 3
Pay ($)
30
20
10
0 1 2 3 4
Hours worked (h)
*31a. Number of hours 0 2 4 6 8 10

Pay ($) 0 27 54 81 108 135
*32a. Number of rides 0 2 4 6 8 10

Cost($) 12.50 17.50 22.50 27.50 32.50 37.50

2
b. y = mx + b, y = x + b
3
If x = −1 and y = 1, substitute in the question:
2
1 = (−1) + b
3
2
b=1
3
2 2
y= x+1
3 3
c. Plot the point (5, 1).
1
Area of large ∆ = × 6 × 4 = 12
2
1
Area of small ∆ = ×1×4=2
2
Area of ∆ABC = 12 − 2 = 10 units2
y
6 (5, 5)
5
4
3
2
(5, 1)
(–1, 1) 1
(4, 1)
–2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
d. BC2 = 42 + 12
BC2 = 16 + 1
BC2 = 17
√
BC2 = 17 ≈ 4.12 units
38. a. T = 18 − 0.005 (600) = 15 °C
i.
ii.T = 18 − 0.005 (1000) = 13 °C
iii. T = 18 − 0.005 (3000) = 3 °C
b. y
18
16
Temperature (˚C)
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0 200 600 1000 1400 1800 2200 2600 3000 3400 3800 x
Height (m)
c. 1200 m = 12 °C, 2500 m = 5.5 °C
d. 1800 m
39. a. 12 hours
b. 14 years old
18 − c
c. h = 8 +
2
2h = 16 + 18 − c
3h = −c + 34
1
h = c + 17
2
For every year, the child requires half an hour less sleep.

Simultaneous linear
equations and
4 inequalities
LEARNING SEQUENCE
4.1 Overview ...............................................................................................................................................................216
4.2 Graphical solution of simultaneous linear equations .......................................................................... 220
4.3 Solving simultaneous linear equations using substitution ................................................................ 229
4.4 Solving simultaneous linear equations using elimination .................................................................. 234
4.5 Applications of simultaneous linear equations ...................................................................................... 240
4.6 Solving simultaneous linear and non-linear equations ....................................................................... 246
4.7 Solving linear inequalities .............................................................................................................................. 256
4.8 Inequalities on the Cartesian plane ............................................................................................................ 262
4.9 Solving simultaneous linear inequalities .................................................................................................. 271
4.10 Review ................................................................................................................................................................... 278
4.1 Overview
Why learn this?
Often in life, we will be faced with a trade-off situation. This means that
you are presented with multiple options and must decide on a combination
of outcomes that provides you with the best result. Imagine a race with
both swimming and running components, in which athletes start from a
boat, swim to shore, and then run along the beach to the finish line. Each
athlete would have the following options:
• swim directly to shore and run a longer distance along the beach
• swim a longer distance diagonally through the ocean and reduce the
distance required to run to reach the finish line
• swim directly through the ocean to the finish, covering the shortest
possible distance.
Which option should an athlete take? This would depend on how far
the athlete can swim or run, because reducing the swimming distance
increases the running distance. To find the best combination of swimming
and running, an athlete could form equations based on speed, time and
distance and solve simultaneously to find the best combination.
Just like the athletes in the scenario above, businesses face trade-offs like
these every day, where they have to decide how much of each product they should produce in order to produce
the highest possible profit. As an example, a baker might make the most per-item profit from selling cakes; but if
they don’t produce muffins, bread and a range of other products then they will attract fewer customers and miss
out on sales, reducing overall profit. Thus, a baker could use simultaneous equations to find the best combination
of baked goods to produce in order to maximise profit.
Where to get help

Go to your learnON at www.jacplus.com.au to access the following digital resources. The Online
Fully worked
solutions
eLessons
to every
question
Digital
eWorkbook
documents

( )
10
1. State whether the following is True or False. The point , 5 is the solution to the simultaneous
3
equations 3x + 2y = 10 and −x − 4y = 5.
2. Identify the solution to the simultaneous equations shown in the graph.
y
5
4
3
2
1
x
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5
–1
–2
–3
–4
–5
3. State the number of solutions to the pair of simultaneous equations 2x − y = 1 and −6x + 3y = −3.
4. Use substitution to solve the simultaneous equations y = 0.2x and y = −0.3x + 0.5.
Give your answer as a coordinate pair.
5. MC Solve for x, the inequality 2x + 3 > 5x − 6.

A. x < −1 B. x < 1 C. x > 1 D. x < 3 E. x > 3
5 − 2m
6. MC Solve for m, the inequality ≤ 2.
3
1 1 11 11
A. m ≤ − B. m ≥ − C. m ≥ − D. m ≤ − E. m ≤ −2
2 2 2 2
7. Dylan received a better result for his Maths test than for his English test. If the sum of his two test
results is 159 and the difference is 25, determine Dylan’s maths test result.
8. MC Solve the pair of simultaneous equations mx + ny = m and x = y + n for x and y in terms of m and n.
m + n2 m(1 − n)
A. x = and y =
m+n m+n
m(1 − n)
B. x = 1 and y =
m+n
1 m(1 − n)
C. x = and y =
n m+n
m + n2 1−n
D. x = and y =
m+n n
E. x = m − mn and y = m + n
TOPIC 4 Simultaneous linear equations and inequalities 217

x y 1 x y 1
9. MC Solve the pair of simultaneous equations − = and + = .
3 2 6 4 3 2
221 9 13 1 81 17
A. x = and y = B. x = and y = C. x = and y =
6 2 102 34 17 9
17 9 22 9
D. x = and y = E. x = and y =
22 22 17 17
10. MC If the perimeter of a rectangle is 22 cm and the area is 24 cm2 . Select all possible values of x and y.
(y + 3) cm
2x cm
1
A. x = 4, y = 0 B. x = 6.5, y = −5 C. x = 1 , y = 5
2
3 3
D. x = − , y = −5 E. x = ,y=5 F. x = −4, y = 0
2 2
G. x = 1.5, y = 5
5
11. MC Identify the points of intersection between the line y = x + 4 and the hyperbola y = .
x
A. (−4, 4) and (1, 5) B. (−1, −5) and (5, 1) C. (−5, −1) and (1, 5)
D. (5, 9) and (−1, 3) E. (0, 9) and (−1, 5)
12. MC Select all the point(s) of intersection between the circle x2 + y2 = 8 and the line y = x.
A. (4, 4) B. (2, 2) C. (−4, −4)
D. (−2, −2) E. (0, 0) F. (−2, 2)
G. (2, −2)
13. State at how many points the line y = 2 intersects with parabola y = x2 − 4.
14. MC Identify the three inequalities that define the shaded region in y
the diagram. 5
A. x > 5, y < 1, y < x + 2 4
3
B. x > 5, y < 1, y > −x + 2
2
C. x > 5, y < 1, y < −x + 2 1
D. x > 1, y < 5, y < x + 2 x
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5
E. x > 1, y < 5, y > x + 2 –1
–2
–3
–4
–5

15. MC Identify the region satisfying the systems of inequalities 2y − 3x > 1 and y + x < −2.
A. y B. y
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
x x
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5
–1 –1
–2 –2
–3 –3
–4 –4
–5 –5
C. y D. y
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
x x
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5
–1 –1
–2 –2
–3 –3
–4 –4
–5 –5
E. y
5
4
3
2
1
x
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5
–1
–2
–3
–4
–5

“c04SimultaneousLinearEquationsAndInequalities_PrintPDF” — 2022/1/31 — 2:55 — page 220 — #6
4.2 Graphical solution of simultaneous linear equations

LEARNING INTENTION
• use the graph of two simultaneous equations to determine the point of intersection
• determine whether two simultaneous equations will have 0, 1 or infinite solutions
• determine whether two lines are parallel or perpendicular.
eles-4763
4.2.1 Simultaneous linear equations and graphical solutions
• Simultaneous means occurring at the same time. y
• When a point lies on more than one line, the coordinates of that point are 3 y=x+2
said to satisfy all equations of the lines it lies on. The equations of the lines 2
are called simultaneous equations. 1
• A system of equations is a set of two or more equations with the 0 x
–4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4
same variables. –1
–2 y = –x
• Solving a system of simultaneous equations is to find the coordinates of any –3
point/s that satisfy all equations in the system.
• Any point or points that satisfy a system of simultaneous equations is said to
be the solution. For the equations shown to the right, the solution is the point (−1, 1).
• Simultaneous equations can be solved by finding these points graphically or algebraically.
Graphical solution
• The solution to a pair of simultaneous equations can be found by graphing the two equations and
identifying the coordinates of the point of intersection.
• The accuracy of the solution depends on having an accurate graph.
WORKED EXAMPLE 1 Solving simultaneous equations graphically

y
Use the graphs of the given simultaneous equations to determine the 3
point of intersection and, hence, the solution of the simultaneous equations. y = 2x – 3
2
x + 2y = 4 1 x + 2y = 4
y = 2x − 3
x
–1 0 1 2 3 4 5
–1
THINK WRITE/DRAW –2
1. Write the equations, one under the other and x + 2y = 4 [1] –3
number them. y = 2x − 3 [2]
2. Locate the point of intersection of the two Point of intersection (2, 1)

lines. This gives the solution. Solution: x = 2 and y = 1
y
3
y = 2x – 3
2
1 (2, 1) x + 2y = 4
x
–1 0 1 2 3 4 5
–1
–2
–3

3. Check the solution by substituting x = 2 and
Check equation [1]:
y = 1 into the given equations. Comment on LHS = x + 2y RHS = 4
the results obtained. = 2 + 2(1)
=4
LHS = RHS
Check equation [2]:
LHS = y RHS = 2x − 3
=1 = 2 (2) − 3
= 4−3
=1
LHS = RHS
4. State the solution. In both cases LHS = RHS, therefore the
solution set (2, 1) is correct.
WORKED EXAMPLE 2 Verifying a solution using substitution
Verify whether the given pair of coordinates, (5, −2), is the solution to the following pair of
simultaneous equations.
3x − 2y = 19
4y + x = −3
THINK WRITE
1. Write the equations and number them. 3x − 2y = 19 [1]
4y + x = −3 [2]
2. Substitute x = 5 and y = −2 into equation [1]. Check equation [1]:
LHS = 3x − 2y RHS = 19
= 3(5) − 2(−2)
= 15 + 4
= 19
LHS = RHS
3. Substitute x = 5 and y = −2 into equation [2]. Check equation [2]:
LHS = 4y + x RHS = −3
= 4 (−2) + 5
= −3
LHS = RHS
4. State the solution. Therefore, the solution set (5, −2) is a solution to
both equations.
WORKED EXAMPLE 3 Using a graphical method to solve simultaneously
Solve the following pair of simultaneous equations using a graphical method.

x+y = 6
2x + 4y = 20
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1. Write the equations, one under the other and x+y =6 [1]
number them. 2x + 4y = 20 [2]

2. Calculate the x- and y-intercepts for equation [1]. Equation [1]
For the x-intercept, substitute y = 0 into x-intercept: when y = 0,
equation [1]. x+0 = 6
x=6
The x-intercept is at (6, 0).
For the y-intercept, substitute x = 0 into y-intercept: when x = 0,
equation [1]. 0+y = 6
y=6
The y-intercept is at (0, 6).
3. Calculate the x- and y-intercepts for equation [2]. Equation [2]
For the x-intercept, substitute y = 0 into x-intercept: when y = 0,
equation [2]. 2x + 0 = 20
Divide both sides by 2. 2x = 20
x = 10
The x-intercept is at (10, 0).
For the y-intercept, substitute y = 0 into y-intercept: when x = 0,
equation [2]. 0 + 4y = 20
Divide both sides by 4. 4y = 20
y=5
The y-intercept is at (0, 5).
4. Use graph paper to rule up a set of axes and label y
the x-axis from 0 to 10 and the y-axis from 0 to 6. 7
(0, 6)
5. Plot the x- and y-intercepts for each equation. 6
5 (2, 4)
6. Produce a graph of each equation by ruling a (0, 5)
4
straight line through its intercepts. 3
2x + 4y = 20
7. Label each graph. 2
1 (10, 0)
(6, 0)
0 x
–3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
–1
–2 x+y=6
–3
8. Locate the point of intersection of the lines. The point of intersection is (2, 4).
9. Check the solution by substituting x = 2 and y = 4 Check [1]:
into each equation. LHS = x + y RHS = 6
= 2+4
=6
LHS = RHS
Check [2]:
LHS = 2x + 4y RHS = 20
= 2(2) + 4(4)
= 4 + 16
= 20
LHS = RHS
10. State the solution. In both cases, LHS = RHS. Therefore, the
solution set (2, 4) is correct.
The solution is x = 2, y = 4.

1. In a new problem on a 1. On a Graph & Table

Graphs page, complete screen, complete the
the function entry lines function entry lines as:
as: y1 = 6 − x
x
f 1(x) = 6 − x y2 = 5 −
x 2
f 2(x) = 5 −
2 Then tap the graphing
Press the down arrow icon. The graphs will be
between entering the displayed.
functions. The graphs
will be displayed.
2. To locate the point of 2. To locate the point of

intersection, press: intersection, tap:
• MENU • Analysis
• 6: Analyze Graph • G-Solve
• 4: Intersection • Intersection
Drag the dotted line to The point of intersection
the left of the point of will be shown.
intersection (the lower
bound), press ENTER
and then drag the dotted
line to the right of the
point of intersection
(the upper bound) and
press ENTER.
The point of
intersection will be
shown.
3. State the point of The point of intersection (the 3. State the point of The point of intersection
intersection. solution) is (2, 4). intersection. (the solution) is (2, 4).
That is, x = 2, y = 4. That is, x = 2, y = 4.
4.2.2 Solutions to coincident, parallel and perpendicular lines

eles-4764
• Two lines are coincident if they lie one on top of the other. For example, in the graph shown, the line in
blue and line segment in pink are coincident.
y
6
5
4
3
2 y = 2x, 0.5 < x <1.5
1
y = 2x
0 x
–2 –1
–1 1 2 3 4
• There are an infinite number of solutions to coincident equations. Every point where the lines coincide
satisfies both equations and hence is a solution to the simultaneous equations.
• Coincident equations have the same equation, although the equations may have been transposed so they
look different. For example, y = 2x + 3 and 2y − 4x = 6 are coincident equations.

Parallel lines
• If two lines do not intersect, there is no simultaneous solution to the equations. y
For example, the graph lines shown do not intersect, so there is no point that 12
belongs to both lines. 10
2x – y = 1
• Parallel lines have the same gradient but a different y-intercept. 8
• For straight lines, the only situation in which the lines do not cross is if the lines 6
4x – 2y = –2
are parallel and not coincident. 4
2
2x − y = 1 [1] 4x − 2y = −2 [2] 0 x
–2 2 4 6 8 10
−y = 1 − 2x −2y = −2 − 4x
−y = −2x − 1 −2y = −4x − 2
y = 2x − 1 y = 2x + 1
Gradient m = 2 Gradient m = 2
• Writing both equations in the form y = mx + c confirms that the lines are parallel
since the gradients are equal.
Perpendicular lines
• Two lines are perpendicular if they intersect at right angles (90°). y
4
• The product of the gradients of two perpendicular lines is equal to −1:
3
1 2 y = 2x + 1
m1 × m2 = −1 or m1 = − 1
m2
1 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 x
• The two lines in the graph shown are perpendicular as m1 × m2 = 2 × − = −1. –1
2 –2 y =–1 x + 1
–3 2
Number of solutions for a pair of simultaneous linear equations

For two linear equations given by y1 = m1 x + c1 and y2 = m2 x + c2 :
• If m1 = m2 and c1 ≠ c2 then the two lines are parallel and there will be no solutions between the
two lines.
• If m1 = m2 and c1 = c2 then the two lines are coincident and there will be infinite solutions between the
two lines.
• If m1 ≠ m2 then the lines will cross once, so there will be one solution.
• If m1 × m2 = −1 then the lines are perpendicular and will intersect (once) at right angles (90°).
WORKED EXAMPLE 4 Determining the number of solutions between two lines
Determine the number of solutions between the following pairs of simultaneous equations. If there is
only one solution, determine whether the lines are perpendicular.
a. 2y = 4x + 6 and −3y = −6x − 12
b. y = −3x + 2 and −3y = x + 15
c. 5y = 25x − 30 and 2y − 10x + 12 = 0
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Re-write both equations in the a. 2y = 4x + 6
form y = mx + c. y = 2x + 3 [1]
−3y = −6x − 12
y = 2x + 4 [2]
2. Determine the gradient of both lines. m1 = 2 and m2 = 2
3. Check if the lines are parallel, coincident or The gradients are the same and the y-intercepts
perpendicular. different. So, the two lines are parallel.
4. Write the answer. There will be no solutions between this pair
of simultaneous equations as the lines are
parallel.
b. 1. Re-write both equations in the b. y = −3x + 2 [1]
form y = mx + c. −3y = x + 15
x
y= − 5 [2]
−3
1
2. Determine the gradient of both lines. m1 = −3 and m2 = −
3
3. Check if the lines are parallel, coincident or The gradients are different so there will be
perpendicular and comment on the number one solution.
of solutions.
1
4. Determine if the lines are perpendicular by m1 × m2 = −3 × − = 1
calculating the product of the gradients. 3
5. Write the answer. The lines have one solution but they are not
perpendicular.
c. 1. Re-write both equations in the c. 5y = 25x − 30
form y = mx + c. y = 5x − 6 [1]
2y − 10x + 12 = 0
2y = 10x − 12
y = 5x − 6 [2]
2. Determine the gradient of both lines. m1 = 5 and m2 = 5

3. Check if the lines are parallel, coincident, or The gradients are the same and the y-intercepts
perpendicular. are also the same. So, the two lines are coincident.
4. Write the answer. The lines are coincident so there are infinite
solutions between the two lines.
DISCUSSION
What do you think is the major error made when solving simultaneous equations graphically?
Resources
Resourceseses
eWorkbook Topic 4 Workbook (worksheets, code puzzle and a project) (ewbk-2030)
Digital document SkillSHEET Graphing linear equations using the x- and y-intercept method (doc-5217)
Interactivities Individual pathway interactivity: Graphical solution of simultaneous linear equations (int-4577)
Solving simultaneous equations graphically (int-6452)
Parallel lines (int-3841)
Perpendicular lines (int-6124)

Exercise 4.2 Graphical solution of simultaneous linear
equations
Individual pathways
1, 4, 7, 10, 14, 15, 18 2, 5, 8, 11, 12, 16, 19 3, 6, 9, 13, 17, 20, 21
Fluency
WE1 For questions 1 to 3, use the graphs to determine the point of intersection and hence the solution of the
1. a. x + y = 3 b. x + y = 2
x−y=1 3x − y = 2
y y
6 6
3x – y = 2
5 5
x–y=1 4
4
3 3
2 2
1 1
x 0 x
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 –0.5
–1
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
–1 x+y=2
–2 –2
x+y=3
–3 –3
–4 –4
2. a. y − x = 4 b. y + 2x = 3
3x + 2y = 8 2y + x = 0
y y
6 3
3x + 2y = 8 y–x=4
y + 2x = 3
4 2
2 1
0 x 0 x
–4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 –1 1 2 3 4 5
–2 –1
–4 –2
2y + x = 0
–6 –3

3. a. y − 3x = 2 b. 2y − 4x = 5
x−y=2 4y + 2x = 5
y y
2y – 4x = 5
6 6
y – 3x = 2
4 4
2 2
x–y=2 4y + 2x = 5
0 x 0 x
–3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 –1.0 –0.5 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
–2 –2
–4 –4
–6 –6
WE2 For questions 4 to 6, use substitution to check if the given pair of coordinates is a solution.
4. a. (7, 5) 3x + 2y = 31 b. (3, 7) y−x=4
2x + 3y = 28 2y + x = 17
c. (9, 1) x + 3y = 12 d. (2, 5) x−y=7
5x − 2y = 143 2x + 3y = 18
5. a. (4, −3) y = 3x − 15 b. (6, −2) x−y=7

4x + 7y = −5 3x + y = 16
c. (4, −2) 2x + y = 6 d. (5, 1) y − 5x = −24
x − 3y = 8 3y + 4x = 23
6. a. (−2, −5) 3x − 2y = −4 b. (−3, −1) y−x=2

2x − 3y = 11 2y − 3x = 7
( ) ( )
1 3 5
c. − , 2 6x + 4y = 5 d. , 8x + 6x = 22
2 2 3
20x − 5y = 0 10x − 9y = 0
WE3 For questions 7 to 9, solve each of the following pairs of simultaneous equations using a graphical method.
7. a. x + y = 5 b. x + 2y = 10 c. 2x + 3y = 6 d. x − 3y = −8
2x + y = 8 3x + y = 15 2x − y = −10 2x + y = −2
8. a. 6x + 5y = 12 b. y + 2x = 6 c. y = 3x + 10 d. y = 8
5x + 3y = 10 2y + 3x = 9 y = 2x + 8 3x + y = 17
9. a. 4x − 2y = −5 b. 3x + y = 11 c. 3x + 4y = 27 d. 3y + 3x = 8
x + 3y = 4 4x − y = 3 x + 2y = 11 3y + 2x = 6
Understanding
For questions 10 to 12, using technology, determine which of the following pairs of simultaneous equations have
no solutions. Confirm by finding the gradient of each line.
10. a. y = 2x − 4 b. 5x − 3y = 13 c. x + 2y = 8 d. y = 4x + 5
3y − 6x = 10 4x − 2y = 10 5x + 10y = 45 2y − 10x = 8
11. a. 3y + 2x = 9 b. y = 5 − 3x c. 4y + 3x = 7 d. 2y − x = 0
6x + 4y = 22 3y = −9x + 18 12y + 9x = 22 14y − 6x = 2
12. a. y = 3x − 4 b. 4x − 6y = 12 c. 3y = 5x − 22 d. 3x = 12 − 4y
5y = 12 + 15x 6x − 4y = 12 5x = 3y + 26 8y + 6x = 14
13. Two straight lines intersect at the point (3, −4). One of the lines has a y-intercept of 8. The second line is a
mirror image of the first in the line x = 3. Determine the equation of the second line.
(Hint: Draw a graph of both lines.)
Reasoning
14. At a well-known beach resort it is possible to hire a jet-ski by the hour in
two different locations. On the northern beach the cost is $20 plus $12 per
hour, while on the southern beach the cost is $8 plus $18 per hour. The
jet-skis can be rented for up to 5 hours.
a. Write the rules relating cost to the length of rental.
b. On the same set of axes sketch a graph of cost (y-axis) against length of
rental (x-axis) for 0 − 5 hours.
c. For what rental times, if any, is the northern beach rental cheaper than
the southern beach rental? Use your graph to justify your answer.
d. For what length of rental time are the two rental schemes identical? Use
the graph and your rules to justify your answer.
15. For each of the pairs of simultaneous equations below, determine whether they are the same line, parallel
lines, perpendicular lines or intersecting lines. Show your working.
a. 2x − y = −9 b. x − y = 7 c. x + 6 = y d. x + y = −2
−4x − 18 = −2y x+y=7 2x + y = 6 x+y=7
16. For each of the following, explain if the equations have one solution, an infinite number of solutions or
no solution.
a. x − y = 1 b. 2x − y = 5 c. x − 2y = −8
2x − 3y = 2 4x − 2y = −6 4x − 8y = −16
17. Determine whether the following pairs of equations will have one, infinite or no solutions. If there is only
one solution, determine whether the lines are perpendicular.
a. 3x + 4y = 14 b. 2x + y = 5 c. 3x − 5y = −6 d. 2y − 4x = 6
4x − 3y = 2 3y + 6x = 15 5x − 3y = 24 2x − y = −10
Problem solving
18. Use the information below to determine the value of a in each of the following equations:
a. y = ax + 3, which is parallel to y = 3x − 2
b. y = ax − 2, which is perpendicular to y = −4x + 6
c. y = ax − 4, which intersects the line y = 3x + 6 when x = 2.
19. Line A is parallel to the line with equation y − 3x − 3 = 0 and passes through the point (1, 9). Line B is
perpendicular to the line with equation 2y − x + 6 = 0 and passes through the point (2, −3).
a. Determine the equation of line A.
b. Determine the equation of line B.
c. Sketch both lines on the one set of axes to find where they intersect.
20. Solve the system of three simultaneous equations graphically.
3x − y = 2
y + 3x = 4
2y − x = 1
21. A line with equation 4x + 5y = 4 intersects a second line when x = −4. Determine the equation of the second
line if it is perpendicular to the first line.
4.3 Solving simultaneous linear equations using
substitution
LEARNING INTENTION
• identify when it is appropriate to solve using the substitution method
• solve a system of two linear simultaneous equations using the substitution method.
4.3.1 Solving simultaneous equations using the substitution method

eles-4766
• A variable is considered the subject of an equation if it is expressed in terms of the other variables. In the
equation y = 3x + 4, the variable y is the subject.
• The substitution method is used when one (or both) of the equations is presented in a form where one of
the two variables is the subject of the equation.
• When solving two linear simultaneous equation, the substitution method involves replacing a variable
in one equation with the other equation. This produces a new third equation expressed in terms of a
single variable.
• Consider the pair of simultaneous equations:
y = 2x − 4
3x + 2y = 6
• In the first equation, y is written as the subject and is equal to (2x − 4). In this case, substitution is
performed by replacing y in the second equation with the expression (2x − 4).
y = 2x – 4
3x + 2(y) = 10
3x + 2(2x – 4) = 6
• This produces a third equation, all in terms of x, so that the value of x can be found.
• Once a value for one variable is found, it can be substituted back into either equation to find the value of
the other variable.
• It is often helpful to use brackets when substituting an expression into another equation.
WORKED EXAMPLE 5 Solving using the substitution method
Solve the simultaneous equations y = 2x − 1 and 3x + 4y = 29 using the substitution method.
THINK WRITE
1. Write the equations, one under the other and number them. y = 2x − 1 [1]
3x + 4y = 29 [2]
2. y and 2x − 1 are equal so substitute the expression Substituting (2x − 1) into [2]:
(2x − 1) for y into equation [2]. 3x + 4(2x − 1) = 29
3. Solve for x.
i. Expand the brackets on the LHS of the equation. 3x + 8x − 4 = 29
ii. Collect like terms. 11x − 4 = 29

iii. Add 4 to both sides of the equation. 11x = 33
iv. Divide both sides by 11. x=3
4. Substitute x = 3 into either of the equations, say [1], to Substituting x = 3 into [1]:
find the value of y. y = 2(3) − 1
= 6−1
=5
5. Write your answer. Solution: x = 3, y = 5 or (3, 5)
6. Check the solution by substituting (3, 5) into equation [2]. Check: Substitute (3, 5) into
3x + 4y = 29.
LHS = 3(3) + 4(5) RHS = 29
= 9 + 20
= 29
As LHS = RHS, the solution is correct.
4.3.2 Equating equations

eles-4767
• To equate in mathematics is to take two expressions that have the same value and make them equal to
each other.
• When both linear equations are written with the same variable as the subject, we can equate the equations
to solve for the other variable. Consider the following simultaneous equations:
y = 4x − 3
y = 2x + 9
• In the first equation y is equal to (4x − 3) and in the second equation y is equal to (2x + 9). Since both
expressions are equal to the same thing (y), they must also be equal to each other. Thus, equating the
equations gives:
y = 4x – 3
(y) = 2x + 9
4x – 3 = 2x + 9
• As can be seen above, equating equations is still a form of substitution. A third equation is produced, all in
terms of x, allowing for a value of x to be solved.
WORKED EXAMPLE 6 Substitution by equating two equations
Solve the pair of simultaneous equations y = 5x − 8 and y = −3x + 16 by equating the equations.
THINK WRITE
1. Write the equations, one under the other and y = 5x − 8 [1]
number them. y = −3x + 16 [2]
2. Both equations are written with y as the subject, 5x − 8 = −3x + 16

so equate them.

3. Solve for x.
i. Add 3x to both sides of the equation. 8x − 8 = 16

ii. Add 8 to both sides of the equation. 8x = 24
iii. Divide both sides of the equation by 8. x=3
4. Substitute the value of x into either of the original Substituting x = 3 into [1]:
equations, say [1], and solve for y. y = 5(3) − 8
= 15 − 8
=3
5. Write your answer. Solution: x = 3, y = 7 or (3, 7)
6. Check the answer by substituting the point of Check: Substitute into y = −3x + 16.
intersection into equation [2]. LHS = y
=7
RHS = −3x + 16
= −3(3) + 16
= −9 + 16
=7
DISCUSSION
When would you choose the substitution method in solving simultaneous equations?
Resources
Resourceseses
Video eLesson Solving simultaneous equations using substitution (eles-1932)

Interactivities Individual pathway interactivity: Solving simultaneous linear equations using substitution (int-4578)
Solving simultaneous equations using substitution (int-6453)
Exercise 4.3 Solving simultaneous linear equations using

substitution
Individual pathways
1, 4, 7, 8, 14, 15, 18 2, 5, 9, 12, 16, 19 3, 6, 10, 11, 13, 17, 20
Fluency
WE5 For questions 1 to 3, solve the following simultaneous equations using the substitution method. Check
your solutions using technology.
1. a. x = −10 + 4y b. 3x + 4y = 2 c. 3x + y = 7 d. 3x + 2y = 33
3x + 5y = 21 x = 7 + 5y x = −3 − 3y y = 41 − 5x

2. a. y = 3x − 3 b. 4x + y = 9 c. x = −5 − 2y d. x = −4 − 3y
−5x + 3y = 3 y = 11 − 5x 5y + x = −11 −3x − 4y = 12
3. a. x = 7 + 4y b. x = 14 + 4y c. 3x + 2y = 12 d. y = 2x + 1
2x + y = −4 −2x + 3y = −18 x = 9 − 4y −5x − 4y = 35
WE6 For questions 4 to 6, solve the following pairs of simultaneous equations by equating the equations.
Check your solutions using technology.
4. a. y = 2x − 11 and y = 4x + 1 b. y = 3x + 8 and y = 7x − 12
c. y = 2x − 10 and y = −3x d. y = x − 9 and y = −5x
5. a. y = −4x − 3 and y = x − 8 b. y = −2x − 5 and y = 10x + 1

c. y = −x − 2 and y = x + 1 d. y = 6x + 2 and y = −4x
6. a. y = 0.5x and y = 0.8x + 0.9 b. y = 0.3x and y = 0.2x + 0.1

2 4 3 1
c. y = −x and y = − x + d. y = −x and y = − x −
7 7 4 4
Understanding
7. A small farm has sheep and chickens. There are twice as many chicken as sheep, and there are 104 legs
between the sheep and the chickens. Calculate the total number of chickens.
For questions 8 to 10, use substitution to solve each of the following pairs of simultaneous equations.
8. a. 5x + 2y = 17 b. 2x + 7y = 17
3x − 7 1 − 3y
y= x=
2 4
9. a. 2x + 3y = 13 b. −2x − 3y = −14
4x − 15 2 + 5y
y= x=
5 3
10. a. 3x + 2y = 6 b. −3x − 2y = −12

5x 5x − 20
y = 3− y=
3 3

11. Use substitution to solve each of the following pairs of simultaneous equations for x and y in terms of
m and n.
a. mx + y = n b. x + ny = m c. mx − ny = n
y = mx y = nx y=x
d. mx − ny = n e. mx − ny = −m f. mx + y = m
y=x x = y−n y+m
x=
n
12. Determine the values of a and b so that the pair of equations ax + by = 17 and 2ax − by = −11 has a unique
solution of (−2, 3).
13. The earliest record of magic squares is from China in about 2200BC. In magic squares the sums of the
numbers of each row, column and diagonal are all equal to a magic number. Let z be the magic number. By
creating a set of equations, solve to find the magic number and the missing values in the magic square.
m 11 7
9
n 5 10
Reasoning
14. a. Consider the pair of simultaneous equations:
8x − 7y = 9
x + 2y = 4
Identify which equation is the logical choice to make x the subject.
b. Use the substitution method to solve the system of equations. Show all your working.
15. A particular chemistry book costs $6 less than a particular physics book, while two such chemistry books
and three such physics books cost a total of $123. Construct two simultaneous equations and solve them
using the substitution method. Show your working.
16. The two shorter sides of a right triangle are 1 cm and 8 cm shorter than the hypotenuse. If the area of the
triangle is 30 cm2 , determine the perimeter of the triangle.
17. Andrew is currently ten years older than his sister Prue. In four years time he will be twice as old as Prue.
Determine how old Andrew and Prue are now.
Problem solving
18. Use the substitution method to solve the following.
2x + y − 9 = 0
4x + 5y + 3 = 0
19. Use the substitution method to solve the following.
y−x x+y 1
− =
2 3 6
x y 1
+ =
5 2 2
20. Consider the following pair of equations:
y
kx − =2
k
27x − 3y = 12k − 18
Determine the values of k when they will have:
a. one solution b. no solutions c. infinite solutions.

4.4 Solving simultaneous linear equations using
elimination
LEARNING INTENTION
• solve two simultaneous linear equations using the elimination method.
4.4.1 Solving simultaneous equations using the elimination method

eles-4768
• The elimination method is an algebraic method to solve simultaneous linear equations. It involves adding
or subtracting equations in order to eliminate one of the variables.
• In order to eliminate a variable, the variable must be on the same side of the equal sign in both equations
and must have the same coefficient.
• If the coefficients of the variable have the same sign, we subtract one equation from the other to eliminate
the variable.
• If the coefficients of the variables have the opposite sign, we add the two equations together to eliminate
the variable.
3x + 4y = 14 6x − 2y = 12
5x − 4y = 2 6x + 3y = 27
(add equations to eliminate y) (subtract equations to eliminate x)
• The process of elimination is carried out by adding (or subtracting) the 2x + y 5

left-hand sides and the right-hand sides of each equation together. Consider the 1
1
equations 2x + y = 5 and x + y = 3. The process of subtracting each side of the y 1
1
x
equation from each other is visualised on the scales to the right. x 1
• To represent this process algebraically, the setting out would look like:
2x + y = 5 Subtract
− (x + y = 3) x+y 3
x=2 1
y 1
x 1
• Once the value of x has been found, it can be substituted into either original
equation to find y.
2 (2) + y = 5 ⇒ y = 1 x 2
1
x 1
WORKED EXAMPLE 7 Solving using the elimination method
Solve the following pair of simultaneous equations using the elimination method.
−2x − 3y = −9
2x + y = 7
THINK WRITE
1. Write the equations, one under the other and −2x − 3y = −9 [1]
number them. 2x + y = 7 [2]

2. Look for an addition or subtraction that will [1] + [2]:
eliminate either x or y. −2x − 3y + (2x + y) = −9 + 7
Note: Adding equations [1] and [2] in order will −2x − 3y + 2x + y = −2
eliminate x. −2y = −2
3. Solve for y by dividing both sides of the equation y=1

by −2.
4. Substitute the value of y into equation [2]. Substituting y = 1 into [2]:
Note: y = 1 may be substituted into either equation. 2x + 1 = 7
5. Solve for x.
i. Subtract 1 from both sides of the equation. 2x = 6
ii. Divide both sides of the equation by 2. x=3
6. Write the solution. Solution: x = 3, y = 1 or (3, 1)
7. Check the solution by substituting (3, 1) into Check: Substitute into −2x − 3y = −9.
equation [1] since equation [2] was used to find LHS = −2(3) − 3(1)
the value of x. = −6 − 3
= −9
RHS = −9
LHS = RHS, so the solution is correct.
4.4.2 Solving simultaneous equations by multiplying by a constant

eles-4769
• If neither variable in the two equations have the same coefficient, it will be necessary to multiply one or
both equations by a constant so that a variable can be eliminated.
• The equals sign in an equation acts like a balance, so as long as both sides of equation are correctly
multiplied by the same value, the new statement is still a valid equation.
3x + 1 4 6x + 2 8
1 1 1 1 1 1
x 1 x x 1 1
x 1 x x 1 1
x 1 x x 1 1
Double both sides and it
remains balanced.
• Consider the following pairs of equations:
3x + 7y = 23 4x + 5y = 22
6x + 2y = 22 3x − 4y = −6
• For the first pair: the easiest starting point is to work towards eliminating x. This is done by first
multiplying the top equation by 2 so that both equations have the same coefficient of x.
2 (3x + 7y = 23) ⇒ 6x + 14y = 46
• For the second pair: in this case, both equations will need to be multiplied by a constant. Choosing to
eliminate x would require the top equation to be multiplied by 3 and the bottom equation by 4 in order to
produce two new equations with the same coefficient of x.
3 (4x + 5y = 23) ⇒ 12x + 15y = 69
4 (3x − 4y = −6) ⇒ 12x − 16y = −24
• Once the coefficient of one of the variables is the same, you can begin the elimination method.

WORKED EXAMPLE 8 Multiplying one equation by a constant to eliminate
x − 5y = −17
2x + 3y = 5
THINK WRITE
1. Write the equations, one under the other and number them. x − 5y = −17 [1]
2x + 3y = 5 [2]
2. Look for a single multiplication that will create the same [1] × 2 ∶ 2x − 10y = −34 [3]
coefficient of either x or y. Multiply equation [1] by 2 and
call the new equation [3].
3. Subtract equation [2] from [3] in order to eliminate x. [3] − [2]:

2x − 10y − (2x + 3y) = −34 − 5
2x − 10y − 2x − 3y = −39
−13y = −39
4. Solve for y by dividing both sides of the equation by −13. y=3
5. Substitute the value of y into equation [2]. Substituting y = 3 into [2]:
2x + 3 (3) = 5
2x + 9 = 5
6. Solve for x.
i. Subtract 9 from both sides of the equation. 2x = −4
ii. Divide both sides of the equation by 2. x = −2
7. Write the solution. Solution: x = −2, y = 3 or (−2, 3)
8. Check the solution by substituting into equation [1]. Check: Substitute into x − 5y = −17.
LHS = (−2) − 5(3)
= −2 − 15
= −17
RHS = −17
Note: In this example, equation [1] could have been multiplied by −2 (instead of by 2), then the two equations
added (instead of subtracted) to eliminate x.

WORKED EXAMPLE 9 Multiplying both equations by a constant to eliminate
6x + 5y = 3
5x + 4y = 2
THINK WRITE
1. Write the equations, one under the other and number them. 6x + 5y = 3 [1]
5x + 4y = 2 [2]
2. Decide which variable to eliminate, say y. Multiply equation Eliminate y.

[1] by 4 and call the new equation [3]. [1] × 4: 24x + 20y = 12 [3]
Multiply equation [2] by 5 and call the new equation [4]. [1] × 5: 25x + 20y = 10 [4]
3. Subtract equation [3] from [4] in order to eliminate y. [4] − [3]:
25x + 20y − (24x + 20y) = 10 − 12
25x + 20y − 24x − 20y = −2
x = −2
4. Substitute the value of x into equation [1]. Substituting x = −2 into [1]:
6 (−2) + 5y = 3
−12 + 5y = 3
5. Solve for y.
i. Add 12 to both sides of the equation. 5y = 15
ii. Divide both sides of the equation by 5. y=3
6. Write your answer. Solution x = −2, y = 3 or (−2, 3)
7. Check the answer by substituting the solution into Check: Substitute into 5x + 4y = 2.
equation [2]. LHS = 5 (−2) + 4 (3)
= −10 + 12
=2
RHS = 2
Note: Equation [1] could have been multiplied by −4 (instead of by 4), then the two equations added (instead of
subtracted) to eliminate y.
Resources
Resourceseses
Video eLesson Solving simultaneous equations using elimination (eles-1931)

Interactivities Individual pathway interactivity: Solving simultaneous linear equations using elimination (int-4579)
Solving simultaneous equations using elimination (int-6127)

Exercise 4.4 Solving simultaneous linear equations
using elimination
Individual pathways
1, 3, 5, 10, 13, 18 2, 6, 8, 11, 14, 15, 19 4, 7, 9, 12, 16, 17, 20
Fluency
1. WE7 Solve the following pairs of simultaneous equations by adding equations to eliminate either x or y.
a. x + 2y = 5 b. 5x + 4y = 2 c. −2x + y = 10
−x + 4y = 1 5x − 4y = −22 2x + 3y = 14
2. Solve the following pairs of equations by subtracting equations to eliminate either x or y.
a. 3x + 2y = 13 b. 2x − 5y = −11 c. −3x − y = 8
5x + 2y = 23 2x + y = 7 −3x + 4y = 13
3. Solve each of the following equations using the elimination method.
a. 6x − 5y = −43 b. x − 4y = 27 c. −4x + y = −10
6x − y = −23 3x − 4y = 17 4x − 3y = 14
4. Solve each of the following equations using the elimination method.
a. −5x + 3y = 3 b. 5x − 5y = 1 c. 4x − 3y − 1 = 0
−5x + y = −4 2x − 5y = −5 4x + 7y − 11 = 0
WE8 For questions 5 to 7, solve the following pairs of simultaneous equations.
5. a. 6x + y = 9 b. x + 3y = 14 c. 5x + y = 27
−3x + 2y = 3 3x + y = 10 4x + 3y = 26
6. a. −6x + 5y = −14 b. 2x + 5y = 14 c. −3x + 2y = 6

−2x + y = −6 3x + y = −5 x + 4y = −9
7. a. 3x − 5y = 7 b. 2x + 3y = 9 c. −x + 5y = 7
x + y = −11 4x + y = −7 5x + 5y = 19
8. WE9 Solve the following pairs of simultaneous equations.

a. −4x + 5y = −9 b. 2x + 5y = −6 c. 2x − 2y = −4
2x + 3y = 21 3x + 2y = 2 5x + 4y = 17
9. Solve the following pairs of simultaneous equations.
x y x y 3
a. 2x − 3y = 6 b. + =2 c. + =
4x − 5y = 9 2 3 3 2 2
x y x y 1
+ =4 + =−
4 3 2 5 2

Understanding
For questions 10 to 12, solve the following simultaneous equations using an appropriate method. Check your
answer using technology.
10. a. 7x + 3y = 16 b. 2x + y = 8 c. −3x + 2y = 19
y = 4x − 1 4x + 3y = 16 4x + 5y = 13
11. a. −3x + 7y = 9 b. −4x + 5y = −7 c. y = −x

4x − 3y = 7 x = 23 − 3y 2 1
y=− x−
5 5
x y
12. a. 4x + 5y = 41 b. 3x − 2y = 9 c. + =7
2x + 5y = −13 3 4
3x
y= −1 3y − 2x = 12
2
Reasoning
13. The cost of a cup of coffee and croissant is $8.50 from a local bakery, and an order of 5 coffees and three
croissants costs $35.70. Determine the cost of one croissant.
14. Celine notices that she only has 5 cent and 10 cent coins in her coin purse. She counts up how much she
has and finds that from the 34 coins in the purse the total value is $2.80. Determine how many of each type
of coin she has.
15. Abena, Bashir and Cecily wanted to weigh themselves,
but the scales they had were broken and would only give
readings over 100 kg. They decided to weigh themselves in
pairs and calculate their weights from the results.
• Abena and Bashir weighed 119 kg
• Bashir and Cecily weighed 112 kg
• Cecily and Abena weighed 115 kg
Determine the weight of each student.
16. a. For the general case ax + by = e [1]

cx + dy = f [2]
y can be found by eliminating x.
i. Multiply equation [1] by c to create equation 3.
ii. Multiply equation [2] by a to create equation 4.
iii. Use the elimination method to find a general solution for y.
b. Use a similar process to that outlined above to find a general

solution for x.
c. Use the general solution for x and y to solve each of the following.
i. 2x + 5y = 7
7x + 2y = 24
ii. 3x − 5y = 4
x + 3y = 5
Choose another method to check that your solutions are correct in each part.
d. For y to exist, it is necessary to state that bc − ad ≠ 0. Explain.
e. Is there a necessary condition for x to exist? Explain.

17. A family of two parents and four children go to the movies and spend $95 on the tickets. Another family
of one parent and two children go to see the same movie and spend $47.50 on the tickets. Determine if it
possible to work out the cost of an adult’s ticket and child’s ticket from this information.
Problem solving
18. The sum of two numbers is equal to k. The difference of the two numbers is given by k − 20. Determine the
possible solutions for the two numbers.
19. Use the method of elimination to solve:
x−4
+ y = −2
3
2y − 1
+x=6
7
20. Use an appropriate method to solve:
2x + 3y + 3z = −1
3x − 2y + z = 0
z + 2y = 0
4.5 Applications of simultaneous linear equations

LEARNING INTENTION
• define unknown quantities with appropriate variables
• form two simultaneous equations using the information presented in a problem
• choose an appropriate method to solve simultaneous equations in order to find the solution to
a problem.
4.5.1 Applications of simultaneous linear equations

eles-4770
• When solving practical problems, the following steps can be useful:
1. Define the unknown quantities using appropriate pronumerals.
2. Use the information given in the problem to form two equations in terms of these pronumerals.
3. Solve these equations using an appropriate method.
4. Write the solution in words.
5. Check the solution.
Key language used in worded problems
To help set up equations from the information presented in a problem

question, make sure you look out for the following key terms:
• Addition: sum, altogether, add, more than, and, in total
• Subtraction: difference, less than, take away, take off, fewer than
• Multiplication: product, groups of, times, of, for each, double, triple
• Division: quotient, split into, halve, thirds
• Equals: gives, is

WORKED EXAMPLE 10 Applying the elimination method
Ashley received better results for his Mathematics test than for his English test. If the sum of the two
marks is 164 and the difference is 22, calculate the mark he received for each subject.
THINK WRITE
1. Define the two variables. Let x = the Mathematics mark.
Let y = the English mark.
2. Formulate two equations from the information x + y = 164 [1]
given and number them. x − y = 22 [2]
The sum of the two marks is x + y.
The difference of the two marks is x − y.
3. Use the elimination method by adding [1] + [2] ∶ 2x = 186
equations [1] and [2] to eliminate y.
4. Solve for x by dividing both sides of the x = 93
equation by 2.
5. Substitute the value of x into equation [1]. Substituting x = 93 into [1]:
x + y = 164
93 + y = 164
6. Solve for y by subtracting 93 from both sides y = 71
of the equation.
7. Write the solution. Solution:
Mathematics mark (x) = 93
English mark (y) = 71
8. Check the solution by substituting x = 93 and Check: Substitute into x + y = 164
y = 71 into equation [1]. LHS = 93 + 71 RHS = 164
= 164
WORKED EXAMPLE 11 Applying the substitution method
To finish a project, Genevieve bought a total of 25 nuts and bolts

from a hardware store. If each nut costs 12 cents, each bolt costs
25 cents and the total purchase price is $4.30, calculate how many
nuts and how many bolts Genevieve bought.
THINK WRITE
1. Define the two variables. Let x = the number of nuts.
Let y = the number of bolts.
2. Formulate two equations from the information x + y = 25 [1]

given and number them. 12x + 25y = 430 [2]
Note: The total number of nuts and bolts is 25.
Each nut cost 12 cents, each bolt cost 25 cents and
the total cost is 430 cents ($4.30).

3. Solve simultaneously using the substitution Rearrange equation [1]:

method, since equation [1] is easy to rearrange. x + y = 25
Rearrange equation [1] to make x the subject by x = 25 − y
subtracting y from both sides of equation [1].
4. Substitute the expression (25 − y) for x into Substituting (25 − y) into [2]:
equation [2]. 12 (25 − y) + 25y = 430
5. Solve for y. 300 − 12x + 25y = 430
300 + 13y = 430
13y + 300 = 430
13y = 130
y = 10
6. Substitute the value of y into the rearranged Substituting y = 10 into x = 25 − y

equation x = 25 − y from step 3. x = 25 − 10
x = 15
7. Write the solution. Solution:
The number of nuts (x) = 15.
The number of bolts (y) = 10.
8. Check the solution by substituting x = 15 and Check: Substitute into x + y = 25.
y = 10 into equation [1]. LHS = 15 + 10 RHS = 25
= 25
• It is also possible to determine solutions to worded problems using the graphical method by forming and
then graphing equations.
WORKED EXAMPLE 12 Applying the graphical method
Cecilia buys 2 pairs of shorts and 3 T-shirts for $160. Ida buys 1 pair of shorts and 2 T-shirts for $90.
Develop two equations to describe the situation and solve them graphically to determine the cost of
one pair of shorts and one T-shirt.
THINK WRITE
1. Define the two variables. Let x = cost of a pair of shorts.
Let y = cost of a T-shirt.
2. Formulate two equations from the 2x + 3y = 160 [1]
information given and number them. x + 2y = 90 [2]
3. Calculate the x- and y-intercepts for Equation [1] Equation [2]

both graphs. 2x + 3y = 160 x + 2y = 90
x-intercept, y = 0 x-intercept, y = 0
2x + 3 × 0 = 160 x + 2 × 0 = 90
2x = 160 x = 90
x = 80
y-intercept, x = 0 y-intercept, x = 0
2 × 0 + 3y = 160 0 + 2y = 90
3y = 160 2y = 90
1 y = 45
y = 53
3

4. Graph the two lines either by hand or y
using technology. Only the first quadrant 60
of the graph is required, as cost cannot 2x + 3y = 160
be negative. 40
(50, 20)
20 x + 2y = 90
0 x
20 40 60 80 100
5. Identify the point of intersection to The point of intersection is (50, 20).
solve the simultaneous equations.
6. Write the answer as a sentence. The cost of one pair of shorts is $50 and the cost of one
T-shirt is $20.
DISCUSSION
How do you decide which method to use when solving problems using simultaneous linear equations?
Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivity Individual pathway interactivity: Applications of simultaneous linear equations (int-4580)
Exercise 4.5 Applications of simultaneous linear equations

Individual pathways
1, 7, 8, 12, 13, 15, 17, 22 2, 5, 9, 10, 14, 18, 19, 23 3, 4, 6, 11, 16, 20, 21, 24, 25
Fluency
1. WE10 Rick received better results for his Maths test than for his English test. If the sum of his two marks is
163 and the difference is 31, calculate the mark recieved for each subject.
2. WE11 Rachael buys 30 nuts and bolts to finish a project. If each nut costs 10 cents, each bolt costs 20 cents
and the total purchase price is $4.20, how many nuts and how many bolts does she buy?
3. Eloise has a farm that raises chicken and sheep. Altogether there are 1200 animals on the farm. If the total
number of legs from all the animals is 4000, calculate how many of each type of animal there is on the farm.
Understanding
4. Determine the two numbers whose difference is 5 and whose sum is 11.
5. The difference between two numbers is 2. If three times the larger number minus twice the smaller number
is 13, determine the values of the two numbers.

6. One number is 9 less than three times a second number. If the first number plus twice the second number is
16, determine the values of the two numbers.
7. A rectangular house has a perimeter of 40 metres and the length is 4 metres more than the width. Calculate
the dimensions of the house.
8. WE12 Mike has 5 lemons and 3 oranges in his shopping basket. The
cost of the fruit is $3.50. Voula, with 2 lemons and 4 oranges, pays
$2.10 for her fruit. Develop two equations to describe the situation
and solve them graphically to determine the cost of each type of fruit.
9. A surveyor measuring the dimensions of a block of land finds that
the length of the block is three times the width. If the perimeter is
160 metres, calculate the dimensions of the block.
10. Julie has $3.10 in change in her pocket. If she has only 50 cent and 20 cent
pieces and the total number of coins is 11, calculate how many coins of
each type she has.
11. Mr Yang’s son has a total of twenty-one $1 and $2 coins in his moneybox.
When he counts his money, he finds that its total value is $30. Determine
how many coins of each type he has.
12. If three Magnums and two Paddlepops cost $8.70 and the difference in
price between a Magnum and a Paddlepop is 90 cents, calculate how much
each type of ice-cream costs.
13. If one Red Frog and four Killer Pythons cost $1.65, whereas two Red
Frogs and three Killer Pythons cost $1.55, calculate how much each type
of lolly costs.
14. A catering firm charges a fixed cost for overheads and a price per person.
It is known that a party for 20 people costs $557, whereas a party for 35
people costs $909.50. Determine the fixed cost and the cost per person
charged by the company.
15. The difference between Sally’s PE mark and Science mark is 12, and the
sum of the marks is 154. If the PE mark is the higher mark, calculate what
mark Sally got for each subject.
16. Mozza’s Cheese Supplies sells six Mozzarella cheeses and eight Swiss
cheeses to Munga’s deli for $83.60, and four Mozzarella cheeses and
four Swiss cheeses to Mina’s deli for $48. Calculate how much each type
of cheese costs.
Reasoning
17. If the perimeter of the triangle in the diagram is 12 cm and the x cm
length of the rectangle is 1 cm more than the width, determine the
2x cm
y cm
value of x and y.
m
18. Mr and Mrs Waugh want to use a caterer for a birthday party for 5c
their twin sons. The manager says the cost for a family of four (y + 3) cm
would be $160. However, the sons want to invite 8 friends, making
12 people in all. The cost for this would be $360. If the total cost in each case is made up of the same cost
per person and the same fixed cost, calculate the cost per person and the fixed cost. Show your working.

19. Joel needs to buy some blank DVDs and USB sticks to back up a large amount of data that has been
generated by an accounting firm. He buys 6 DVDs and 3 USB sticks for $96. He later realises these are
not sufficient and so buys another 5 DVDs and 4 USB sticks for $116. Determine how much each DVD and
each USB stick cost. (Assume the same rate per item was charged for each visit.) Show your working.
20. Four years ago Tim was 4 times older than his brother Matthew. In six years’ time Tim will only be double
his brother’s age. Calculate how old the two brothers currently are.
21. A local cinema has different prices for movie tickets for children (under 12), adults and seniors (over 60).
Consider the following scenarios:
• For a senior couple (over 60) and their four grandchildren, the total cost is $80.
• For two families with four adults and seven children, the total cost is $160.50.
• For a son (under 12), his father and his grandfather (over 60), the total cost is $45.75.
Determine the cost of each type of ticket.
Problem solving
22. Reika completes a biathlon (swimming and running) that has a
total distance of 37 km. Reika knows that her swimming speed is
3.2 km per hour and her running speed is 12.4 km per hour. If her total
time for the race was 6 hours and 39 minutes, calculate the length of the
swimming component of the race.
23. At the football hot chips are twice as popular as meat pies and three
times as popular as hot dogs. Over the period of half an hour during half
time, a fast-food outlet serves 121 people who each bought one item.
Determine how many serves of each of the foods were sold during this
half-hour period.
24. Three jet-skis in a 300 kilometres handicap race leave at two hour intervals. Jet-ski 1 leaves first and has
an average speed of 25 kilometres per hour for the entire race. Jet-ski 2 leaves two hours later and has an
average speed of 30 kilometres per hour for the entire race. Jet-ski 3 leaves last, two hours after jet-ski 2 and
has an average speed of 40 kilometres per hour for the entire race.
a. Sketch a graph to show each jet-ski’s journey on the one set of axes.
b. Determine who wins the race.
c. Check your findings algebraically and describe what happened to each jet-ski during the course of
the race.
25. Alice is competing in a cycling race on an extremely windy day. The race
is an ‘out and back again’ course, so the wind is against Alice in one
direction and assisting her in the other. For the first half of the race the
wind is blowing against Alice, slowing her down by 4 km per hour. Given
that on a normal day Alice could maintain a pace of 36 km per hour and
that this race took her 4 hours and 57 minutes, calculate the total distance
of the course.

4.6 Solving simultaneous linear and non-linear
equations
LEARNING INTENTION
• determine the point or points of intersection between a linear equation and various non-linear equations
using various techniques
• use digital technology to find the points of intersection between a linear equation and a non-linear
equation.
4.6.1 Solving simultaneous linear and quadratic equations

eles-4771
• The graph of a quadratic function is called a parabola.
• A parabola and a straight line may:
• intersect at only one point
y y
x=1
8 8
y = x2 – 2
6 6
4 4
2 2
y = x2 – 2
0 x 0 x
–6 –4 –2 2 4 6 –6 –4 –2 2 4 6
( –1, –1) –2 –2 (1, –1)
y = –2x – 3
–4 –4
• intersect at two points

y
y = x2 – 2
8 y = 2x + 1
(3, 7)
6
0 x
–6 –4 –2 2 4 6
(–1, –1)
–2
–4

• not intersect at all.
y
6
y = x2 – 2
4
0 x
–6 –4 –2 2 4 6
–2
y = –x – 3
–4
WORKED EXAMPLE 13 Solving linear and quadratic simultaneous equations
Determine the points of intersection of y = x2 + x − 6 and y = 2x − 4:

a. algebraically b. graphically.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a. 1. Number the equations. Equate [1] and [2]. a. y = x2 + x − 6 [1]

y = 2x − 4 [2]
x2 + x − 6 = 2x − 4
2. Collect all the terms on one side and simplify. x2 + x − 6 − 2x + 4 = 2x − 4 − 2x + 4
x2 + x − 6 − 2x + 4 = 0
x2 − x − 2 = 0
3. Factorise and solve the quadratic equation, using (x − 2) (x + 1) = 0
the Null Factor Law. x−2 = 0 x+1 = 0
or
x=2 x = −1
4. Identify the y-coordinate for each point of When x = 2,

intersection by substituting each x-value into one y = 2 (2) − 4
of the equations. = 4−4
=0
Intersection point (2, 0)
When x = −1
y = 2 (−1) − 4
= −2 − 4
= −6
5. Write the solution. Intersection point (−1, −6)
b. 1. To sketch the graph of y = x2 + x − 6, determine b. x-intercepts: y = 0
the x- and y-intercepts and the turning point (TP). 0 = x2 + x − 6
The x-value of the TP is the average of the x-axis 0 = (x + 3) (x − 2)
intercepts. The y-value of the TP is calculated by x = −3, x = 2
substituting the x-value into the equation of the The x-intercepts are (−3, 0) and (2, 0).
parabola. y-intercept: x = 0
y = −6
The y-intercept is (0, −6)

−3 + 2
x-value of TP: = −0.5
2
y-value of the turning point; when x = −0.5:
y = (−0.5)2 + (−0.5) − 6
y = −6.25
The TP is (−0.5, −6.25)
2. To sketch the graph of y = 2x − 4, find the x-intercept: y = 0
x- and y-intercepts. 0 = 2x − 4
x=2
The x-intercept is (2, 0)
y-intercept: x = 0
y = −4
The y-intercept is (0, −4)
3. On the same set of axes, sketch the graphs of y

2
y = x + x − 6 and y = 2x − 4, labelling both. 10
8
6
4 y = 2x ‒ 4
2
(2, 0)
x
–10 –8 –6 –4 –2 0 2 4 6 8 10
–2
–4 y = x2 + x ‒ 6
(–1, –6) –6
–8
–10
4. On the graph, locate the points of intersection The points of intersection are (2, 0)
and write the solutions. and (−1, −6).

a. a. a. a.
1. On a Calculator page, 1. On a Main screen,
press: complete the entry
• MENU line as:
( )
• 3: Algebra solve x2 + x − 6 = 2x − 4, x
• 1: Solve The x-values of the
Complete the entry solutions will be shown.
line as: To determine the
solve(y = x2 + x − 6 corresponding y-values,
and complete the entry
y = 2x − 4, {x, y}) lines as:
Then press ENTER. 2x − 4|x = −1
2x − 4|x = 2
Press EXE after each
entry.
2. Write the solutions. The points of intersection are 2. Write the solutions. The points of intersection are
(−1, −6) and (2, 0). (−1, −6) and (2, 0).

b. b. b. b.
1. On a Graphs page, 1. On a Graph & Table
complete the function screen, complete the
entry lines as: function entry lines as:
f1 (x) = x2 + x − 6 y1 = x2 + x − 6
f2 (x) = 2x − 4 y2 = 2x − 4
Press the down arrow Then tap the graphing
between entering the icon. The graphs will be
functions. The graphs will displayed.
be displayed.
2. To locate the point of 2. To locate the first point

intersection, press: of intersection, press:
• 4: Intersection • Intersection
Drag the dotted line The point of intersection
to the left of the first will be shown. Tap
point of intersection the right arrow for the
(the lower bound), second point.
press ENTER and then
drag the dotted line to
the right of the point
of intersection (the
upper bound) and press
ENTER. Repeat for the
second point.
The points of
intersection will be
shown.
3. State the points of The points of intersection are 3. State the points of The points of intersection are
intersection. (−1, −6) and (2, 0) intersection. (−1, −6) and (2, 0)
4.6.2 Solving simultaneous linear and hyperbolic equations

eles-4772
• A hyperbola and a straight line may:
• intersect at only one point. In the first case, the line is a tangent to the curve.
y y
10 10
8 8
1 1
6 y= x 6 y= x
y = –x + 2
4 4
2 (1, 1) y=1 2 (1, 1)
x
–10 –8 –6 –4 –2 0 2 4 6 8 10 x –10 –8 –6 –4 –2 0 2 4 6 8 10
–2 –2
–4 –4
–6 –6
–8 –8
–10 –10

• intersect at two points
y
10 y=x
8
1
6 y= x
4
2 (1, 1)
x
–10 –8 –6 –4 –2 0 2 4 6 8 10
(–1, –1) –2
–4
–6
–8
–10
• not intersect at all.

y
10
8
1
6 y= x
y = –x
4
2
x
–10 –8 –6 –4 –2 0 2 4 6 8 10
–2
–4
–6
–8
–10
WORKED EXAMPLE 14 Solving linear and hyperbolic simultaneous equations
6
Determine the point(s) of intersection between y = x + 5 and y = :
x
a. algebraically b. graphically.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a. 1. Number the equations. a. y = x + 5 [1]

6
y= [2]
x
6
2. Equate [1] and [2]. x+5 =
Collect all terms on one side, x
x (x + 5) = 6
factorise and simplify to solve
for x. x2 + 5x − 6 = 0
(x + 6) (x − 1) = 0
x = −6, x = 1
3. To determine the y-coordinates x = −6 x=1
of the points of intersection, y = −6 + 5 y = 1 + 5
substitute the values of x y = −1 y=6
into [1].

4. Write the solutions. The points of intersection are (−6, −1) and (1, 6).
6
b. 1. To sketch the graph of y = ,
x b. x −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 −0 1 2
draw a table of values. 1 1
y −1 −1 −1 −2 −3 −6 Undef. 6 3
5 2
2. To sketch the graph of x-intercept: y = 0

y = x + 5, find the x- and 0 = x+5
y-intercepts. x = −5
The x-intercept is (−5, 0).
y-intercept: x = 0
y=5
The y-intercept is (0, 5).
3. On the same set of axes, sketch y
y = 6x
the graphs of y = x + 5 and y = 10
6 8 y=x+5
, labelling both.
x 6 (1, 6)
4
2
(–6, –1)
x
–10 –8 –6 –4 –2 0 2 4 6 8 10
–2
–4
–6
–8
–10
4. On the graph, locate the points The points of intersection are (1, 6) and (−6, −1).
of intersection and write the
solutions.
TI | THINK DISLPAY/WRITE CASIO | THINK DISPLAY/WRITE
a. a. a. a.
1. In a new problem, On the Main screen, tap:
on a Calculator page, • Action
press: • Advanced
• MENU • solve
• 1: Actions Complete
( the entry ) lines as:
• 1: Define 6
solve x + 5 = , x
Complete the entry x
line as: x + 5|x = −6
Define f 1(x) = x + 5 x + 5|x = 1
Repeat for the Press EXE after each entry.
second function:
6
Define f 2(x) =
x The points of intersection are
Press ENTER after (−6, −1) and (1, 6).
each entry.

2. To determine the
intersection points
algebraically, press:
• MENU
• 3: Algebra
• 1: Solve
Complete the entry
line as:
solve ( f 1(x) =
f 2(x), x) The points (−6, −1) and (1, 6) are
f 1(−6) the points of intersection.
f 2(1)
b. b. b. b.
1. On a Graphs page, In the Graph & Table page,
press the up arrow ▲ complete the entry lines as:
to select the function y1 = x + 5
f 2(x), then press 6
y2 =
ENTER. The graph x
will be displayed. Then tap the graphing icon.
Now press TAB, To determine the points of
select the function intersection, tap:
f 1(x) and press • Analysis
ENTER to draw • G-Solve
the function. • Intersection
Apply colour if you To determine the next point
would like to. of intersection, press the
right arrow.
2. To determine the points

of intersection between
the two graphs, press:
• MENU
• 6: Analyze Graph
• 4: Intersection
Move the cursor to
the left of one of the
intersection points, press
ENTER, then move the The points (−6, −1) and (1, 6) are
cursor to the right of the points of intersection.
this intersection point
and press ENTER. The The points of intersection are
intersection point is (−6, −1) and (1, 6).
displayed. Repeat for the
other point of intersection.

Solving simultaneous linear equations and circles
• A circle and a straight line may:
• intersect at only one point. Here, • intersect at two points • not intersect at all.
the line is a tangent to the curve.
y y y
4 4 4
y=x
3 y=2 3 3
(0, 2) y = –x + 4
2 2 2
1 1 ( 2, 2) 1
x x x
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4
–1 –1 –1
–2 (– 2, – 2) –2 –2
x2 + y2 = 4 x2 + y2 = 4 x2 + y2 = 4
–3 –3 –3
–4 –4 –4
Solutions of a linear and non-linear equation

Depending on the equations, a linear equation and a non-linear equation can have a different number of
solutions. For a linear equation and any of the following:
• quadratic equations
• hyperbolic equations
• circles
the number of possible solutions (points of intersections) is 0, 1 or 2.
DISCUSSION
What does it mean if a straight line touches a curve only once?
Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivities Individual pathway interactivity: Solving simultaneous linear and non-linear equations (int-4581)
Solving simultaneous linear and non-linear equations (int-6128)
Exercise 4.6 Solving simultaneous linear and non-linear

equations
Individual pathways
1, 2, 5, 8, 9, 12, 15 3, 6, 10, 13, 16, 17 4, 7, 11, 14, 18, 19, 20
Fluency
1. Describe how a parabola and straight line may intersect. Use diagrams to illustrate your explanation.

2. WE13 Determine the points of intersection of the following:

i. algebraically
ii. algebraically using a calculator
iii. graphically using a calculator.
a. y = x2 + 5x + 4 and y = −x − 1 b. y = −x2 + 2x + 3 and y = −2x + 7
c. y = −x2 + 2x + 3 and y = −6
3. Determine the points of intersection of the following.

2
a. y = −x2 + 2x + 3 and y = 3x − 8 b. y = −(x − 1) + 2 and y = x − 1
c. y = x2 + 3x − 7 and y = 4x + 2
4. Determine the points of intersection of the following.

a. y = 6 − x2 and y = 4
3−x
b. y = 4 + x − x2 and y =
2
c. x = 3 and y = 2x2 + 7x − 2
5. MC Identify which of the following graphs shows the parabola y = x2 + 3x + 2, x ∈ R, and the straight line
y = x + 3.
A. y B. y C. y
0 x 0 x 0 x
D. y E. y
x 0 x
0
6. MC Identify which of the following equations are represented by the y

graph shown.
2 1
A. y = 0.5(x + 1.5) + 4 and y = − x + 1
3
1 2
2
B. y = −0.5(x + 1.5) − 4 and y = − x + 1 1
3
1 x
2
C. y = −0.5(x − 1.5) + 4 and y = x + 1 –3 –1 0 4
3
2 1
D. y = 0.5(x − 1.5) + 4 and y = − x + 1
3
2 1
E. y = 0.5(x − 1.5) + 4 and y = − x + 1
3

7. Determine whether the following graphs intersect.
a. y = −x2 + 3x + 4 and y = x − 4
b. y = −x2 + 3x + 4 and y = 2x + 5
c. y = −(x + 1)2 + 3 and y = −4x − 1
d. y = (x − 1)2 + 5 and y = −4x − 1
Understanding
WE14 For questions 8 to 11, determine the point(s) of intersection between the following.
6
8. a. y = x b. y = x − 2 c. y = 3x d. y =
1 1 5 x
y= y= y= x
x x x y= +2
2
9. a. y = 3x b. x2 + y2 = 25 c. x2 + y2 = 50 d. x2 + y2 = 9
x2 + y2 = 10 3x + 4y = 0 y = 5 − 2x y=2−x
1
10. a. y = b. x2 + y2 = 25 c. y = 2x + 3 d. 3x + 4y = 7
x y = −2x + 5 2 10
y = −4x + 3 y= −4
y = 4x x
2 x y
11. a. y = x2 b. x2 + (y + 1) = 25 c. y = −4x − 5 d. + =7
y = 2x − 1 y=3 3 4
y = x2 + 2x + 3
x2
y= +3
16
Reasoning
1 5
12. Consider the following equations: y = (x − 3)2 + and y = x + k.
2 2
Identify for what values of k the two lines would have:
a. no points of intersection
b. one point of intersection
c. two points of intersection.
2
13. Show that there is at least one point of intersection between the parabola y = −2(x + 1) − 5, where y = f (x),
and the straight line y = mx − 7, where y = f (x).
14. a. Using technology, sketch the following graphs and state how many ways a straight line could intersect
with the equation.
i.y = x3 − 4x. ii. y = x4 − 8x2 + 16. iii. y = x5 − 8x3 + 16x.
b. Comment on the connection between the highest power of x and the number of possible points of
intersection.
Problem solving
15. If two consecutive numbers have a product of 306, calculate the possible values for these numbers.
16. The perimeter of a rectangular paddock is 200 m and the area is 1275 m2 . Determine the length and width of
the paddock.
17. a. Determine the point(s) of intersection between the circle x2 + y2 = 50 and the linear equation y = 2x − 5.
b. Confirm your solution to part a by plotting the equation of the circle and the linear equation on the
same graph.
18. The sum of two positive numbers is 21. Twice the square of the larger number minus three times the square
of the smaller number is 45. Determine the value of the two numbers.

19. a. Omar is running laps around a circular park with
( equation
) x(2 + y2 = 32.
) Chae-won is running along
√ √
another track where the path is given by y = 2 − 1 x + 8 − 4 2 . Determine the point(s) where
the two paths intersect.
b. Omar and Chae-won both start from the same point. If Chae-won gets between the two points in two
hours, calculate the possible speeds Omar could run at along his circle in order to collide with
Chae-won at the other point of intersection. Assume all distances are in kilometres and give your answer
to 2 decimal places.
20. Adam and Eve are trying to model the temperature of a cup of coffee as it cools.
• Adam’s model: Temperature (°C) = 100 – 5 × time
800
• Eve’s model: Temperature (°C) = + 20
10 + time
Time is measured in minutes.
a. Using either model, identify the initial temperature of the cup of coffee.
b. Determine at what times the two models predict the same temperature for the cup of coffee.
c. Evaluate whose model is more realistic. Justify your answer.
4.7 Solving linear inequalities

LEARNING INTENTION
• solve an inequality and represent the solution on a number line
• convert a worded statement to an inequality in order to solve a problem.
4.7.1 Inequalities between two expressions

eles-4774
• An equation, such as y = 2x, is a statement of equality as both sides are equal to each other.
• An inequation, such as y < x + 3, is a statement of inequality between two expressions.
• A linear equation such as 3x = 6 will have a unique solution (x = 2), whereas an inequation such as 3x < 6
will have an infinite number of solutions (x = 1, 0, –1, –2 … are all solutions).
• We use a number line to represent all possible solutions to a linear inequation. When representing an
inequality on a number line, an open circle is used to represent that a value is not included, while a closed
circle is used to indicate that a number is included.
• The table below shows four basic inequalities and their representation on a number line.
Mathematical statement Worded statement Number line diagram
x>2 x is greater than 2

–10 –8 –6 –4 –2 0 2 4 6 8 10
x≥2 x is greater than or equal to 2

–10 –8 –6 –4 –2 0 2 4 6 8 10
x<2 x is less than 2

–10 –8 –6 –4 –2 0 2 4 6 8 10
x≤2 x is less than or equal to 2

–10 –8 –6 –4 –2 0 2 4 6 8 10

Solving inequalities
• The following operations may be done to both sides of an inequality without affecting its truth.
• A number can be added or subtracted from both sides of the inequality.
Adding or subtracting a number:

For example: 6>2 Add 3 to +3 +3
both sides:
9>5 (True)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
For example: 6≥2 Subtract 3 –3 –3

from both
sides:
–2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
3 ≥ −1 (True)
Adding or subtracting moves both numbers the same distance along the number line.
• A number can be multiplied or divided by a positive number.
Multiplying or dividing by a positive number:
For example: 6>2 Multiply both 1

1 1 ×–
×– 2
sides by : 2
2
3>1 (True)
–1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
The distance between the numbers has changed, but their relative position has not.
• Care must be taken when multiplying or dividing by a negative number.
Multiplying or dividing by a negative number:
For example: 6>2 Multiply both ×–1

sides by − 1:
−6 > 2 (False) ×–1
–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Multiplying or dividing by a negative number reflects numbers about x = 0.
Their relative positions are reversed.
• When solving inequalities, if both sides are multiplied or divided by a negative number, then the inequality
sign must be reversed.
For example, 6 > 2 implies that −6 < −2.
Solving a linear inequality
Solving a linear inequality is a similar process to solving a standard linear equation. We can perform the
following inverse operations as normal:
• a number or term can be added to or subtracted from each side of the inequality
• each side of an inequation can be multiplied or divided by a positive number.
We must take care to change the direction of the inequality sign when:
• each side of an inequation is to be multiplied or divided by a negative number.

WORKED EXAMPLE 15 Solving linear inequalities
Solve each of the following linear inequalities and show the solution on a number line.
a. 4x − 1 < −2 b. 6x − 7 ≥ 3x + 5
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a. 1. Write the inequality. a. 4x − 1 < −2
2. Add 1 to both sides of the 4x − 1 + 1 < −2 + 1
inequality. 4x < −1
4x 1
3. Obtain x by dividing both sides of <−
the inequality by 4. 4 4
1
x <−
4
4. Show the solution on a number line. 1

x < ––
Use an open circle to show that the 4
1
value of − is not included.
4 –2 –1 1 0 1
––
4
b. 1. Write the inequality. b. 6x − 7 ≥ 3x + 5
2. Subtract 3x from both sides of the 6x − 7 − 3x ≥ 3x + 5 − 3x
inequality. 3x − 7 ≥ 5
3. Add 7 to both sides of the 3x − 7 + 7 ≥ 5 + 7
inequality. 3x ≥ 12
4. Obtain x by dividing both sides of 3x ≥ 12

the inequality by 3. 3x 12
≥
3 3
5. Show the solution on a number line. x≥4
Use a closed circle to show that the
value of 4 is included.
0 2 4 6 8 10
WORKED EXAMPLE 16 Solving complex linear inequalities
Solve each of the following linear inequalities.

a. −3m + 5 < −7 b. 5 (x − 2) ≥ 7 (x + 3)
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Write the inequality. a. − 3m + 5 < −7
2. Subtract 5 from both sides of the inequality. − 3m + 5 − 5 < −7 − 5
(No change to the inequality sign.) −3m < −12
−3m −12
3. Obtain m by dividing both sides of the >
inequation by –3. Reverse the inequality sign, −3 −3
since we are dividing by a negative number. m >4

b. 1. Write the inequality. b. 5 (x − 2) ≥ 7 (x + 3)
2. Expand both brackets. 5x − 10 ≥ 7x + 21
3. Subtract 7x from both sides of the inequality. 5x − 10 − 7x ≥ 7x + 21 − 7x
−2x − 10 ≥ 21
4. Add 10 to both sides of the inequation. −2x − 10 + 10 ≥ 21 + 10
−2x ≥ 31
−2x 31
5. Divide both sides of the inequality by –2. ≤
Reverse the direction of the inequality sign as −2 −2
we are dividing by a negative number. −31
x≤
2
1
x ≤ −15
2
DISCUSSION
What is are the similarities and differences when solving linear inequations compared to linear equations?
Resources
Resourceseses
Digital documents SkillSHEET Checking whether a given point makes the inequation a true statement (doc-5218)
SkillSHEET Writing equations from worded statements (doc-5219)
Interactivities Individual pathway interactivity: Solving linear inequalities (int-4582)
Inequalities on the number line (int-6129)
Exercise 4.7 Solving linear inequalities

Individual pathways
1, 4, 7, 10, 15, 18, 19, 22, 25, 2, 5, 8, 11, 13, 16, 20, 23, 26, 3, 6, 9, 12, 14, 17, 21, 24, 27,
28, 31 29, 32 30, 33
Fluency
WE15a For questions 1 to 3, solve each of the following inequalities and show the solution on a number line.
1. a. x + 1 > 3 b. a + 2 > 1 c. y − 3 ≥ 4 d. m − 1 ≥ 3
2. a. p + 4 < 5 b. x + 2 < 9 c. m − 5 ≤ 4 d. a − 2 ≤ 5
3. a. x − 4 > −1 b. 5 + m ≥ 7 c. 6 + q ≥ 2 d. 5 + a > −3

For questions 4 to 6, solve each of the following inequalities. Check your solutions by substitution.
4. a. 3m > 9 b. 5p ≤ 10 c. 2a < 8 d. 4x ≥ 20
5. a. 5p > −25 b. 3x ≤ −21 c. 2m ≥ −1 d. 4b > −2
m x a m
6. a. >6 b. < 4 c. ≤ −2 d. ≥5
3 2 7 5
For questions 7 to 9, solve each of the following inequalities.
7. a. 2m + 3 < 12 b. 3x + 4 ≥ 13 c. 5p − 9 > 11 d. 4n − 1 ≤ 7
8. a. 2b − 6 < 4 b. 8y − 2 > 14 c. 10m + 4 ≤ −6 d. 2a + 5 ≥ −5
9. a. 3b + 2 < −11 b. 6c + 7 ≤ 1 c. 4p − 2 > −10 d. 3a − 7 ≥ −28
WE15b For questions 10 to 14, solve each of the following linear inequalities and show the solution on a
number line.
10. a. 2m + 1 > m + 4 b. 2a − 3 ≥ a − 1
c. 5a − 3 < a − 7 d. 3a + 4 ≤ a − 2
11. a. 5x − 2 > 40 − 2x b. 7x − 5 ≤ 11 − x
c. 7b + 5 < 2b + 25 d. 2 (a + 4) > a + 13
12. a. 3 (m − 1) < m + 1 b. 5 (2m − 3) ≤ 3m + 6

c. 3 (5b + 2) ≤ −10 + 4b d. 5 (3m + 1) ≥ 2 (m + 9)
x+1 x−2 x+7

13. a. ≤4 b. ≥ −4 c. < −1
2 5 3
2x + 3 3x − 1 5x + 9
14. a. >6 b. ≥2 c. <0
4 7 6
WE16 For questions 15 to 17, solve each of the following inequalities.
15. a. −2m > 4 b. −5p ≤ 15 c. −2a ≥ −10
d. −p − 3 ≤ 2 e. 10 − y ≥ 13
16. a. 14 − x < 7 b. 1 − 6p > 1 c. 2 − 10a ≤ 0

d. 2 (3 − x) < 12 e. −4 (a + 9) ≥ 8
17. a. −15 ≤ −3 (2 + b) b. 2x − 3 > 5x + 6 c. k + 5 < 2k − 3

d. 3 (x − 4) < 5 (x + 5) e. 7 (a + 4) ≥ 4 (2a − 3)
18. MC When solving the inequality −2x > −7 we need to:

A. change the sign to ≥ B. change the sign to < C. change the sign to =
D. change the sign to ≤ E. keep the sign unchanged
For questions 19 to 24, solve each of the following inequalities.

2−x 5−m
19. a. >1 b. ≥2
3 4
−3 − x 3 − 8a
20. a. < −4 b. < −1
5 2
4 − 3m −2m + 6
21. a. ≤0 b. ≤3
2 10

22. a. 3k > 6 b. −a − 7 < −2 c. 5 − 3m ≥ 0 d. x + 4 > 9
7p 1−x
23. a. 10 − y ≤ 3 b. 5 + 3d < −1 c. ≥ −2 d. ≤2
3 3
−4 − 2m
24. a. >0 b. 5a − 2 < 4a + 7 c. 6p + 2 ≤ 7p − 1 d. 2 (3x + 1) > 2x − 16
5
Understanding
25. Write linear inequalities for the following statements, using x to represent the unknown. (Do not attempt to
solve the equations.)
a. The product of 5 and a certain number is greater than 10.
b. When three is subtracted from a certain number the result is less than or equal to 5.
c. The sum of seven and three times a certain number is less than 42.
26. Write linear inequalities for the following statements. Choose an appropriate letter to represent the unknown.
a. Four more than triple a number is more than 19.
b. Double the sum of six and a number is less than 10.
c. Seven less the half the difference between a number and 8 is at least 9.
27. Write linear inequalities for the following situations. Choose an appropriate letter to represent the unknown.
a. John makes $50 profit for each television he sells. Determine how many televisions John needs to sell to
make at least $650 in profit.
b. Determine what distances a person can travel with $60 if the cost of a taxi ride is $2.50 per km with a
flagfall cost of $5.
Reasoning
28. Tom is the youngest of 5 children. The five children were all born 1 year apart. If the sum of their ages is at
most 150, set up an inequality and solve it to find the possible ages of Tom.
29. Given the positive numbers a, b, c and d and the variable x, there is the following relationship:
−c < ax + b < −d.
a. Determine the possible range of values of x if a = 2, b = 3, c = 10 and d = 1.
b. Rewrite the original relationship in terms of x only (x by itself between the < signs), using a, b, c and d.
30. Two speed boats are racing along a section of Lake Quikalong.
The speed limit along this section of the lake is 50 km/h. Ella is
travelling 6 km/h faster than Steven and the sum of the speeds at
which they are travelling is greater than 100 km/h.
a. Write an inequation and solve it to describe all possible speeds
that Steven could be travelling at.
b. At Steven’s lowest possible speed, is he over the speed limit?
c. The water police issue a warning to Ella for exceeding the speed
limit on the lake. Show that the police were justified in issuing a
warning to Ella.

Problem solving
31. Mick the painter has fixed costs (e.g. insurance, equipment, etc) of
$3400 per year. His running cost to travel to jobs is based on $0.75 per
kilometre. Last year Mick had costs that were less than $16 000.
a. Write an inequality and solve it to find how many kilometres Mick
travelled for the year.
b. Explain the information you have found.
32. A coffee store produces doughnuts and croissants to sell alongside

its coffee. Each morning the bakery has to decide how many of each
it will produce. The store has 240 minutes to produce food in the
morning.
It takes 20 minutes to make a batch of doughnuts and 10 minutes
to make a batch of croissants. The store also has 36 kg of flour to
use each day. A batch of doughnuts uses 2 kg of flour and a batch of
croissants require 2 kg of flour.
a. Set up an inequality around the amount of time available to produce doughnuts and croissants.
b. Set up an inequality around the amount of flour available to produce doughnuts and croissants.
c. Use technology to work out the possible number of each that can be made, taking into account both
inequalities.
33. I have $40 000 to invest. Part of this I intend to invest in a stable 5% simple interest account. The remainder
will be invested in my friend’s IT business. She has said that she will pay me 7.5% interest on any money
I give to her. I am saving for a European trip so want the best return for my money. Calculate the least
amount of money I should invest with my friend so that I receive at least $2500 interest per year from my
investments.
4.8 Inequalities on the Cartesian plane

LEARNING INTENTION
• sketch the graph of a half plane: the region represented by an inequality
• sketch inequalities using digital technology.
4.8.1 Inequalities on the Cartesian plane

eles-4776
• A solution to a linear inequality is any ordered pair (coordinate) that makes the inequality true.
• There is an infinite number of points that can satisfy an inequality. If we consider the inequality x + y < 10,
the following points (1, 7), (5, 2) and (4, 3) are all solutions, whereas (6, 8) is not as it does not satisfy the
inequality (6 + 8 is not less than 10).
• These points that satisfy an inequality are represented by a region that is found on one side of a line and is
called a half plane.
• To indicate whether the points on a line satisfy the inequality, a specific type of boundary line is used.
Points on the line Symbol Type of boundary line used

Dashed
Do not satisfy the inequality < or >
---------------
Solid
Satisfy the inequality ≤ or ≥
_______________

• The required region is the region that contains the points that satisfy the inequality.
• Shading or no shading is used to indicate which side of the line is the required region, and a key is shown
to indicate the region.
y y
3 3
2 2
1 1
x x
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3
–1 –1
–2 –2
y > 2x − 2 –3 y ≤ 2x − 2 –3
The required region is . The required region is .
• Consider the line x = 2. It divides the Cartesian plane into two distinct regions or half-planes.
y
4
3
x<2 x>2
2
x=2
1
x
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5
–1
–2
–3
–4
• The region on the left (shaded pink) contains all the points whose x -coordinate is less than 2, for example
(1, 3), so this region is given the name x < 2.
• The region on the right (shaded blue) contains all the points whose x -coordinate is greater than 2, for
example (3, −2), so this region is given the name x > 2.
• There are three distinct parts to the graph:
• the boundary line, where x = 2
• the pink region, where x < 2
• the blue region, where x > 2.
WORKED EXAMPLE 17 Sketching simple inequalities
Sketch a graph of each of the following regions.

a. x ≥ −1 b. y < 3
THINK DRAW
a. 1. x ≥ −1 includes the line x = −1 and a. y
the region x > −1. 4
2. On a neat Cartesian plane sketch the line 3
x = −1. Because the line is required, it will be 2
x = –1
drawn as a continuous (unbroken) line. 1 (2, 1)

3. Identify a point where x > −1, say (2, 1). x
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4
4. Shade the region that includes this point. Label –1
–2
the region x ≥ −1. x ≥ –1
–3
–4

b. 1. The line y = 3 is not included. b. y
2. Sketch the line y = 3. Because the line is not 4
y=3
included, show it as a dashed (broken) line. 3
3. Identify a point where y < 3, say (1, 2). 2 (1, 2)
4. Shade the region where y < 3. 1
5. Label the region. x
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4
–1
–2
y<3
–3
–4
4.8.2 Determining the required region on the Cartesian plane

eles-4777
• For a more complex inequality, such as y < 2x + 3, first sketch the boundary line which is given by the
equation y = 2x + 3.
Note: The boundary line will be drawn as a solid line if it is included in the inequality (y ≤ x) or as a broken
line if it is not included (y < x).
• In order to determine which side of the boundary line satisfies the inequality, choose a point and test
whether it satisfies the inequality. In most cases the point (0, 0) is the best point to choose, but if the
boundary line passes through the origin, it will be necessary to test a different point such as (0, 1).
For example:
Inequality: y < 2x + 3:
Test (0, 0): 0 < 2 (0) + 3
0 <3 True
• Since 0 is less than 3, the point (0, 0) does satisfy the inequality. Thus, the half plane containing (0, 0) is the
required region.
WORKED EXAMPLE 18 Verifying inequalities at points on the Cartesian plane
Determine whether the points (0, 0) and (3, 4) satisfy either of the following inequalities.
a. x − 2y < 3 b. y > 2x − 3
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Substitute (0, 0) for x and y. a. x − 2y < 3
Substitute (0, 0):
2. Since the statement is true, (0, 0) satisfies 0−0 <3
the inequality. 0 < 3 True
3. Substitute (3, 4) for x and y. x − 2y < 3
Substitute (3, 4):
3 − 2(4) < 3
3−8 <3
4. Since the statement is true, (3, 4) satisfies − 5 < 3 True

the inequality.
5. Write the answer in a sentence. The points (0, 0) and (3, 4) both satisfy the
inequality

b. 1. Substitute (0, 0) for x and y. b. y > 2x − 3
Substitute (0, 0):
0 >0−3
2. Since the statement is true, (0, 0) satisfies 0 > −3 True
the inequality.
3. Substitute (3, 4) for x and y. y > 2x − 3
Substitute (3, 4):
4 > 2 (3) − 3
4>6−3
4. Since the statement is true, (3, 4) satisfies 4>3 True

the inequality.
5. Write the answer in a sentence. The points (0, 0) and (3, 4) both satisfy the
inequality
WORKED EXAMPLE 19 Sketching a linear inequality
Sketch a graph of the region 2x + 3y < 6.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1. Locate the boundary line 2x + 3y < 6 by x = 0: 0 + 3y = 6
finding the x- and y-intercepts. y=2
y = 0: 2x + 0 = 6
x=3
2. The line is not required due to the < inequality,
so rule a broken line.
3. Test with the point (0, 0). Does (0, 0) satisfy Test (0, 0): 2 (0) + 3 (0) = 0
2x + 3y < 6? As 0 < 6, (0, 0) is in the required region.
4. Shade the region that includes (0, 0).
5. Label the region. 2x y
+3
y= 4
6
3
2
1
x
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5
–1
–2
2x + 3y < 6
–3
–4

Rearrange the inequality as: Rearrange the inequality
2x as:
y<2− 2x
3 y<2−
On a Graphs page at the 3
function entry line, delete On a Graphs & Table
the = symbol, then select: screen, tap:
• 2: y < • Type
Complete the function entry • Inequality
line as: • y < Type
2x Complete the function
y<2−
3 entry line as:
Press ENTER. The shaded 2x
y<2−
region will be displayed. 3
Then tap the graphing
icon. The shaded region
will be displayed.
WORKED EXAMPLE 20 Modelling real-life situations
In the school holidays you have been given $160 to arrange some activities for your family. A ticket to
the movies costs $10 and a ticket for the trampoline park costs $16.
a. If m represents the movie tickets and t represents the trampoline park tickets, write an inequality in
terms of m and t that represents your entertainment budget.
b. Sketch the inequality from part a on the Cartesian plane.
c. Using the graph from part b explore the maximum number of movie and trampoline park tickets
you can buy to use the maximum amount of your holiday budget.
THINK WRITE
a. Each movie ticket, m, costs $12, and each a. 10m + 16t ≤ 160
trampoline ticket, t, costs $15. The maximum
amount you have to spend is $160.
b. 1. To draw the boundary line 10m + 15t ≤ 160, b. For the line 10m + 16t = 160
identify two points on the line. Let m be the x-intercept; let t = 0
x-axis and t be the y-axis. 10m + 16 × 0 = 160
10m = 160
m = 16
x-intercept is (16, 0)
y-intercept; let m = 0
10 × 0 + 16t = 160
16t = 160
t = 10
y-intercept is (0, 10)
2. Plot the two points and draw the line. As t
you can spend up to and including $160, the 15
boundary line is solid. (0, 10)
Only the first quadrant of the graph is 10
10m + 16t ≤ 160
required, as the number of tickets cannot
5
be negative.
(16, 0)
0 m
5 10 15 20

c. 1. To determine the maximum number of movie c. To spend the entire $160, only 16 movie tickets
and trampoline park tickets, identify the or 10 trampoline park tickets can be purchased.
nearest whole numbers of each to the graph If less than $160 was spent you could purchase
line. These must be whole numbers as you any whole number combinations, such as 6
cannot buy part of a ticket. movie tickets and 6 trampoline park tickets for
$156.
DISCUSSION
Think of some real-life situations where inequalities could be used to help solve a problem.
Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivities Individual pathway interactivity: Inequalities on the Cartesian plane (int-4583)
Linear inequalities in two variables (int-6488)
Exercise 4.8 Inequalities on the Cartesian plane

Individual pathways
1, 4, 7, 10, 13, 16, 19 2, 5, 8, 11, 14, 17, 20 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, 21
Fluency
WE18 For questions 1 to 3, sketch a graph of each of the following regions.
1. a. x < 1 b. y ≥ −2 c. x ≥ 0 d. y < 0
2. a. x > 2 b. x ≤ −6 c. y ≥ 3 d. y ≤ 2
1 3 3
3. a. x < b. y < c. y ≥ −4 d. x ≤
2 2 2
WE17 For questions 4 to 6, determine which of the points A (0, 0), B (1, −2) and C (4, 3) satisfy each of the
following inequalities.
4. a. x + y > 6 b. x − 3y < 2
5. a. y > 2x − 5 b. y < x + 3
6. a. 3x + 2y < 0 b. x ≥ 2y − 2

WE19 For questions 7 to 9, sketch the graphs for the regions given by each of the following inequations. Verify
your solutions using technology.
7. a. y ≥ x + 1 b. y < x − 6 c. y > −x − 2 d. y < 3 − x
8. a. y > x − 2 b. y < 4 c. 2x − y < 6 d. y ≤ x − 7
9. a. x − y > 3 b. y < x + 7 c. x + 2y ≤ 5 d. y ≤ 3x
10. MC The shaded region satisfying the inequality y > 2x − 1 is:

A. y B. y
( 12 , 0) ( 12 , 0)
0 x 0 x
(0, –1) (0, –1)
C. y D. y
( 12 , 0) ( 12 , 0)
0 x 0 x
(0, –1) (0, –1)
E. y
(– 12 , 0)
0 x
(0, –1)

11. MC The shaded region satisfying the inequality y ≤ x + 4 is:
A. y B. y
(0, 4) (0, 4)
(–4, 0) 0 x (–4, 0) x
0
C. y D. y
(0, 4) (0, 4)
(–4, 0) 0 x (–4, 0) 0 x
E. y
(0, 4)
(4, 0)
0 x
12. MC The region satisfying the inequality y < 3x is:

A. y B. y
(1, 3)
(0, 0)
0 x
0 (0, 0) x
(1, –3)

C. y D. y
(–1, 3)
(0, 3)
(0, 0) (–1, 0)
0 x 0 x
E. y
(–1, 0) (0, 1)
0 x
Understanding
13. a. Determine the equation of the line l shown in the diagram. y
b. Write down three inequalities that define the region R. 10
9 l
14. Identify all points with integer coordinates that satisfy the 8
following inequalities: 7
x≥3 6 R
5
y>2 4
3x + 2y ≤ 19 3
2
1
0 x
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
15. WE20 Happy Yaps Dog Kennels charges $35 per day for large dogs
(dogs over 20 kg) and $20 per day for small dogs (less than 20 kg). On
any day, Happy Yaps Kennels can only accommodate a maximum of
30 dogs.
a. If l represents the number of large dogs and s represents the
number of small dogs, write an inequality in terms of l and s that
represents the total number of dogs at Happy Yaps.
b. Another inequality can be written as s ≥ 12. In the context of this
problem, write down what this inequality represents.
c. The inequality l ≤ 15 represents the number of large dogs that Happy Yaps can accommodate on any day.
Draw a graph that represents this situation.
d. Explore the maximum number of small and large dogs Happy Yaps Kennels can accommodate to receive
the maximum amount in fees.

Reasoning
16. Use technology to sketch and then find the area of the region formed by the following inequalities.
y ≥ −4
y < 2x − 4
2y + x ≤ 2
17. Answer the following questions.
a. Given the following graph, state the inequality it represents. y
b. Choose a point from each half plane and show how this point 3
confirms your answer to part a. 2
1
x
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5
–1
–2
–3
The required region is .

a. Determine the equation of the line, l. y
b. Write an inequation to represent the unshaded region. 4
c. Write an inequation to represent the shaded region. 3 Line l
d. Rewrite the answer for part b if the line was not broken. 2
1
Problem solving x
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5
–1
19. a. Sketch the graph of: –2
x+1 x+1 –3
− =2−y
2 3 –4
b. Shade the region that represents:

x+1 x+1
− ≤2−y
2 3
20. Use your knowledge about linear inequations to sketch the regions defined by:
a. x2 + y2 < 16 b. x2 + y2 > 36
21. Use your knowledge about linear inequations to sketch the region defined by y ≥ x2 + 4x + 3.
4.9 Solving simultaneous linear inequalities

LEARNING INTENTION
• sketch multiple linear inequalities on the same Cartesian plane and determine the required region that
satisfies both inequalities.
4.9.1 Multiple inequalities on the Cartesian plane

eles-4778
• The graph of an inequality represents a region of the Cartesian plane.
• When sketching multiple inequalities on the same set of axes, the required region is the overlap of each
inequality being sketched.
• The required region given when placing y < 3x and y > x is shown below:
y < 3x + y>x = y < 3x and y > x

y y y
15 15 15
12 12 12
9 9 9
6 6 6
3 3 3
x x x
–10 –8 –6 –4 –2 0 2 4 6 8 –10 –8 –6 –4 –2 0 2 4 6 8 –10 –8 –6 –4 –2 0 2 4 6 8
–3 –3 –3
–6 –6 –6
–9 –9 –9
–12 –12 –12
–15 –15 –15
Graphing simultaneous linear inequalities
Step 1: Graph the boundary line of all linear inequalities.

Step 2: Identify the required region for each individual inequality by testing a point.
Step 3: Identify the overlap of each required region and shade this section or sections.
Step 4: Test a point from the region found in step 3 and make sure it satisfies all inequalities.
Step 5: Place a key somewhere on or below the Cartesian plane to indicate which section is the
required region.
• When sketching multiple inequalities, finding the required region can get fairly tricky (and messy).
One way to make this process easier is to shade the region for each inequality that does not satisfy the
inequality. Once all inequalities have been sketched, the only section not shaded in is the solution to the
simultaneous inequalities.
WORKED EXAMPLE 21 Solving simultaneous linear inequalities
Identify the required region in the following pair of linear inequalities:

2x + 3y ≥ 6 and y < 2x − 3
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1. To sketch each inequality, the boundary line 2x + 3y ≥ 6 y < 2x − 3
needs to be drawn first. For the line 2x + 3y = 6, For the line y = 2x − 3,
• To draw each line, identify two points on x-intercept: let y = 0 let x = 0
each line. 2x + 0 = 6 y = 2(0) − 3
• Use the intercepts method for 2x + 3y ≥ 6. x=3 y = −3
• Use substitution of values for y < 2x − 3. y-intercept: let x = 0 let x = 2
• Write the coordinates. 0 + 3y = 6 y = 2(2) − 3
Note: The intercepts method could also have y=2 y=4−3
been used for the second equation. y=1
(3, 0), (0, 2) (0, −3), (2, 1)

2. Plot the two points for each line.

• Plot the x- and y-intercepts for y
2x + 3y = 6, as shown in blue. 5
• Plot the two points for y = 2x − 3, as shown 4
3 y = 2x − 3
in pink. 2x + 3y = 6
2
3. Draw the boundary lines. 1
• For 2x + 3y ≥ 6, the points on the line are x
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
included. The boundary line is solid, as –1
–2
shown in blue.
–3
• For y < 2x − 3, the points on the line are
–4
not included. The boundary line is dashed, –5
as shown in pink.
4. To determine which side of the line is the Check the point (3, 1):
required region, select a point on one side of x = 3, y = 1
the line and check to see whether the point 2x + 3y ≥ 6 y < 2x − 3
satisfies the equation. Choose the point (3, 1) LHS = 2x + 3y LHS = y
to substitute into the equation. = 2(3) + 3(1) =1
= 6+3 RHS = 2(3) − 3
=9 = 6−3
RHS = 6 =3
LHS > RHS LHS < RHS
The point (3, 1) satisfies The point (3, 1) satisfies
the inequality and is in the inequality and is in
the required region for the required region for
2x + 3y ≥ 6 y < 2x − 3
5. The region not required for: 2x + 3y ≥ 6 y

2x + 3y ≥ 6 is shaded pink. 5
4
y < 2x − 3 is shaded green.
3
Since the point (3, 1) satisfies both
2
inequalities, it is in the required region. The (3, 1)
1
required region is the unshaded section of the
x
graph. Write a key. –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
–1
–2
–3 y < 2x − 3
–4
–5

1. In a new problem, on 1. On the Graph & Table
a Graphs page at the screen tap:
function entry line • Type
delete the = symbol, • Inequality
then complete entry line • y < Type
2x Complete the funtion entry
as y ≥ 2 − .
3 line as:
Then press ENTER. y < 2x − 3
Then tap the graphing icon.
The graph region corresponding The shaded region will be
2x + 3y ≥ 6 is displayed. displayed.
The graph region

corresponding to
y < 2x − 3 is displayed.
2. Press TAB. Complete 2. On the Main screen,
the entry line as complete the entry line
y < 2x − 3. as:
Then press ENTER. solve (2x + 3y ≥ 6, y)
You may need to change Highlight the previous
the Line Colour and Fill answer and drag it to
Colour of this inequality complete the entry line
to green to see the as: ( )
shaded region in dark −(2x − 6)
simplify y ≥
green as shown. The shaded region indicated is 3
the area corresponding to 2x + Press EXE after each entry
3y ≥ 6 and y < 2x − 3. line.
The inequality is given
2x
by y ≥ − + 2
3
3. Go back to the Graph &
Table screen and complete
the function entry line as:
2x
y≥− +2
3
Then tap the graphing icon.
The shaded region will be
displayed.
4. If the solution region is hard

to see, fix this by setting
an appropriate viewing
window.
To do this, tap .
Select the values as shown
in the screenshot and tap
OK.
5. The darker shaded region
to the top right is the area
corresponding to
y < 2x − 3 and
2x + 3y ≥ 6.

Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivities Individual pathway interactivity: Solving simultaneous linear inequalities (int-4584)
Graphing simultaneous linear inequalities (int-6283)
Exercise 4.9 Solving simultaneous linear inequalities

Individual pathways
1, 3, 6, 9, 12 4, 7, 10, 13 2, 5, 8, 11, 14
Fluency
1. WE21 Identify the required region in the following pair of inequalities.
4x + 7y ≥ 21
10x − 2y ≥ 16
2. Given the graph shown, determine the inequalities that represent the shaded region.
y
5
4
3 (0, 3)
2
(−1, 1) 1
(3, 0)
0 x
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5
–1
–2 (0, −2)
–3
–4
–5
–6
–7
For questions 3 to 5, sketch the following pairs of inequalities.

3. a. y < 4 b. y + 3x > 6
y ≤ −x y − 2x < 9
1
4. a. 5y − 3x ≥ −10 b. y + 2x ≤ 4
6y + 4x ≥ 12 3
y − 4x ≥ −8
5. a. 3x + 4y < 24 b. 6x − 5y > 30
y > 2x − 5 x + y < 16

Understanding
6. MC Identify which system of inequalities represents y
the required region on the graph. 8
7
A. y ≤ x − 2
6
y > −3x − 6 5
B. y ≥ x − 2 4
y ≥ −3x − 6 3
2
C. y ≤ x − 2 1
y ≤ −3x − 6 x
0
−8 −7 −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
D. y ≥ x + 3 −1
−2
y ≤ −3x − 6 −3
E. y > x + 2 −4
y < −3x + 6 −5
−6
−7
−8
7. Given the diagram, write the inequalities that created the shaded region.
y
5
4.5
4
3.5 ( 12 , 103)
3
2.5
2
1.5 (2, 43 )
1
( 12 , 1) 0.5
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 x
−0.5
−1
−2 (1, 0)
(2, 0)
8. a. Graph the following system of inequalities: y ≥ −3, x + 2 ≥ 0, 2y + 5x ≤ 7

b. Calculate the coordinates of the vertices of the required region.
Reasoning
9. The sum of the lengths of any two sides of a triangle must be greater than the third side.
a. Given a triangle with sides x, 9 and 4, draw diagrams to show the possible triangles, using the above
statement to establish inequalities.
b. Determine the possible solutions for x and explain how you determined this.
10. Create a triangle with the points (0, 0), (0, 8) and (6, 0).
a. Calculate the equations of the lines for the three sides.
b. If you shade the interior of the triangle (including the boundary lines), determine the inequalities that
would create the shaded region.
c. Calculate the side lengths of this triangle.

11. A rectangle must have a length that is a least 4 cm longer than its width. The area of the rectangle must be
less than 25 cm2 .
a. Write three inequalities that represent this scenario.
b. Determine how many possible rectangles could be formed, with integer side lengths, under
these conditions.
Problem solving
12. a. Determine the equations of the two lines in the diagram shown.
b. Determine the coordinates of the point A.
c. Write a system of inequations to represent the shaded region.
y
4
3
A
2
1
0 x
–1 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
–2
–3
–4
13. The Ecofriendly company manufactures two different

detergents. Shine is specifically for dishwashers while
Motherearth is a washing machine detergent. For the first
week of June, the production manager has specified that
the total amount of the two products produced should be
at least 400 litres as one client has already pre-ordered
125 litres of Shine for that week. The time that is required
to process one litre of Shine is 30 minutes while one litre
of Motherearth requires 15 minutes. During the week
mentioned, the factory can process the detergents for up
to 175 hours.
a. If x represents the number of litres of Shine produced and y represents the number of litres of
Motherearth produced, formulate the constraints as linear inequations.
b. Show the feasible region.
c. State the coordinates of the vertices of the region.
14. Ethan is a bodybuilder who maintains a strict diet. To

supplement his current diet, he wants to mix two different
products, Proteinplus and Carboload, in order to produce
a desired balance composed of 100 g of protein, 160 g of
carbs and 70 g of fat. Each product is sold in 50 g sachets
that contain the following:
Protein Carbohydrates Fats
Product (per 50 g) (per 50 g) (per 50 g)
Proteinplus 24 g 14 g 5g
Carboload 10 g 32 g 20 g
a. Set up three inequalities to represent this situation.

b. Sketch the feasible region.
c. Determine what combination of the two products
requires the fewest number of sachets to be used.
4.10 Review
Simultaneous Substitution and elimination Applications
equations • The substitution and elimination methods
• Solving simultaneous are two algebraic techniques used to solve the unknown quantities.
equations involves simultaneous equations. • Use the information in the question to
• We can use substitution when one (or both) of form two or more equations.
points) of intersection the equations have a variable as the subject. • Pick an appropriate technique to solve
between two lines. e.g. y = 3x – 4 simultaneously.
We can determine • We use the elimination method when • Write out a statement that explicitly
these points by substitution isn’t possible. answers the question.
accurately sketching • Elimination method involves adding or
both equations, or subtracting equations to eliminate one of the
using technology to variables. e.g.
find these points. 3x + y = 5
4x – y = 2
7x = 7 • Two lines are parallel if they have
the same gradient.
e.g. y = 3x – 6
y = 3x + 1
• Two lines are perpendicular if the
SIMULTANEOUS product of their gradients is –1.
LINEAR EQUATIONS e.g. y = 2x + 3
y=–––4
x
2
AND INEQUALITIES 1
m1 × m 2 = 2 × – – = –1
2
Inequations Simultaneous linear Number of solutions

and non-linear equations
• An equation has a = sign. • Parallel lines with
• An inequation will have one of the following: • A system of equations which different y-intercepts
>, ≥, <, ≤ contains a linear equation and will never intersect.
The distance
• An inequation, such as xbetween two points a non-linear equation can have • Parallel lines with the
number of solutions: x = {4, 3, 2, 1, …} 0, 1 or 2 solutions (points same y-intercept are
• We can represent an inequality on a number line. of intersection). called coincident
e.g. x > 2 • The number of solutions lines and will
will depend on the equations
of both lines. number of times.
–10 –8 – 6 – 4 –2 0 2 4 6 8 10 x • Non-linear equations include: • Perpendicular lines
• An open circle mean that a value is not included • quadratic equations (parabolas) will intersect once
as a solution. A closed circle means that the value • hyperbolic equations and cross at right
is included in the solution. • circles. angles to each other.
Inequalities and half planes Sketching inequalities

• The graph of a linear inequality is called a half plane • When sketching a linear inequality such as y < 3x + 4, sketch
and is the region above or below a boundary line. y = 3x + 4.
• To determine which side of the boundary line is the required
Test (0, 0) = 0 < 3(0) + 4

0 < 4 which is true
• In this case, the region required is the region with
• If the inequality has < or > the boundary line is
the point (0, 0).
dotted as it is not included in the solution.
• When sketching simultaneous inequalities, the required region
• If the inequality has ≤ or ≥ the boundary line is
is the overlap region of each individual inequality.
solid as it is included in the solution.

4.2 I can use the graph of two simultaneous equations to determine the point
of intersection
I can determine whether two simultaneous equations will have 0, 1 or
infinite solutions
I can determine whether two lines are parallel or perpendicular.
4.3 I can identify when it is appropriate to solve using the substitution method.
I can solve a system of two linear simultaneous equations using the

substitution method.
4.4 I can solve two linear simultaneous equations using the elimination
method.
4.5 I can define unknown quantities with appropriate variables.
I can form two simultaneous equations using the information presented in

a problem.
I can choose an appropriate method to solve simultaneous equations in
order to find the solution to a problem.
4.6 I can determine the point or points of intersection between a linear
equation and various non-linear equations using various techniques.
I can use digital technology to find the points of intersection between a
linear equation and a non-linear equation.
4.7 I can solve an inequality and represent the solution on a number line.
I can convert a worded statement to an inequality in order to solve a

problem.
4.8 I can sketch the graph of a half plane: the region represented by an
inequality.
I can sketch inequalities using digital technology.
4.9 I can sketch multiple linear inequalities on the same Cartesian plane and
determine the required region that satisfies both inequalities.

4.10.3 Project
Documenting business expenses
In business, expenses can be represented graphically, so that relevant features are clearly visible. The
graph compares the costs of hiring cars from two different car rental companies. It will be cheaper to use
Plan A when travelling distances less than 250 kilometres, and Plan B when travelling more than 250
kilometres. Both plans cost the same when you are travelling exactly 250 kilometres.
Comparison of car hire companies
400
Cost of car hire
300 Plan A
200
Plan B
100
0 250
Kilometres travelled
Andrea works as a travelling sales representative. She needs to plan

her next business trip to Port Hedland, which she anticipates will
take her away from the office for 3 or 4 days. Due to other work
commitments, she is not sure whether she can make the trip by the end
of this month or early next month.
She plans to fly to Port Hedland and use a hire car to travel when she
arrives. Andrea’s boss has asked her to supply documentation detailing
the anticipated costs for the hire car, based on the following
quotes received.
A1 Rentals $35 per day plus 28c per kilometre

of travel
Cut Price Rentals $28 per day plus 30c per kilometre
of travel
Andrea is aware that, although the Cut Price Rentals deal looks
cheaper, it could work out more expensive in the long run,
because of the higher cost per kilometre of travel; she intends
to travel a considerable distance.
Andrea is advised by both rental companies that their daily hire
charges are due to rise by $2 per day from the first day of next month.
Assuming that Andrea is able to travel this month and her trip will last 3 days, use the information given to
answer questions 1 to 4.
1. Write equations to represent the costs of hiring a car from A1 Rentals and Cut Price Rentals. Use the
pronumeral C to represent the cost (in dollars) and d to represent the distance travelled (in kilometres).

2. Copy the following set of axes to plot the two equations from question 1 to show how the costs compare
over 1500 km.
Comparison of cost of hiring a car from A1 Rentals and Cut Price Rentals
C
600
500
Cost ($)
400
300
200
100
0 d
200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Distance travelled (km)
3. Use the graph to determine how many kilometres Andrea would have to travel to make the hire costs the
same for both rental companies.
4. Assume Andrea’s trip is extended to four days. Use an appropriate method to show how this changes the
answer found in question 3.
For questions 5 to 7, assume that Andrea has delayed her trip until next month when the hire charges
have increased.
5. Write equations to show the cost of hiring a car from both car rental companies for a trip lasting:
a. 3 days
b. 4 days.
6. Copy the following set of axes to plot the four equations from question 5 to show how the costs compare
over 1500 km.
Comparison of cost of hiring a car from A1 Rentals and Cut Price Rentals
C
600
500
Cost ($)
400
300
200
100
0 d
200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
7. Comment on the results displayed in your graph.

8. Andrea needs to provide her boss with documentation of the hire car costs, catering for all options.
Prepare a document for Andrea to hand to her boss.

Resources
Resourceseses

Fluency
1. MC Identify the inequality that is represented by the following region. y
3
A. y ≥ 2 − x
2
B. y ≥ x − 2
1
C. y ≤ 2 − x
D. y ≤ x − 2 0 x
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3
−1
E. y ≥ 2x −2
−3
Region required
2. MC Identify the equation of a linear graph which passes through the origin with gradient −3.
A. y = −3 B. x = −3 C. y = −3x D. y = 3 − 3x E. y = 3x − 3
3. MC A music shop charges a flat rate of $5 postage for 2 CDs and $11 for 5 CDs. Identify the equation
that best represents this, if C is the cost and n is the number of CDs.
A. C = 5n + 11 B. C = 6n + 5 C. C = n + 2 D. C = 5n + 1 E. C = 2n + 1
4. MC During a charity walk-a-thon, Sarah receives $4 plus $3 per kilometre. The graph which best
represents Sarah walking up to 5 kilometres is:
A. $ B. $ C. $
18 (5, 18) 24 (5, 24) 24
15 20 20 (5, 19)
12 16 16
9 12 12
6 8 8
3 4 4
0 0 0
1 2 3 4 5 d (km) 1 2 3 4 5 d (km) 1 2 3 4 5 d (km)
D. $ E. $
18 (5, 19) 24
15 20
(5, 18)
12 16
9 12
6 8
3 4
0 0
1 2 3 4 5 d (km) 1 2 3 4 5 d (km)

5. MC Identify which of the following pairs of coordinates is the solution to the simultaneous equations:
2x + 3y = 18
5x − y = 11
A. (6, 2) B. (3, −4) C. (3, 9) D. (3, 4) E. (5, 11)
6. MC Identify the graphical solution to the following pair of simultaneous equations:

y = 5 − 2x
y = 3x − 10
A. y B. y
10 10
8 8
6 6
5 1
4 1 31 – 3 1 –2 4 5
2 3 2
2 2 3 2
x x
–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5
–2 –2
–4 (3, –1) (–3, –1) –4
–6 –6
–8 –8
–10 –10
C. y D. y
10 10
8 8
6 6
4 4
2 2
(3, 1) (–3, 1)
0 x x
–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5
–2 –2
–4 1 31 1
– 3 1 –2 –4 –5
2
–6 –5 2 3 3 2
–6
–8 –8
–10 –10
E. None of the above
7. Sketch the half plane given by each of the following inequalities.

a. y ≤ x + 1 b. y ≥ 2x + 10 c. y > 3x − 12 d. y < 5x
1
e. x ≥ 7 f. y ≤ x+1 g. 2x + y ≥ 9 h. y > −12
2
8. Use substitution to check if the given pair of coordinates is a solution to the given
a. (7, 1) x − 2y = 5 b. (4, 3) y = 7 − 3
5y + 2x = 18 5y − 2x = 7

9. Solve each of the following pairs of simultaneous equations using a graphical method.
a. 4y − 2x = 8 b. y = 2x − 2 c. 2x + 5y = 20
x + 2y = 0 x − 4y = 8 y=7
10. Use the graphs below, showing the given simultaneous equations, to write the point of intersection of
the graphs and, hence, the solution of the simultaneous equations.
a. x + 3y = 6 b. 3x + 2y = 12
y = 2x − 5 2y = 3x
y y
10 10
8 8
6 6
4 4
2 2
x x
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
–2 –2
–4 –4
–6 –6
–8 –8
–10 –10
11. Solve the following simultaneous equations using the substitution method.
a. y = 3x + 1 b. y = 2x + 7 c. 2x + 5y = 6
x + 2y = 16 3y − 4x = 11 3
y= x+5
2
d. y = −x e. y = 3x − 11 f. y = 4x − 17
y = 8x + 21 y = 5x + 17 y = 6x − 22
12. Solve the following simultaneous equations using the elimination method.
a. 3x + y = 17 b. 4x + 3y = 1 c. 3x − 7y = −2
7x − y = 33 −4x + y = 11 −2x − 7y = 13
d. 4y − 3x = 9 e. 5x + 2y = 6 f. x − 4y = −4
y + 3x = 6 4x + 3y = 2 4x − 2y = 12
13. Solve the following simultaneous equations using an appropriate method.

a. 3x + 2y = 6 b. 6x − 4y = −6 c. 6x + 2y = 14
3y + 5x = 9 7x + 3y = −30 x = −3 + 5y
14. Sketch the following pairs of inequalities.

a. y ≤ x + 4 b. 2y − 3x ≥ 12 c. 5x + y < 10
y≥3 y + 3x > 0 x + 2y < 11
15. Determine the point(s) of intersection for each of the following pairs of lines.
2
a. y = x2 − 6 b. y = c. x2 + y2 = 2
y = 5x − 3 x y = 5x − 3
y = 5x − 3

Problem solving
16. Write the following as a pair of simultaneous equations and solve.
a. Determine which two numbers have a difference of 5, and their sum is 23.
b. A rectangular house has a total perimeter of 34 metres and the width is 5 metres less than the length.
Calculate the dimensions of the house.
c. If two Chupa Chups and three Wizz Fizzes cost $2.55, but five Chupa Chups and seven Wizz Fizzes
cost $6.10, determine the price of each type of lolly.
17. Laurie buys milk and bread for his family on the way home from school each day, paying with a $10
note. If he buys three cartons of milk and two loaves of bread, he receives 5 cents in change. If he buys
two cartons of milk and one loaf of bread, he receives $4.15 in change. Calculate how much each
item costs.
18. A paddock contains some cockatoos (2-legged) and

kangaroos (4-legged). The total number of animals is 21
and they have 68 legs in total. Using simultaneous
equations, determine how many cockatoos and
kangaroos there are in the paddock.
19. Warwick was solving a pair of simultaneous equations

using the elimination method and reached the result that
0 = −5. Suggest a solution to the problem, giving a
reason for your answer.
20. There are two sections to a concert hall. Seats in the ‘Dress circle’ are arranged in rows of 40 and cost
$140 each. Seats in the ‘Bleachers’ are arranged in rows of 70 and cost $60 each. There are 10 more
rows in the ‘Dress circle’ than in the ‘Bleachers’ and the capacity of the hall is 7000.
a. If d represents the number of rows in the ‘Dress circle’ and b represents the number of rows in the
‘Bleachers’ then write an equation in terms of these two variables based on the fact that there are 10
more rows in the ‘Dress circle’ than in the ‘Bleachers’.
b. Write an equation in terms of these two variables based on the fact that the capacity of the hall is
7000 seats.
c. Solve the two equations from a and b simultaneously using the method of your choice to find the
number of rows in each section.
d. Now that you have the number of rows in each section, calculate the number of seats in each section.
e. Hence, calculate the total receipts for a concert where all tickets are sold.

21. John is comparing two car rental companies, Golden Ace Rental Company and Silver Diamond Rental
Company.
Golden Ace Rental Company charges a flat rate of $38 per day and $0.20 per kilometre. The Silver
Diamond Rental Company charges a flat rate of $30 per day plus $0.32 per kilometre.
a. Write an algebraic equation for the cost of renting a car for three days from the Golden Ace Rental
Company in terms of the number of kilometres travelled, k.
b. Write an algebraic equation for the cost of renting a car for three days from the Silver Diamond
Rental Company in terms of the number of kilometres travelled, k.
c. Determine how many kilometres John would have to travel so that the cost of hiring from each
company for three days is the same.
d. Write an inequation that, when solved, will tell you the number of kilometres for which it is cheaper
to use Golden Ace Rental Company when renting for three days.
e. Determine the number of kilometres for which it is cheaper to use Silver Diamond Rental Company
for three days’ hire.
22. Frederika has $24 000 saved for a holiday and a

new stereo. Her travel expenses are $5400 and
her daily expenses are $260.
a. Write down an equation for the cost of her
holiday if she stays for d days. Upon her
return from holidays Frederika wants to
purchase a new stereo system that will cost
her $2500.
b. Calculate how many days can she spend on
her holiday if she wishes to purchase a new
stereo upon her return.

eWorkbook 4.3 Individual pathway interactivity: Solving simultaneous

linear equations using substitution (int-4578) ⃞
Download the workbook for this topic, which includes Solving simultaneous equations using substitution
4.4 Individual pathway interactivity: Solving simultaneous
Solutions linear equations using elimination (int-4520) ⃞
Download a copy of the fully worked solutions to every Solving simultaneous equations using elimination
question in this topic (sol-0738) ⃞ (int-6127) ⃞
4.5 Individual pathway interactivity: Applications of
Digital documents simultaneous linear equations (int-4580) ⃞
4.6 Individual pathway interactivity: Solving simultaneous
4.2 SkillSHEET Graphing linear equations using the x- and linear and non-linear equations (int-4581) ⃞
y-intercept method (doc-5217) ⃞ Solving simultaneous linear and non-linear equations
4.7 SkillSHEET Checking whether a given point makes the (int-6128) ⃞
inequation a true statement (doc-5218) ⃞ 4.7 Individual pathway interactivity: Solving linear
SkillSHEET Writing equations from worded statements inequalities (int-4582) ⃞
(doc-5219) ⃞ Inequalities on the number line (int-6129) ⃞
4.8 Individual pathway interactivity: Inequalities on the
Video eLessons Cartesian plane (int-4583) ⃞
4.2 Simultaneous linear equations and graphical solutions Linear inequalities in two variables (int-6488) ⃞
(eles-4763) ⃞ 4.9 Individual pathway interactivity: Solving simultaneous
Solutions to coincident, parallel and perpendicular lines linear inequalities (int-4584) ⃞
(eles-4764) ⃞ Graphing simultaneous linear inequalities (int-6283) ⃞
4.3 Solving simultaneous equations using the substitution 4.10 Crossword (int-2836) ⃞
method (eles-4766) ⃞ Sudoku puzzle (int-3591) ⃞
Equating equations (eles-4767) ⃞
Solving simultaneous equations using substitution Teacher resources
(eles-1932) ⃞
4.4 Solving simultaneous equations using the elimination There are many resources available exclusively for teachers
method (eles-4768) ⃞ online.
Solving simultaneous equations by multiplying by a
constant (eles-4769) ⃞
Solving simultaneous equations using elimination
(eles-1931) ⃞
4.5 Applications of simultaneous linear equations
(eles-4770) ⃞
4.6 Solving simultaneous linear and quadratic equations
(eles-4771) ⃞
Solving simultaneous linear and hyperbolic equations
(eles-4772) ⃞
4.7 Inequalities between two expressions (eles-4774) ⃞
4.8 Inequalities on the Cartesian plane (eles-4776) ⃞
Determining the required region on the Cartesian plane
(eles-4777) ⃞
4.9 Multiple inequalities on the Cartesian plane (eles-4778) ⃞
Interactivities
4.2 Individual pathway interactivity: Graphical solution of
simultaneous linear equations (int-4577) ⃞
Solving simultaneous equations graphically (int-6452) ⃞
Parallel lines (int-3841) ⃞
Perpendicular lines (int-6124) ⃞

Answers b.
c.
Northern beaches in red, southern beaches in blue
Time > 2 hours
Topic 4 Simultaneous linear d. Time = 2 hours, cost = $44
y
equations and inequalities 120
Exercise 4.1 Pre-test D
100
1. False
2. (0, 2) C
80
3. An infinite number of solutions
Cost
4. (1, 0.2) 60
5. D
40
6. B C = 20 + 12t
7. 92 D = 8 + 18t
20
8. A
9. E 0 x
1 2 3 4 5
10. A, C, E, G
Time (hours)
11. C 15. a. Same line b. Perpendicular
12. B, D c. Intersecting d. Parallel
13. At two points 16. a. 1 solution
14. E b. No solution (parallel lines)
15. B c. No solution (parallel lines)
17. a. 1 solution (perpendicular lines)
Exercise 4.2 Graphical solution of simultaneous
b. Infinite solutions (coincident)
linear equations
c. 1 solution
1. a. (2, 1) b. (1, 1)
d. No solution (parallel lines)
2. a. (0, 4) b. (2, −1) 1
18. a. a=3 b. a = c. a = 8
3. a. (−2, −4) b. (−0.5, 1.5) 4
4. a. No b. Yes 19. a. y = 3x + 6
c. Yes d. No b. y = −2x + 1
5. a. Yes b. No c. y
c. No d. Yes 7
y = 3x + 6
6
6. a. No b. Yes y = –2x + 1
5
c. No d. Yes
Point of 4
7. a. (3, 2) b. (4, 3) intersection 3
c. (−3, 4) d. (−2, 2) (–1, 3) 2
(2, 0) (3, 0) 1
8. a. b.
c. (−2, 4) d. (3, 8) x
( ) –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5
–1
1 1 –2
9. a. − ,1 b. (2, 5)
2 2 –3
( )
2 –4
c. (5, 3) d. 2,
3
20. y
10. a. No solution b. (2, −1) 7
c. No solution d. (1, 9) 6
3x – y = 2
11. a. (3, 1) b. No solution 5
c. No solution d. (2, 1) 4
( ) Point of
3
6 6 intersection
12. a. No solution b. ,− (1, 1) 2
5 5 1
c. (2, −4) d. No solution
x
13. y = 4x − 16 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5
–1
14. a. Northern beach 2y – x = 1 –2 y + 3x = 4
C = 20 + 12t, 0 ≤ t ≤ 5 –3
Southern beach –4
D = 8 + 18t, 0 ≤ t ≤ 5

5x Exercise 4.4 Solving simultaneous linear

21. y= +9
4 equations using elimination
Exercise 4.3 Solving simultaneous linear 1. a. (3, 1) b. (−2, 3) c. (−2, 6)
equations using substitution 2. a. (5, −1) b. (2, 3) c. (−3, 1)
1. a. (2, 3) b. (2, −1) 3. a. (−3, 5) b. (−5, −8) c. (2, −2)
c. (3, −2) d. (7, 6) ( ) ( )
1 1 4
2. a. (3, 6) b. (2, 1) 4. a. 1 ,3 b. 2, 1 c. (1, 1)
2 2 5
c. (−1, −2) d. (−4, 0)
5. a. (1, 3) b. (2, 4) c. (5, 2)
3. a. (−1, −2) b. (6, −2) ( )
( ) 1
1 6. a. (4, 2) b. (−3, 4) c. −3, −1
c. 3, 1 d. (−3, −5) 2
2
7. a. (−6, −5) b. (−3, 5) c. (2, 1.8)
4. a. (−6, −23) b. (5, 23)
( ) 8. a. (6, 3) b. (2, −2) c. (1, 3)
3 15
c. (2, −6) d. ,−
2 2 9. a. (−1.5, −3) b. (−8, 18) c. (−3, 5)
( )
1 10. a. (1, 3) b. (4, 0) c. (−3, 5)
5. a. (1, −7) b. − , −4 ( )
2 1 1
( ) ( ) 11. a. (4, 3) b. (8, 5) c. ,−
3 1 1 4 3 3
c. − ,− d. − ,
2 2 5 5
12. a. (4, 5) b. (1, −3) c. (12, 12)
6. a. (−3, −1.5) b. (1, 0.3)
( ) 13. $3.40 (coffee is $5.10)
4 4
c. − , d. (1, −1) 14. 12 five cent coins and 22 ten cent coins.
5 5
15. Abena 61 kg, Bashir 58 kg, Cecily 54 kg.
7. 26 chickens
16. a. i. acx + bcy = ce (3)
8. a. (3, 1) b. (−2, 3)
ii. acx + ady = af (4)
9. a. (5, 1) b. (4, 2) ce − af
iii. y =
10. a. (0, 3) b. (4, 0) bc − ad
n n de − bf
11. a. x = ,y= b. x =
2m 2 (ad − bc ) ( )
m mn 106 1 37 11
b. x = ,y= 2 c. i. , ii. ,
n2 + 1 n +1 31 31 14 14
n n2 d. Because you cannot divide by 0.
c. x = ,y=
m−n m−n e. ad − bc ≠ 0
n n
d. x = ,y= 17. It is not possible. When the two equations are set up it is
m−n m−n impossible to eliminate one variable without eliminating
n2 − m m (n − 1) the other.
e. x = ,y=
m−n m−n 18. k − 10, 10
2m m (n − m) 19. x = 7, y = −3
f. x = ,y=
m+n m+n 20. x = 4, y = 3, z = −6
12. a = −1, b = 5
13. z = 24, m = 6, n = 9 Exercise 4.5 Applications of simultaneous linear
equations
m 11 7 1. Maths mark = 97, English mark = 66.
9 8 7 2. 18 nuts, 12 bolts.
n 5 10 3. 800 sheep, 400 chickens.
4. 8 and 3
14. a. x + 2y = 4 b. x = 2, y = 1
5. 9 and 7
15. Chemistry $21, physics $27. 6. 6 and 5
16. 30 cm 7. Length = 12 m and width = 8 m.
17. Andrew is 16, Prue is 6. 8. Lemons cost 55 cents and oranges cost 25 cents.
18. x = 8, y = −7 9. Length 60 m and width 20 m.
19. x = 0, y = 1 10. Eight 20-cent coins and three 50-cent coins.
20. a. k ≠ ±3 b. k = 3 c. k = −3 11. Twelve $1 coins and nine $2 coins.
12. Paddlepops cost $1.20 and a Magnum costs $2.10.

13. Cost of the Killer Python = 35 cents and cost of the Red 4. a. (−1.41, 4) and (1.41, 4)
( )
frog = 25 cents. 5 1
b. (−1, 2) and ,
14. Fixed costs = $87, cost per person = $23.50. 2 4
15. PE mark is 83 and Science mark is 71. c. (3, 37)
16. Mozzarella costs $6.20, Swiss cheese costs $5.80. 5. B
17. x = 3 and y = 4. 6. C
18. Fixed costs = $60, cost per person = $25. 7. a. Yes b. No c. Yes d. No
19. $4 each for DVDs and $24 each for zip disks. 8. a. (1, 1) , (−1, −1)
( √ √ ) ( √ √ )
20. 9 and 24 years old.
b. 1 + 2, −1 + 2 , 1 − 2, −1 − 2
21. Child $12.50, Adult $18.25, Elderly $15. ( √ ) (√ )
22. 6.5 km − 15 √ 15 √
c. , − 15 , , 15
23. 66 cups of hot chips, 33 meat pies and 22 hot dogs were 3 3
sold during the half-hour period. d. (−6, −1) , (2, 3)
24. a. See graph at the bottom of the page.* 9. a. (−1, −3) , (1, 3)
b. Jet-ski 3 wins the race. b. (−4, 3) , (4, −3)
c. Jet-ski 1 and 2 reach the destination at the same time c. (−1, 7) , (5, −5)
( √ ) (√ ) ( ) ( √ )
⎞ ⎛ √
although jet-ski 2 started two hours after jet-ski 1. Jet-
⎛ ⎞
ski 3 overtakes jet-ski 1 6 hours and 40 minutes after its ⎜ −1 4 − 2 4 + 2 ⎟ ⎜ 4 + 2 −1 4 − 2 ⎟
race begins or 10 hours and 40 minutes after jet-ski 1 d. ⎜ , ⎟ ⎜
, , ⎟
⎜ 2 2 ⎟ ⎜ 2 2 ⎟
starts the race. Jet-ski 3 overtakes jet-ski 2 6 hours after ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
it starts the race or 8 hours after jet-ski 2 started the race. ( ) ( )
1 1
25. 176 km 10. a. − , −2 , ,2 b. (0, 5), (4, −3)
2 2
( ) ( )
1 8 1
Exercise 4.6 Solving simultaneous linear and c. − , 2 , (0, 3) d. ,− , (5, −2)
non-linear equations 2 3 4
11. a. (1, 1) b. (−3, 3), (3, 3)
1. A parabola may intersect with a straight line twice, once or ( )
not at all. 100 652
c. (−4, 11) , (−2, 3) d. − , , (12, 12)
2. a. (−5, 4) and (−1, 0) 3 9
b. (2, 3) 12. a. k<0 b. k=0 c. k>0
( √ ) ( √ )
c. 1 − 10, −6 and 1 + 10, −6
13. The straight line crosses the parabola at (0, −7) so no
( √ √ ) matter what value m takes, there will be at least one
−1 3 5 −19 9 5 intersection point.
3. a. − , − and
2 2 2 2 14. a. i. 1, 2, 3
( √ √ ) ii. 0, 1, 2, 4
−1 3 5 −19 9 5
+ , + iii. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
2 2 2 2
b. The number of possible intersections between an
b. (−1, −2) and (2, 1) equation and a straight line is equal to the highest power
c. (−2.54, −8.17) and (3.54, 16.17) of x.
*24a.
350
Winner
300 (11.5, 300)
Point of
intersection
250 Jet-ski 2 (12, 300)
d (kilometres)
d = 30(t – 2)
200
Jet-ski 3
150 d = 40(t – 4)
Jet-ski 1
100 d = 25t
50
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
t (hours)

15. 17, 18 and –17, –18 3. a. x>3
16. Length 15 m, width 85 m. m>3
17. a. (5, 5) , (−1, −7)
b. 2 3 4 5
y
10 y = 2x – 5 b. m≥2
8 m≥2
x2+ y2 = 50
6 (5, 5)
4 1 2 3 4
2 c. q ≥ −4
x q ≥ –4
–10 –8 –6 –4 –2 0 2 4 6 8 10
–2
–4
–5 –4 –3 –2
–6
(–1, –7) –8 d. a > −8
–10 a > –8
18. 9, 12 –9 –8 –7 –6
( √ )
19. a. (4, 4), − 32, 0 4. a. m>3 b. p≤2
c. a<4 d. x≥5
6.66 km per hour or 11.11 km per hour
b.
20. a. 100 °C
5. a. p > −5 b. x ≤ −7
c. m ≥ −0.5 d. b > −0.5
b. 0 minutes, 6 minutes
c. Eve’s model. This model flattens out at 20 °C, whereas 6. a. m > 18 b. x<8
Adam’s becomes negative which would not occur. c. a ≤ −14 d. m ≥ 25
7. a. m < 4.5 b. x≥3
Exercise 4.7 Solving linear inequalities c. p>4 d. n≤2
1. a. x>2 8. a. b<5 b. y>2
x>2 c. m ≤ −1 d. a ≥ −5
1
0 1 2 3 9. a. b < −4 b. c ≤ −1
3
b. a > −1 c. p > −2 d. a ≥ −7
a > –1 10. a. m>3 b. a≥2
c. a < −1 d. a ≤ −3
–2 –1 0 1
11. a. x>6 b. x≤2
c. y≥7 c. b<4 d. a>5
y≥7
12. a. m<2 b. m≤3
16
6 7 8 9 c. b ≤ − d. m≥1
11
d. m≥4
13. a. x ≤ 7 b. x ≥ −18 c. x < −10
m≥4
1 4
14. a. x > 10 b. x≥5 c. x < −1
3 4 5 6 2 5
2. a. p<1 15. a. m < −2 b. p ≥ −3 c. a≤5
p<1 d. p ≥ −5 e. y ≤ −3
1
0 1
16. a. x>7 b. p<0 c. a≥
–2 –1 5
b. x<7 d. x > −3 e. a ≤ −11
x<7 17. a. b≤3 b. x < −3 c. k>8
1
d. x > −18 e. a ≤ 40
5 6 7 8 2
c. m≤9 18. B
m≤9 19. a. x < −1 b. m ≤ −3
5
7 8 9 10 20. a. x > 17 b. a>
8
d. a≤7 1
a≤7 21. a. m≥1 b. m ≥ −12
3
5 6 7 8

22. a. k>2 b. a > −5 c. y

2 4
c. m≤1 d. x>5 3
3 x≥0
2
23. a. y≥7 b. d < −2 x=0
−6 1
c. p≥ d. x ≥ −5 x
7 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5
–1
24. a. m < −2 b. a<9 –2
1 –3
c. p≥3 d. x > −4
2 –4
25. a. 5x > 10 b. x−3≤5 c. 7 + 3x < 42
d. y
(x − 8)
26. a. 4 + 3x > 19 b. 2 (x + 6) < 10 c. −7≥9 4
2 3
27. a. 50x ≥ 650 b. 2.50d + 5 ≤ 60 2
28. Tom could be any age from 1 to 28. y=0 1
−c − b −d − b x
29. a. −6.5 < x < −2 b. <x< –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5
a a –1
–2
30. a. S > 47 y<0
–3
b. No –4
c. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions
in the online resources. 2. a. y
31. a. n < 16 800 km 5
x>2
b. Mick travelled less than 16 800 km for the year and his 4
costs stayed below $16 000. 3
2
32. a. 20d + 10c ≤ 240
1
b. 2d + 2c ≤ 36
x
c. 0 ≤ d ≤ 12 and 0 ≤ C ≤ 18 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5
–1
33. $20 000 –2
–3
Exercise 4.8 Inequalities on the Cartesian plane –4
–5
1. a. y
4
b. y
3
x<1 5
x=1
2
x ≤ –6 4
1
3
x
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 2
–1 1
–2
–3 x
–8 –7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2
–4 –1
–2
–3
b. y
–4
4
–5
3
y ≥ –2
2
c. y
1 5
y≥3
x 4
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5
–1 3
–2 2
y = –2
–3 1
–4
x
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5
–1
–2
–3
–4
–5

d. y d. y
5 5
4 4
3 3 3
2 x ≤–
2 2
1 1
x
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5
x
–1 –1
–2 –2
y≤2
–3 –3
–4 –4
–5 –5
3. a. y 4. a. C b. A, C
1 5
x< – 4 5. a. A, B b. A, B, C
2
3 6. a. B b. A, B, C
2
7. a. y≥x+1
1
y
x 6
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5
–1 y≥x+1 5
–2 4
–3 3
–4 2
–5 1 (0, 1)
(–1, 0)
x
b. y –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
–1
5 –2
4 –3
3 –4
2 –5
1 –6
x
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 b. y<x−6
–1
–2 y
3
y< – –3 6
2
–4 5
–5 4
3
c. y 2
5 1
(6, 0)
4 x
–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
3 –1
y ≥ –4
2 –2
1 –3
–4 y<x–6
x
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 –5
–1
–2 –6 (0, –6)
–3
–4
–5

c. y > −x − 2 b. y<4
y y
6 7
5 6
4 5
(0, 4)
3 4
2 3 y<4
1 2
(–2, 0)
1
x
–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
–1 x
–2 (0, –2) –7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
–1
–3 –2
–4 y > –x – 2 –3
–5 –4
–6 –5
–6
d. y<3−x –7
y
6 c. 2x − y < 6
5 y
4 7
3 (0, 3) 6
2 5
1 (3, 0) 4
2x – y < 6 3
x
–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 2
–1
–2 1
(3, 0)
y<3–x –3 x
–4 –7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
–1
–5 –2
–6 –3
–4
8. a. y>x−2 –5
y –6 (0, –6)
7
–7
6
5 d. y≤x−7
4 y
y>x–2
3 7
2 6
1 ( 2, 0) 5
4
x
–7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 3
–1
–2 (0, –2) 2
–3 1
(7, 0)
–4 x
–7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
–5 –1
–6 –2
–7 –3
–4
y≤x−7
–5
–6
–7 (0, –7)

9. a. x−y>3 d. y ≤ 3x
y y
7 7
6 6
5 5
4 4
3 3 (1, 3)
2 2
1 1
(0, 3) (0, 0)
0 x x
–7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 –7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
–1 –1
–2 –2
–3 (–3, 0) –3 y ≤ 3x
–4 –4
x–y>3
–5 –5
–6 –6
–7 –7
b. y<x+7 10. B
y 11. D
7 (0, 7)
12. A
6 1
5 13. a. y= x+3
2
4
1
3 b. y ≥ x + 3, x > 2, y ≤ 7
2 2
1 14. (3, 3) , (3, 4) , (3, 5) , (4, 3)
(–7, 0)
15. a. l + s ≤ 30
x
–7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
–1 b. At least 12 small dogs
–2 c. l
–3 30
–4
–5
–6 15
–7
c. x + 2y ≤ 5
y 0 s
10 30
7
6 d. 15 large and 15 small dogs
5 16. 20 units2
4
17. a. y ≤ 2x − 2
3 (0, 2.5)
2
1
in the online resources.
(5, 0) 2 2
x 18. a. y = − x + 3 b. y > − x + 3
–7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 3 3
–1
–2 2 2
c. y < − x + 3 d. y ≥ − x + 3
–3 3 3
x + 2y ≤ 5
–4 11 1
19. a. y = − x
–5 6 6
–6 y
–7 4
3 11 1
y = – – –x
2 6 6
1
0 x
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
–1
–2
–3
–4

b. The unshaded region is the required region. 2
y 2. y ≤ 2x + 3 and y ≥ x − 2
3
4
3. a. y b. y
3
4 10
2
2 8
1
6
x
0 x –4 –2 0 2 4 4
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 –2
–1 –4 2
–2 x+1 x+1
–3 –– – ≤2–y Required region is x
2 2 –4 –2 0 2 4
–4 –2
–4
20. a. y Required region is
5
4. a. y b. y
4 10
2 5
x x
–4 –2 0 2 4 –4 –2 0 2 4
0 x –2 –5
–5 5 –4 –10
Required region is Required region is

5. a. y
40
–5
b. y
10
20
0 x
0 x –40 –20 20 40
–10 10
–20
–10
21. The unshaded region is the required region.

y –40
4
3 Required region is
2 b. y
1
x
–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 50
Local –1
–2
minimum
(–2, –1) –3
–4
Exercise 4.9 Solving simultaneous linear –50 0 50

x
inequalities
1. y (0, 3)
4
2
( )
8, 0
–
5 –50
x
–4 –2 0 2 4 6
–2
–4
–6
21
(
–, 0
4 ) Required region is
–8 (0, –8) 6. B
–10
Required region is

1 1 1
7. ≤ x ≤ 2, y ≥ 0, 2x + y ≥ 2, 4x + 3y ≤ 12 12. a.y = x + 3 or x + 4y = 12 and y = x + 4 or x + 2y = 8
2 4 2
8. a. y b. A (4, 2)
10 1
c. y ≤ − x + 3 or x + 4y ≤ 12
4
5 1
y ≥ − x + 4 or x + 2y ≥ 8
2
0 x x≥4
–10 –5 5 10
–5 y≥0
13. a.y≥0
–10 x + y ≥ 400
Required region is x ≥ 125
b. (−2, 8.5) , (−2, −3) , (2.6, −3) 1 1
x + y ≤ 175 or 2x + y ≤ 700
9. a. 4 x x 2 4
4
b. See graph at the bottom of page.*
9
9 c. Vertices are (125, 275) , (125, 450) and (300, 100).
x x 14. a. 24p + 10c ≥ 100, 14p + 32c ≥ 160, 5p + 20c ≥ 70
4 4
b. p
9 9 11
x x 10
4 4 9
24p + 10c ≥ 100
9 9 8
x 7
4 6
5
9
4
b. 5 < x < 13 3
10. y 2
8 B 5p + 20c ≥ 70
1
6
a c
4 c –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
–1
2 14p + 32c ≥ 160
A b C
x Required region is
–1 0 2 4 6 8 10 c. The minimum number of sachets required is 7 (p = 3 and
–2
c = 4 satisfies all conditions).
AB: x = 0, AC: y = 0, BC: 3y + 4x = 24
a.
x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0, 3y + 4x ≥ 24
b.
c. a = 10 units, b = 6 units, c = 8 units
11. a. L > 0, W > 4, L × W < 25
b. 29 possible rectangles
*13. b. y
700
600
Point of
intersection
500 (125, 450)
400
300
Point of
Point of intersection
200 intersection (300, 100)
(125, 275)
100
x
0 100 200 300 400

Project Travelling 4 days this month:
1. A1 Rentals: C = $35 × 3 + 0.28d • If Andrea travels 1400 km, the cost will be the same for
Cut Price Rentals: C = $28 × 3 + 0.3d both rental companies; that is, $532.
• If she travels less than 1400 km, Cut Price Rentals is
2. See graph at the bottom of the page.*
cheaper.
3. 1050 km • If she travels more than 1400 km, A1 Rentals is
4. 1400 km cheaper.
5. a. A1 Rentals: C = $37 × 3 + 0.28d Travelling 3 days next month:
Cut Price Rentals: C = $30 × 3 + 0.3d • If Andrea travels 1050 km, the cost will be the same for
b. A1 Rentals: C = $37 × 4 + 0.28d both rental companies; that is, $405.
Cut Price Rentals: C = $30 × 4 + 0.3d • If she travels less than 1050 km, Cut Price Rentals is
6. See graph at the bottom of the page.* cheaper.
• If she travels more than 1050 km, A1 Rentals is
7. The extra cost of $2 per day for both rental companies has
cheaper.
not affected the charges they make for the distances travelled.
Travelling 4 days next month:
However, the overall costs have increased. • If Andrea travels 1400 km, the cost will be the same for
8. Presentation of the answers will vary. Answers will include: both rental companies; that is, $540.
Travelling 3 days this month: • If she travels less than 1400 km, Cut Price Rentals is
• If Andrea travels 1050 km, the cost will be the same for cheaper.
both rental companies; that is, $399. • If she travels more than 1400 km, A1 Rentals is
• If she travels less than 1050 km, Cut Price Rentals is cheaper.
cheaper.
• If she travels more than 1050 km, A1 Rentals is
cheaper.
*2. Comparison of cost of hiring a car from

A1 rentals and cut price rentals
C
600
500
400
Cost ($)
300 C = 105 + 0.28 d

(A1 Rentals)
200 C = 84 + 0.30 d
(Cut Price Rentals)
100
0 d
200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
*6. Comparison of cost of hiring a car from

A1 rentals and cut price rentals
C
Cut price rentals (4-day hire)
600
500
400
Cost ($)
A1 rentals
A1 rentals
300 (3-day hire)
(4-day hire)
200
100
Cut price rentals
(3-day hire)
0 d
200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600

Exercise 4.10 Review questions 14. Note: The shaded region is the region required.
1. A a. y
6
2. C 5
3. E y≥3 4
4. C 3
5. D 2
1
6. A
x
7. Note: The shaded region is the region required. –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
a. y b.
–1
y y ≤ x + 4 –2
1 y≤x+1 10 –3
y ≥ 2x + 10
–4
–1 0 x –5 0 x –5
–6
c. y d. y
5 y = 5x b. y
y > 3x – 12 7
6
0 4 x 0 x
1 5
y < 5x 2y – 3x ≥ 12
4
–12 3
2
e. y f. y 1
x=7
x
1 y ≤ 1– x + 1 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
2 –1
0 7 x 0 x –2
–2 y + 3x > 0
x≥7 –3
–4
g. y h. y
c. y
5x + y < 10
9 10
2x + y ≥ 9
9
0 –9 x 0 12 x
8
2 7
4x – 3y ≥ 48 6
–16 5
4
8. a. No b. Yes 3
2
9. a. (−2, 1) b. (0, −2) 1
c. (−7.5, 7)
0 x
10. a. (3, 1) b. (2, 3) –8 –6 –4 –2
–1 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
x + 2y < 11 –2
11. a. (2, 7) b.
( −3))
(−5,
7 7 ( √ √ ) ( √ √ )
c. (−2, 2) d. − , 5−
37 19 − 5 37 5 + 37 19 + 5 37
( 3 3) 15. a. , , ,
5 2 2 2 2
e. (−14, −53) f. , −7 ( )
2 2
(5, 2) (−2, 3) b. − , −5 , (1, 2)
12. a. b. 5
c. (−3, −1) d. (1, 3) ( √ √ ) ( √ √ )
e. (2, −2) f. (4, 2) 15 + 43 −3 + 5 43 15 − 43 −3 − 5 43
c. , , ,
(0, 3) (−3, −3) 26 26 26 26
13. a. b.
c. (2, 1) 16. a. Numbers are 9 and 14.
Length = 11 meters, width = 6 meters.
b.
c. Chupa-chups cost 45 cents and Whizz fizzes cost
55 cents.
17. Milk $1.75, bread $2.35.
18. 13 kangaroos and 8 cockatoos.

19. Any false statement that occurs during the solving of
simultaneous equations indicates the lines are parallel, and
have no points of intersection.
20. a. d = b + 10
b. 7000 = 70b + 40d
c. b = 60 and d = 70
d. Number of seats in ‘Bleachers’ is 4200; the number of
seats in the ‘Dress circle’ is 2800.
e. $644 000
21. a. CG = 114 + 0.2k b. CS = 90 + 0.32k
c. 200 km d. 114 + 0.2k < 90 + 0.32k
e. k < 200
22. a. 5400 + 260d = CH
b. 61 days

5 Trigonometry I
LEARNING SEQUENCE
5.1 Overview ...............................................................................................................................................................302
5.2 Pythagoras’ theorem ....................................................................................................................................... 305
5.3 Pythagoras’ theorem in three dimensions (10A) ................................................................................... 314
5.4 Trigonometric ratios ........................................................................................................................................ 320
5.5 Using trigonometry to calculate side lengths .........................................................................................327
5.6 Using trigonometry to calculate angle size ............................................................................................. 332
5.7 Angles of elevation and depression ........................................................................................................... 338
5.8 Bearings ................................................................................................................................................................343
5.9 Applications ........................................................................................................................................................ 350
5.10 Review ................................................................................................................................................................... 356
5.1 Overview
Why learn this?
Nearly 2000 years ago Ptolemy of Alexandria published the
first book of trigonometric tables, which he used to chart the
heavens and plot the courses of the Moon, stars and planets. He
also created geographical charts and provided instructions on
how to create maps.
The word trigonometry is derived from Greek words ‘trigonon’
and ‘metron’ meaning triangles and measure respectively, and
reportedly has been studied since the third century BCE. This
field of mathematics was studied across the world, with major
discoveries made in India, China, Greece and Persia, to name a
few. The works ranged from developing relationships, axioms
and proofs to its application to everyday use and life.
Trigonometry is the branch of mathematics that makes the
whole universe more easily understood. The role and use of
trigonometry in navigation in the early years were crucial
and its application and study grew from there. Today, it is
used in architecture, surveying, astronomy and, as previously
mentioned, navigation. It also provides the foundation of the
study of sound and light waves, resulting in its application in the
areas of music manufacturing and composition, study of tides,
radiology and many other fields.
Where to get help

Fully worked
solutions
eLessons
to every
question
Digital
eWorkbook
documents

1. Determine the value of the pronumeral w, correct to two decimal places.
7.3 cm w cm
2.41 cm
2. Determine the value of x, correct to two decimal places.
5 cm
x cm
2x cm
3. A square-based pyramid is 16 cm high. Each sloping edge is 20 cm long. Calculate the length of the
sides of the base, in cm correct to two decimal places.
4. A cork is in the shape of a truncated cone; both the top and the base of the cork are circular.
20 cm
32 cm
30 cm
Calculate the sum of diameters of the top and the base. Give your answer in cm to 2 decimal places.
5. Evaluate sin (20°37′) correct to four decimal places.
6. Calculate the size of the angle 𝜃, correct to the nearest minute, given that cos (𝜃) = 0.5712.
Give your answer in degrees and minutes.
7. Determine the size of the angle 𝜃, correct to the nearest second.
2.4
θ
3.2
TOPIC 5 Trigonometry I 303

8. Calculate y, correct to one decimal place.
ym
28° 42'
11.8 m
9. MC Tyler is standing 12 m from a flagpole and measures the angle of elevation from his eye level to the
top of the pole as 62°.
The distance from Tyler’s eyes to the ground is 185 cm. The height of the flagpole correct to two
decimal places is:
A. 20.71 metres B. 22.56 metres C. 24.42 metres D. 207.56 metres E. 209.42 metres
10. Change each of the following compass bearings to true bearings.

a. N20°E b. S47°W c. N33°W d. S17°E
11. MC In a right square-based pyramid, the square base has a length of 7.2 cm. If the angle between the
triangular face and the base is 55°, the angle the sloping edge makes with the base is:
A. 45.3° B. 55° C. 63.4° D. 47.7° E. 26.6°
12. MC A boat travels 15 km from A to B on a bearing of 032°T. The bearing from B to A is:
A. 032°T B. 058°T C. 122°T D. 212°T E. 328°T
13. A bushwalker travels N50°W for 300 m and then changes direction 220°T for 0.5 km. Determine how
many metres west the bushwalker is from his starting point.
Give your answer in km correct to one decimal place.
14. MC P and Q are two points on a horizontal line that are 120 metres apart. If the angles of elevation
from P and Q to the top of the mountain are 34°5′ and 41°16′ respectively, the height of the mountain
correct to one decimal place is:
A. 81.2 metres B. 105.3 metres C. 120.5 metres D. 253.8 metres E. 354.7 metres
15. Determine the value of x in the following figure, correct to one decimal place.
45° 25° 13'
8 x

5.2 Pythagoras’ theorem
LEARNING INTENTION
• identify similar right-angled triangles when corresponding sides are in the same ratio and
corresponding angles are congruent
• apply Pythagoras’ theorem to calculate the third side of a right-angled triangle when two other sides
are known.
5.2.1 Similar right-angled triangles

eles-4799
• Two similar right-angled triangles have the same D
angles when the corresponding sides are in the
same ratio.
• The hypotenuse is the longest side of a right-angled
triangle and is always the side that is opposite the
right angle. A 6 cm 10 cm
• The corresponding sides are in the same ratio.
AB AC BC 3 cm 5 cm
= =
DE DF EF
• To write this using the side lengths of the triangles B 4 cm C E 8 cm F
gives:
AB 3 1
= =
DE 6 2
AC 5 1
= =
DF 10 2
BC 4 1
= =
EF 8 2
This means that for right-angled triangles, when the angles are fixed, the ratios of the sides in the triangle
are constant.
• We can examine this idea further by completing the following activity.
Using a protractor and ruler, draw an angle of 70° measuring horizontal distances of 3 cm, 7 cm and 10 cm
as demonstrated in the diagram below.
c
b
a
70°
3 cm
7 cm
10 cm
Note: Diagram not drawn to scale.

Measure the perpendicular heights a, b and c.
a ≈ 8.24 cm, b ≈ 19.23 cm, c ≈ 27.47 cm
• To test if the theory for right-angled triangles, that when the angles are fixed the ratios of the sides in the
triangle are constant, is correct, calculate the ratios of the side lengths.
a 8.24 b 19.23 c 27.47

≈ ≈ 2.75, ≈ ≈ 2.75, ≈ ≈ 2.75
3 3 7 7 10 10
The ratios are the same because the triangles are similar. This important concept forms the basis of trigonometry.
5.2.2 Review of Pythagoras’ theorem

eles-4800
• Pythagoras’ theorem gives us a way of finding the length of the third side in a right angle triangle, if we
know the lengths of the two other sides.
Pythagoras’ theorem
Pythagoras’ theorem: a2 + b2 = c2
√ c
Determining the hypotenuse: c = a2 + b2 a
√ √
Determining one of the two shorter sides: a = c2 − b2 or b = c2 − a2
b
WORKED EXAMPLE 1 Calculating the hypotenuse
For the following triangle, calculate the length of the hypotenuse x, correct to 1 decimal place.
x
5
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1. Copy the diagram and label the sides a, b and c. Remember to
label the hypotenuse as c.
a=5 c=x
b=8
2. Write Pythagoras’ theorem. c2 = a2 + b2
3. Substitute the values of a, b and c into this rule and simplify. x2 = 52 + 82

= 25 + 64
= 89
√
4. Take the square root of both sides. Round the positive answer x = ± 89
correct to 1 decimal place, since x > 0. x ≈ 9.4

WORKED EXAMPLE 2 Calculating the length of the shorter side
Calculate the length, correct to 1 decimal place, of the unmarked side of the following triangle.
14 cm
8 cm
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1. Copy the diagram and label the sides a, b and c. Remember to label
the hypotenuse as c; it does not matter which side is a and which a
side is b.
c = 14
b=8
3. Substitute the values of a, b and c into this rule and solve for a. 142 = a2 + 82
196 = a2 + 64
a2 = 196 − 64
= 132
√
4. Evaluate a by taking the square root of both sides and round to a = ± 132
1 decimal place (a > 0). ≈ 11.5 cm

In a new document, on a On the Main screen, complete
Calculator page, to solve the entry
( line as: )
equations press: solve c2 = a2 + b2 , a
• MENU |b = 8| c = 14
• 3: Algebra Then press EXE.
• 1: Solve To convert to decimals,
Complete
( the entry line ) as: highlight the answer which
solve c2 = a2 + b2 , a is greater than 0 and drag it to
|b = 8 and c = 14 and a > 0 a new line. Change the mode to
Then press ENTER. decimal then press EXE.
Press CTRL ENTER to get a The length
√ of the unmarked side
decimal approximation. is a = 2 33 = 11.5 correct to
1 decimal place.
The length of√the unmarked
side is a = 2 33 = 11.5
correct to 1 decimal place.

WORKED EXAMPLE 3 Solving a practical problem using Pythagoras’ theorem
A ladder that is 5.5 m long leans up against a vertical wall. The foot of the ladder is 1.5 m from the
wall. Determine how far up the wall the ladder reaches. Give your answer in metres correct to
1 decimal place.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1. Draw a diagram and label the sides a, b and c. Remember to
label the hypotenuse as c.
c = 5.5 m
a
b = 1.5 m
3. Substitute the values of a, b and c into this rule 5.52 = a2 + 1.52

and simplify. 30.25 = a2 + 2.25
a2 = 30.25 − 2.25
= 28
√
4. Evaluate a by taking the square root of 28. Round to a = ± 28
1 decimal place, a > 0. ≈ 5.3
5. Write the answer in a sentence. The ladder reaches 5.3 m up the wall.
WORKED EXAMPLE 4 Determining the unknown sides
Determine the unknown side lengths of the triangle, correct to 2 decimal places.
3x
78 m
2x
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1. Copy the diagram and label the sides a, b and c.
b = 3x
c = 78 m
a = 2x
3. Substitute the values of a, b and c into this rule and simplify. 782 = (3x)2 + (2x)2
6084 = 9x2 + 4x2
6084 = 13x2

4. Rearrange the equation so that the pronumeral is on the left-hand side 13x2 = 6084
of the equation.
13x2 6084
5. Divide both sides of the equation by 13. =
13 13
x2 = 468
√
6. Evaluate x by taking the square root of both sides. Round the answer x = ± 468
correct to 2 decimal places. ≈ 21.6333
7. Substitute the value of x into 2x and 3x to determine the lengths 2x ≈ 43.27m

of the unknown sides. 3x ≈ 64.90 m
DISCUSSION
Pythagoras’ theorem was known about before the age of Pythagoras. Research which other civilisations
knew about the theory and construct a timeline for its history.
Resources
Resourceseses
Digital document SkillSHEET Rounding to a given number of decimal places (doc-5224)
Interactivities Individual pathway interactivity: Pythagoras’ theorem (int-4585)
Finding a shorter side (int-3845)
Finding the hypotenuse (int-3844)
Exercise 5.2 Pythagoras’ theorem

Individual pathways
1, 5, 7, 10, 11, 14, 17, 21, 22, 25 2, 3, 8, 12, 15, 19, 20, 23, 26 4, 6, 9, 13, 16, 18, 24, 27
Fluency
1. WE1 For each of the following triangles, calculate the length of the hypotenuse, giving answers correct to
2 decimal places.
a. 4.7 b. 19.3 c.
804
6.3
27.1
562

2. For each of the following triangles, calculate the length of the hypotenuse, giving answers correct to
2 decimal places.
a. b. 0.9 c. 152
7.4
87
10.3
2.7
3. WE2 Determine the value of the pronumeral, correct to 2 decimal places.

a. s b. c.
u
1.98 8.4
30.1
47.2
2.56 17.52
4. Determine the value of the pronumeral, correct to 2 decimal places.

a. 0.28 b. 2870 c.
v 468
1920 x
w
0.67
114
5. WE3 The diagonal of the rectangular NO SMOKING sign is 34 cm. If the

height of this sign is 25 cm, calculate the width of the sign, in cm correct to
2 decimal places.
6. A right-angled triangle has a base of 4 cm and a height of 12 cm. Calculate the
length of the hypotenuse in cm correct to 2 decimal places.
7. Calculate the lengths of the diagonals (in cm to 2 decimal places) of squares
that have side lengths of:
a. 10 cm b. 17 cm c. 3.2 cm.
8. The diagonal of a rectangle is 90 cm. One side has a length of 50 cm. Determine, correct to 2 decimal places:
a. the length of the other side
b. the perimeter of the rectangle
c. the area of the rectangle.
9. WE4 Determine the value of the pronumeral, correct to 2 decimal places for each of the following.
a. b. c. 2x
25 3x 3x
4x
18 6x
30
x

Understanding
10. An isosceles triangle has a base of 25 cm and a height of 8 cm. Calculate the length of the two equal sides, in
cm correct to 2 decimal places.
11. An equilateral triangle has sides of length 18 cm. Determine the height of the triangle, in cm correct to
2 decimal places.
12. A right-angled triangle has a height of 17.2 cm, and a base that is half the height. Calculate the length of the
hypotenuse, in cm correct to 2 decimal places.
13. The road sign shown is based on an equilateral triangle. Determine the height of the sign and, hence,
calculate its area. Round your answers to 2 decimal places.
84 cm
14. A flagpole, 12 m high, is supported by three wires, attached from the top of the pole to the ground. Each
wire is pegged into the ground 5 m from the pole. Determine how much wire is needed to support the pole,
correct to the nearest metre.
15. Sarah goes canoeing in a large lake. She paddles 2.1 km to the north, then 3.8 km to the west. Use the
triangle shown to determine how far she must then paddle to get back to her starting point in the shortest
possible way, in km correct to 2 decimal places.
3.8 km
2.1 km
Starting point
16. A baseball diamond is a square of side length 27 m. When a runner on first base tries to steal second base,
the catcher has to throw the ball from home base to second base. Calculate the distance of the throw, in
metres correct to 1 decimal place.
Second base
27 m
First
base
Home base
Catcher

17. A rectangle measures 56 mm by 2.9 cm. Calculate the length of its diagonal in millimetres correct to
2 decimal places.
18. A rectangular envelope has a length of 24 cm and a diagonal measuring 40 cm. Calculate:
a. the width of the envelope, correct to the nearest cm
b. the area of the envelope, correct to the nearest cm2 .
19. A swimming pool is 50 m by 25 m. Peter is bored by his usual training routine, and decides to swim the
diagonal of the pool. Determine how many diagonals he must swim to complete his normal distance
of 1500 m.
20. A hiker walks 2.9 km north, then 3.7 km east. Determine how far in metres she is from her starting point.
Give your answer in metres to 2 decimal places.
21. A square has a diagonal of 14 cm. Calculate the length of each side, in cm correct to 2 decimal places.
Reasoning
22. The triangles below are right-angled triangles. Two possible measurements have been suggested for the
hypotenuse in each case. For each triangle, complete calculations to determine which of the lengths is
correct for the hypotenuse in each case. Show your working.
a. b. c.
60 or 65 273
33 185 or 195
305 or 308
56 175 136
60
23. The square root of a number usually gives us both a positive and negative answer. Explain why we take only
the positive answer when using Pythagoras’ theorem.
24. Four possible side length measurements are 105, 208, 230 and 233. Three of them together produce a
a. Explain which of the measurements could not be the hypotenuse of the triangle.
b. Complete as few calculations as possible to calculate which combination of side lengths will produce a

Problem solving
25. The area of the rectangle MNPQ is 588 cm2 . Angles MRQ M 28 cm N
and NSP are right angles. y cm
a. Determine the integer value of x.
R
b. Determine the length of MP.
c. Calculate the value of y and hence determine the length x cm
of RS, in cm correct to 1 decimal place.
S
y cm
Q P
26. Triangle ABC is an equilateral triangle of side length x cm. Angles ADB and DBE are right angles.
Determine the value of x in cm, correct to 2 decimal places.
B 16 cm E
x cm 20 cm
A D C
27. The distance from Earth to the Moon is approximately 385 000 km and the distance from Earth to the Sun is
approximately 147 million kilometres.
In a total eclipse of the Sun, the moon moves between the Sun and Earth, thus blocking the light of the Sun
from reaching Earth and causing a total eclipse of the Sun.
If the diameter of the Moon is approximately 3474 km, evaluate the diameter of the Sun. Express your
answer to the nearest 10 000 km.
14
70
00
00
0k
m
385
000
km

5.3 Pythagoras’ theorem in three dimensions (10A)
LEARNING INTENTION
At the end of this subtopic you should be able to apply Pythagoras’ theorem to:
• determine unknown lengths when a 3D diagram is given
• determine unknown lengths in situations by first drawing a diagram.
5.3.1 Applying Pythagoras’ theorem in three dimensions

eles-4801
• Many real-life situations involve 3-dimensional (3-D) objects: objects with length, width and height. Some
common 3-D objects used in this section include cuboids, pyramids and right-angled wedges.
Cuboid Pyramid Right-angled wedge

• In diagrams of 3-D objects, right angles may not look like right angles, so it is important to redraw sections
of the diagram in two dimensions, where the right angles can be seen accurately.
WORKED EXAMPLE 5 Applying Pythagoras’ theorem to 3D objects
Determine the length AG in this rectangular prism (cuboid), in cm correct to two decimal places.
A B
5 cm
C
D
F
E
9 cm
H 10 cm G
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1. Draw the diagram in three dimensions. A B
Draw the lines AG and EG.
∠AEG is a right angle. 5 cm
C
D
F
E
9 cm
H 10 cm G
2. Draw ΔAEG, showing the right angle. Only 1 side is known, so A

EG must be found.
5
E G

3. Draw EFGH in two dimensions and label the diagonal EG as x. E F
x
9 9
H G
10
( )
4. Use Pythagoras’ theorem to calculate x. c2 = a2 + b2 x2 = 92 + 102
= 81 + 100
= 181
√
x = 181
5. Place this information on triangle AEG. Label the side AG as y. A
y
5
E G
√181
( ) (√ )2
6. Use Pythagoras’ theorem to calculate y. c2 = a2 + b2 y2 = 52 + 181
= 25 + 181
= 206
√
y = 206
≈ 14.35
7. Write the answer in a sentence. The length of AG is 14.35 cm.
WORKED EXAMPLE 6 Drawing a diagram to solve problems
A piece of cheese in the shape of a right-angled wedge sits on a table. It has a rectangular base
measuring 14 cm by 8 cm, and is 4 cm high at the thickest point. An ant crawls diagonally across the
sloping face. Determine how far, to the nearest millimetre, the ant walks.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1. Draw a diagram in three dimensions and label the B C
vertices. Mark BD, the path taken by the ant, with a E x 4 cm
dotted line. ∠BED is a right angle. F
8 cm
A 14 cm D
2. Draw ΔBED, showing the right angle. Only one side is B

known, so ED must be found.
4
D
E
3. Draw EFDA in two dimensions, and label the diagonal E F
ED. Label the side ED as x.
8 x 8
A 14 D

4. Use Pythagoras’ theorem to calculate x. c2 = a2 + b2
x2 = 82 + 142
= 64 + 196
= 260
√
x = 260
5. Place this information on triangle BED. Label the side B
BD as y.
y
4
D
E √260
(√ )2
6. Use Pythagoras’ theorem to calculate y. y2 = 42 + 260
= 16 + 260
= 276
√
y = 276
≈ 16.61 cm
≈ 166.1 mm
7. Write the answer in a sentence. The ant walks 166 mm, correct to the nearest
millimetre.
DISCUSSION
Look around the room you are in. How many right angles you can spot in three-dimensional objects? Make
a list of them and compare your list to that of another student.
Resources
Resourceseses
Digital document SkillSHEET Drawing 3-D shapes (doc-5229)
Video eLesson Pythagoras’ theorem in three dimensions (eles-1913)

Interactivities Individual pathway interactivity: Pythagoras’ theorem in three dimensions (int-4586)
Right angles in 3-dimensional objects (int-6132)
Exercise 5.3 Pythagoras’ theorem in three dimensions (10A)

Individual pathways
1, 4, 7, 11, 12, 15 2, 5, 8, 13, 16 3, 6, 9, 10, 14, 17

Where appropriate in this exercise, give answers correct to 2 decimal places.
Fluency
1. WE5 Calculate the length of AG in each of the following figures.
a. A B b. A B c. A B
D C
C 8 C
D D 10.4
12
E E
F F
8 E F 9.2
5
H 8 G H H 11.5 G
5 G
2. Consider the wedge shown. Calculate the length of CE in the wedge and, hence, A B
obtain the length of AC . E 4
F
D C 7
10
3. If DC = 3.2 m, AC = 5.8 m, and CF = 4.5 m in the figure, calculate the length of AD A B

and BF.
F
D C
4. Consider the pyramid shown. Calculate the length of BD and, hence, the height of V
the pyramid. 6
A B
6
D
6 C
5. The pyramid ABCDE has a square base. The pyramid is 20 cm high. Each sloping E
edge measures 30 cm. Calculate the length of the sides of the base. EM = 20 cm
A
B
M
D C
6. The sloping side of a cone is 16 cm and the height is 12 cm. Determine the length of the
radius of the base.
12 cm 16 cm

Understanding
7. WE6 A piece of cheese in the shape of a right-angled wedge sits on B C
a table. It has a base measuring 20 mm by 10 mm, and is 4 mm high 4 mm
at the thickest point, as shown in the figure. A fly crawls diagonally E
F
across the sloping face. Determine how far, to the nearest millimetre, 10 mm
the fly walks. A 20 mm D
8. A 7 m high flagpole is in the corner of a rectangular park that measures

200 m by 120 m. Give your answers to the following questions correct to 7m
2 decimal places. 200 m A
a. Calculate:
120 m
i. the length of the diagonal of the park
ii. the distance from A to the top of the pole B
iii. the distance from B to the top of the pole.
b. A bird flies from the top of the pole to the centre of the park. Calculate how far it flies.
9. A candlestick is in the shape of two cones, joined at the vertices as shown. The smaller cone has a diameter
and sloping side of 7 cm, and the larger one has a diameter and sloping side of 10 cm. Calculate the total
height of the candlestick.
10. The total height of the shape below is 15 cm. Calculate the length of the sloping side of the pyramid.
15 cm
5 cm
11 cm
11 cm
11. A sandcastle is in the shape of a truncated cone as shown. Calculate the length of the diameter of the base.
20 cm
30 cm 32 cm

“c05TrigonometryI_PrintPDF” — 2021/12/11 — 9:51 — page 319 — #19
Reasoning
12. Stephano is renovating his apartment, which he accesses through two corridors. The corridors of the
apartment building are 2 m wide with 2 m high ceilings, and the first corridor is at right angles to the second.
Show that he can carry lengths of timber up to 6 m long to his apartment.
13. The Great Pyramid in Egypt is a square-based pyramid.
The square base has a side length of 230.35 metres and the
perpendicular height is 146.71 metres.
Determine the slant height, s, of the great pyramid. Give your
answer correct to 1 decimal place. s
146.71 m
230.35 m
14. A tent is in the shape of a triangular prism, with a height of 140 cm as 140 cm
shown in the diagram. The width across the base of the door is 1 m and
the tent is 2.5 m long.
a. Calculate the length of each sloping side, in metres.
b. Using your answer from part a calculate the area of fabric used in the 2.5 m
construction of the sloping rectangles which form the sides. Show full 1m
working.
Problem solving
15. Determine the exact length of the longest steel rod that can sit inside a cuboid with dimensions
32 cm × 15 cm × 4 cm. Ignore the thickness of the steel rod.
16. Angles ABD, CBD and ABC are right angles. Determine the value of h, D
correct to 3 decimal places.
35 h
37
B
A
36
C
17. The roof of a squash centre is constructed to allow for maximum use
of sunlight. Determine the value of h, giving your answer correct to
1 decimal place. 57.08 m
y x
h
35 m
x 20 m

5.4 Trigonometric ratios
LEARNING INTENTION
• define trigonometric ratios according to the lengths of the relevant sides
• write equations for trigonometric ratios.
5.4.1 Trigonometric ratios

eles-4802
• In a right-angled triangle, the longest side is called the hypotenuse.
• If one of the two acute angles is named (for example, 𝜃), then the other two sides can also be given names,
as shown in the following diagram.
Three basic definitions
Opposite Hypotenuse
𝜃
Adjacent
• Using the diagram, the following three trigonometric ratios can be defined.
• The sine ratio:

length of Opposite side
sine(𝜃) =
length of Hypotenuse
• The cosine ratio:
length of Adjacent side
cosine(𝜃) =
length of Hypotenuse
• The tangent ratio:
length of Opposite side
tangent(𝜃) =
length of Adjacent side
• The names of the three ratios are usually shortened to sin(𝜃), cos(𝜃) and tan(𝜃).
• The three ratios are often remembered using the mnemonic SOHCAHTOA, where SOH means
Sin(𝜃) = Opposite over Hypotenuse and so on.
Calculating trigonometric values using a calculator

• The sine, cosine and tangent of an angle have numerical values that can be found using a calculator.
• Traditionally angles were measured in degrees, minutes and seconds, where 60 seconds = 1 minute and
60 minutes = 1 degree. This is known as a sexagesimal system as the division are based on 60.
For example, 50°33′48′′ means 50 degrees, 33 minutes and 48 seconds.

WORKED EXAMPLE 7 Calculating values (ratios) from angles
Calculate the value of each of the following, correct to 4 decimal places, using a calculator.
(Remember to first work to 5 decimal places before rounding.)
a. cos(65°57′) b. tan(56°45′30′′)
THINK WRITE
a. Write your answer to the required number of a. cos(65°57′) ≈ 0.40753
decimal places. ≈ 0.4075
b. Write your answer to the correct number of b. tan(56°45′30′′) ≈ 1.52573

decimal places. ≈ 1.5257

a-b. a-b. a-b. a-b.
1. To ensure your calculator is 1. Ensure your calculator is set to
set to degree and approximate degrees at the bottom right. If
mode, press: not, tap ‘Rad’ or ‘Gra’.
• HOME Tap unit Deg appears.
• 5: Settings Set to Decimal.
• 2: Document Settings Set the keyboard to Trig.
In the Display Digits,
select Fix 4. Tab to Angle
and select Degree; tab to
Calculation Mode and select
Approximate.
Tab to OK and press ENTER
2. On a Calculator page, press 2. Complete the entry line as:
TRIG to access and select the cos(dms(65, 57))
appropriate trigonometric tan(dms(56, 45, 30))
ratio. Then press and To get dms, tap
choose the template for • Action
degrees, minutes and seconds • Transformation
as shown. • DMS
• dms
Then press EXE after each
entry.
cos(65°57′ ) = 0.4075
tan(56°45′ 30′′ ) = 1.5257
3. Complete the entry lines as:
cos(65°57′ )
tan(56°45′ 30′′ )
entry.
Since the Calculation Mode
is set to Approximate and
Fix 4, the answer are shown
cos(65°57′ ) = 0.4075
tan(56°45′ 30′′ ) = 1.5257

WORKED EXAMPLE 8 Calculating angles from ratios
Calculate the size of angle 𝜃, correct to the nearest degree, given sin(𝜃) = 0.7854.
THINK WRITE
1. Write the given equation. sin(𝜃) = 0.7854
2. To calculate the size of the angle, we need to undo sine with its 𝜃 = sin−1 (0.7854)
−1
inverse, sin . ≈ 51.8°
(Ensure your calculator is in degrees mode.)
3. Write your answer to the nearest degree. 𝜃 ≈ 52°
WORKED EXAMPLE 9 Expressing angles in degrees, minutes and seconds
Calculate the value of 𝜃:

a. correct to the nearest minute, given that cos(𝜃) = 0.2547
b. correct to the nearest second, given that tan(𝜃) = 2.364.
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Write the equation. a. cos(𝜃) = 0.2547
2. Write your answer, including seconds. There cos−1 (0.2547) ≈ 75°14′39′′

are 60 seconds in 1 minute. Round to the ≈ 75°15′
nearest minute.
(Remember 60′′ = 1′, so 39′′ is rounded up.)
b. 1. Write the equation. b. tan(𝜃) = 2.364
2. Write the answer, rounding to the tan−1 (2.364) ≈ 67°4′15.8′′

nearest second. ≈ 67°4′16′′

a-b. a-b. a-b. a-b.
On a Calculator page, press Ensure your calculator is set to
TRIG to access and select the degrees at the bottom right.
appropriate trigonometric ratio, On the Main screen in decimal
in the case cos-1 . and degree mode, complete the
Complete the entry lines as: entry line as:
cos−1 (0.2547) cos−1 (0.2547)
To convert the decimal degree Then press EXE.
into degrees, minutes and To convert the decimal answer
seconds, press: into degrees, minutes and
• CATALOG seconds, tap:
• 1 • Action
• D • Transformation
▲
Scroll and select DMS • DMS

cos−1 (0.2547) = 75°15′
Then press ENTER. • to DMS
rounding to the nearest
Repeat this process for Then press EXE. minute.
tan−1 (2.364). Repeat this process for tan−1 (2.364) = 64°4′ 16′′
tan−1 (2.364). rounding to the nearest
second.
cos−1 (0.2547) = 75°15′
rounding to the nearest minute.
tan−1 (2.364) = 64°4′ 16′′
rounding to the nearest second.

WORKED EXAMPLE 10 Expressing trigonometric ratios as equations
Write the equation that relates the two marked sides and the marked angle.
a. b.
22
12
8 x
40°
b
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a. 1. Label the given sides of the triangle. a.
12 = H
8=O
O
2. Write the ratio that contains O and H. sin(𝜃) =
H
3. Identify the values of the pronumerals. O = 8, H = 12
8 2
4. Substitute the values of the pronumerals into sin(b) = =
the ratio and simplify the fraction. (Since 12 3
the given angle is denoted with the letter b,
replace 𝜃 with b.)
b. 1. Label the given sides of the triangle. b.
22 = A
x=O
40°
O
2. Write the ratio that contains O and A. tan(𝜃) =
A
3. Identify the values of the pronumerals. O = x, A = 22, 𝜃 = 40°
x
4. Substitute the values of the pronumerals into tan(40°) =
the ratio. 22
DISCUSSION
Do you know of any other mnemonics that you can use to help you remember important information?
Resources
Resourceseses
Digital documents SkillSHEET Labelling the sides of a right-angled triangle (doc-5226)
SkillSHEET Selecting an appropriate trigonometric ratio based on the given information (doc-5231)
Interactivities Individual pathway interactivity: Trigonometric ratios (int-4587)
Trigonometric ratios (int-2577)

Exercise 5.4 Trigonometric ratios
Individual pathways
1, 5, 7, 9, 11, 14, 15, 22, 25 2, 6, 12, 16, 17, 20, 23, 26, 27 3, 4, 8, 10, 13, 18, 19, 21, 24, 28
Fluency
1. Calculate each of the following, correct to 4 decimal places.
a. sin(30°) b. cos(45°) c. tan(25°) d. sin(57°) e. tan(83°) f. cos(44°)
WE7 For questions 2 to 4, calculate each of the following, correct to 4 decimal places.
2. a. sin(40°30′) b. cos(53°57′) c. tan(27°34′) d. tan(123°40′) e. sin(92°32′) f. sin(42°8′)
3. a. cos(35°42′35′′) b. tan(27°42′50′′) c. cos(143°25′23′′) d. sin(23°58′21′′) e. cos(8°54′2′′)
4. a. sin(286)° b. tan(420°) c. cos(845°) d. sin(367°35′)
5. WE8 Calculate the size of angle 𝜃, correct to the nearest degree, for each of the following.
a. sin(𝜃) = 0.763 b. cos(𝜃) = 0.912 c. tan(𝜃) = 1.351
6. Calculate the size of angle 𝜃, correct to the nearest degree, for each of the following.
a. cos(𝜃) = 0.321 b. tan(𝜃) = 12.86 c. cos(𝜃) = 0.756
7. WE9a Calculate the size of the angle 𝜃, correct to the nearest minute.
a. sin(𝜃) = 0.814 b. sin(𝜃) = 0.110 c. tan(𝜃) = 0.015
8. Calculate the size of the angle 𝜃, correct to the nearest minute.

a. cos(𝜃) = 0.296 b. tan(𝜃) = 0.993 c. sin(𝜃) = 0.450
9. WE9b Calculate the size of the angle 𝜃, correct to the nearest second.
a. tan(𝜃) = 0.5 b. cos(𝜃) = 0.438 c. sin(𝜃) = 0.9047
10. Calculate the size of the angle 𝜃, correct to the nearest second.
a. tan(𝜃) = 1.1141 b. cos(𝜃) = 0.8 c. tan(𝜃) = 43.76.
For questions 11 to 13, calculate the value of each expression, correct to 3 decimal places.
2
11. a. 3.8 cos(42°) b. 118 sin(37°) c. 2.5 tan(83°) d.
sin(45°)
220 2 cos(23°) 12.8 18.7

12. a. b. c. d.
cos(14°) 5 sin(18°) tan(60°32′) sin(35°25′42′′)
55.7 3.8 tan(1°51′44′′) 2.5 sin(27°8′) 3.2 cos(34°52′)

13. a. b. c. d.
cos(89°21′) 4.5 sin(25°45′) 10.4 cos(83°2′) 0.8 sin(12°48′)

For questions 14 to 19, write an expression for:
a. sine b. cosine c. tangent.

14. d
θ
e
f
15.
i h
α
g
16.
β
k
j
l
17.
o
γ n
m
18.
a b
β
c
19.
u
v
γ
t
Understanding
20. WE10
Write the equation that relates the two marked sides and the marked angle in each of the
following triangles.
a. b. c. 9
22 θ
θ
18
15 7
30

21. Write the equation that relates the two marked sides and the marked angle in each of the following triangles.
a. b. c. 18.6
3.6
p 13
t
θ
25° 23.5
α
Reasoning
22. Consider the right-angled triangle shown.
α
a. Label each of the sides using the letters O, A and H with respect to the
37° angle.
b. Determine the value of each trigonometric ratio. (Where applicable, answers
should be given correct to 2 decimal places.)
i. sin(37°) ii. cos(37°) iii. tan(37°)
37°
c. Determine the value of the unknown angle, 𝛼.
23. Consider the right-angled triangle shown in 22.

a. Determine the value of each of these trigonometric ratios, correct to 2 decimal places.
i. sin(𝛼) ii. cos(𝛼) iii. tan(𝛼)
(Hint: First relabel the sides of the triangle with respect to angle 𝛼)
b. What do you notice about the relationship between sin(37°) and cos(𝛼)? Explain your answer.
c. What do you notice about the relationship between sin(𝛼) and cos(37°)? Explain your answer.
d. Make a general statement about the two angles.
sin(𝜃)
24. Using a triangle labelled with a, h and o, algebraically show that tan(𝜃) = .
cos(𝜃)
(Hint: Write all the sides in terms of the hypotenuse.)
Problem solving
25. ABC is a scalene triangle with side lengths a, b and c as shown. Angles
B
BDA and BDC are right angles.
a. Express h2 in terms of a and x. c a
h
b. Express h2 in terms of b, c and x.
c. Equate the two equations for h2 to show that c2 = a2 + b2 − 2bx. b–x x
d. Use your knowledge of trigonometry to produce the equation A D C
c2 = a2 + b2 − 2ab cos(C), which is known as the cosine rule for b
non-right-angled triangles.
26. Determine the length of the side DC in terms of x, y and 𝜃. B x A
27. Explain how we determine whether to use sin, cos or tan in

trigonometry questions.
y
θ
C D

28. From an observer on a boat 110 m away from a vertical cliff with height c,
the angle from the base of the cliff to the top of the cliff is 𝛼°. There is a
lighthouse with height t on the cliff. From the observer, the angle from t
the base of the lighthouse to the top of the lighthouse is another 𝜃° more
than 𝛼°.
Express the height of the lighthouse, t, in terms of 𝜃° and 𝛼°. θ c
α
110 m
5.5 Using trigonometry to calculate side lengths

LEARNING INTENTION
• apply trigonometric ratios to find the length of an unknown side when the length of one other side and
an acute angle is known.
5.5.1 Using trigonometry to calculate side lengths

eles-4804
• When one acute angle and one side length are known in a right-angled triangle, this information can be
used to find all other unknown sides or angles.
WORKED EXAMPLE 11 Using trigonometry to calculate side lengths
Calculate the value of each pronumeral, giving answers correct to 3 decimal places.
a. b.
6 cm
a 32°
0.346 cm f
35°
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a. 1. Label the marked sides of the triangle. a.
H O
6 cm
a
35°
O
2. Identify the appropriate trigonometric ratio to use. sin(𝜃) =
H
° a
3. Substitute O = a, H = 6 and 𝜃 = 35 . sin(35°) =
6
4. Make a the subject of the equation. 6 sin(35°) = a
x = 6 sin(35°)
5. Calculate and round the answer, correct to a ≈ 3.441 cm

3 decimal places.

b. 1. Label the marked sides of the triangle. b.
32°
H A
0.346 cm f
A
2. Identify the appropriate trigonometric ratio to use. cos(𝜃) =
H
f
3. Substitute A = f, H = 0.346 and 𝜃 = 32°. cos(32°) =
0.346
4. Make f the subject of the equation. 0.346 cos(32°) = f
f = 0.346 cos(32°)
5. Calculate and round the answer, correct to f ≈ 0.293 cm

3 decimal places.
WORKED EXAMPLE 12 Using trigonometry to calculate side lengths
Calculate the value of the pronumeral in the triangle shown. Give the answer correct to
2 decimal places.
120 m
5°
P
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1. Label the marked sides of the triangle. H O
120 m
5°
A P
O
2. Identify the appropriate trigonometric ratio to use. tan(𝜃) =
A
120
3. Substitute O = 120, A = P and 𝜃 = 5°. tan(5°) =
p
4. Make P the subject of the equation. P × tan(5°) = 120

120
i. Multiply both sides of the equation by P. P=
tan(5°)
ii. Divide both sides of the equation by tan (5°).
5. Calculate and round the answer, correct to P ≈ 1371.61 m

2 decimal places.

DISCUSSION
How does solving a trigonometric equation differ when we are finding the length of the hypotenuse side
compared to when finding the length of a shorter side?
Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivities Individual pathway interactivity: Using trigonometry to calculate side lengths (int-4588)
Using trigonometry to calculate side lengths (int-6133)
Exercise 5.5 Using trigonometry to calculate side lengths

Individual pathways
1, 3, 7, 9, 12 2, 5, 8, 10, 13 4, 6, 11, 14, 15
Fluency
1. WE11 Calculate the value of each pronumeral in each of the following, correct to 3 decimal places.
a. b. c.
8
x
10 cm a 25°
a 31°
14
60°
2. WE12 Calculate the value of each pronumeral in each of the following, correct to 2 decimal places.
a. b. 4.6 m c.
71° 13° 94 mm
m
n 68°
2.3 m t
3. Determine the length of the unknown side in each of the following, correct to 2 decimal places.
a. b. P c. 14 m
8°5
2'4
5''
11.7 m
43.95 m
t
12'
18°
40°26'
x

4. Determine the length of the unknown side in each of the following, correct to 2 decimal places.
a. b. c. 6°25'
x
x 80.9 cm
x
21°25'34"
75.23 km
2'
4 °4 11.2 mm
3
5. Calculate the value of the pronumeral in each of the following, correct to 2 decimal places.
a. x b. 23.7 m c.
34
36°42' z
°1
2'
12.3 m
y
43.9 cm
46°
6. Calculate the value of the pronumeral in each of the following, correct to 2 decimal places.
a. b. c.
q 0.732 km
p p
15.3 m a
73°5'
63°11'
13°12' 47.385 km b
Understanding
7. Given that the angle 𝜃 is 42° and the length of the hypotenuse is 8.95 m in a right-angled triangle, calculate
the length of:
a. the opposite side b. the adjacent side.
Give each answer correct to 1 decimal place.
8. A ladder rests against a wall. If the angle between the ladder and the ground is 35° and the foot of the ladder
is 1.5 m from the wall, calculate how high up the wall the ladder reaches. Write your answer in metres
Reasoning
9. Tran is going to construct an enclosed rectangular desktop that is at an incline of 15°. The diagonal length of
the desktop is 50 cm. At the high end, the desktop, including top, bottom and sides, will be raised 8 cm. The
desktop will be made of wood. The diagram below represents this information.
Side view of the desktop Top view of the desktop
z
50 cm
x
8 cm
15°
y
a. Determine the values (in centimetres) of x, y and z of the desktop. Write your answers correct to
2 decimal places.
b. Using your answer from part a determine the minimum area of wood, in cm2 , Tran needs to construct his
desktop including top, bottom and sides. Write your answer correct to 2 decimal places.

10. a. In a right-angled triangle, under what circumstances will the opposite side and the adjacent side have the
same length?
b. In a right-angled triangle, for what values of 𝜃 (the reference angle) will the adjacent side be longer than
the opposite side?
11. In triangle ABC shown, the length of x correct to two decimal places is 8.41 cm. AM is perpendicular to BC.
Jack found the length of x to be 5.11 cm. Below is his working. Identify his error and what he should have
done instead.
A
BM
cos(36°) = 4.5 cm
4.5
BM = 3.641
36° 29°
AM C
sin(36°) = B M
4.5 x
AM = 2.645
2.645
tan(29°) =
MC
MC = 1.466
BC = 3.641 + 1.466 = 5.107 cm
= 5.11 cm (rounded to 2 decimal places)
Problem solving
12. A surveyor needs to determine the height of a building. She
measures the angle of elevation of the top of the building from
two points, 64 m apart. The surveyor’s eye level is 195 cm above
h
the ground.
47°48 36°2
a. Determine the expressions for the height of the building, h, in ʹ 4ʹ
terms of x using the two angles. x 64 m 195 cm
b. Solve for x by equating the two expressions obtained in part a.
Give your answer to 2 decimal places.
c. Determine the height of the building correct to 2 decimal places.
13. Building A and Building B are 110 m apart. From

22º
the base of Building A to the top of Building
B, the angle is 15°. From the top of Building A
Building B
looking down to the top of Building B, the angle
is 22°. Evaluate the heights of each of the two Building A
buildings correct to one decimal place. 15º
110 m
14. If angles QNM, QNP and MNP are right angles, determine the length
Q
of NQ.
15. Determine how solving a trigonometric equation differs when we
h
are calculating the length of the hypotenuse side compared to when
determining the length of a shorter side. N
x y
30° 45°
M 120 P

5.6 Using trigonometry to calculate angle size
LEARNING INTENTION
• apply inverse operations to calculate a known acute angle when two sides are given.
5.6.1 Using trigonometry to calculate angle size

eles-4805
• The size of any angle in a right-angled triangle can be found if the lengths of any two sides are known.
• Just as inverse operations are used to solve equations, inverse trigonometric ratios are used to solve
trigonometric equations for the value of the angle.
−1
• Inverse sine (sin ) is the inverse of sine.
• Inverse cosine (cos−1 ) is the inverse of cosine.
• Inverse tangent (tan−1 ) is the inverse of tangent.
Inverse operations
If sin(𝜃) = a, then sin−1 (a) = 𝜃.
If cos(𝜃) = a, then cos−1 (a) = 𝜃.
If tan(𝜃) = a, then tan−1 (a) = 𝜃.
For example, since sin(30°) = 0.5, then sin−1 (0.5) = 30°; this is read as ‘inverse sine of 0.5 is 30 degrees’.
• A calculator can be used to calculate the values of inverse trigonometric ratios.
WORKED EXAMPLE 13 Evaluating angles using inverse trigonometric ratios
For each of the following, calculate the size of the angle, 𝜃, correct to the nearest degree.
a. b.
5 cm 5m
3.5 cm
𝜃
θ 11 m
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a. 1. Label the given sides of the triangle. a.
H O
5 cm
3.5 cm
O
2. Identify the appropriate trigonometric ratio to sin(𝜃) =
use. We are given O and H. H

3.5
3. Substitute O = 3.5 and H = 5 and evaluate sin(𝜃) =
the expression. 5
= 0.7
4. Make 𝜃 the subject of the equation using 𝜃 = sin−1 (0.7)

inverse sine. = 44.427 004°
5. Evaluate 𝜃 and round the answer, correct to 𝜃 ≈ 44°

the nearest degree.
b. 1. Label the given sides of the triangle. b.
O
5m
𝜃
11 m A
O
2. Identify the appropriate trigonometric ratio to tan(𝜃) =
use. Given O and A. A
5
3. Substitute O = 5 and A = 11. tan(𝜃) =
11
( )
5
4. Make 𝜃 the subject of the equation using 𝜃 = tan−1
inverse tangent. 11
= 24.443 954 78°
5. Evaluate 𝜃 and round the answer, correct to 𝜃 ≈ 24°

the nearest degree.
WORKED EXAMPLE 14 Evaluating angles in minutes and seconds
Calculate the size of angle 𝜃: 3.1 m A

a. correct to the nearest second 𝜃
b. correct to the nearest minute.
O
7.2 m
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a. 1. Label the given sides of the triangle. a. 3.1 m A
θ
O
7.2 m

O
2. Identify the appropriate trigonometric ratio tan(𝜃) =
to use. A
7.2
3. Substitute O = 7.2 and A = 3.1. tan(𝜃) =
3.1
( )
17.2
4. Make 𝜃 the subject of the equation using 𝜃 = tan−1
inverse tangent. 3.1
5. Evaluate 𝜃 and write the calculator display. 𝜃 = 66.70543675°
6. Use the calculator to convert the answer to 𝜃 = 66°42′19.572′′

degrees, minutes and seconds.
7. Round the answer to the nearest second. 𝜃 ≈ 66°42′20′′
b. Round the answer to the nearest minute. b. 𝜃 ≈ 66°42′

a. a. a. a.
On a Calculator page, in On the Main screen in
degree mode, complete the decimal and degree mode,
entry (
line as:
) complete
( the) entry line as:
7.2 7.2
tan−1 tan−1
3.1 3.1
To convert the decimal To convert the decimal
degree into degrees, minutes answer into degrees, minutes
and seconds, press: and seconds, tap:
• CATALOG • Action
• 1 • Transformation
• D • DMS
• toDMS
▲
Scroll and select DMS.

Highlight the decimal 𝜃 = 66°42′ 20′′ correct to
Then press ENTER.
answer and drag it into this the nearest second.
line.
Then press EXE.
𝜃 = 66°42′ 20′′ correct to the

nearest second.
b. b. b. b.
Using the same screen, round 𝜃 = 66°42′ correct to the nearest Using the same screen, 𝜃 = 66°42′ correct to the nearest
to the nearest minute. minute. round to the nearest minute. minute.
Resources
Resourceseses
Digital document SkillSHEET Rounding angles to the nearest degree (doc-5232)
Interactivities Individual pathway interactivity: Using trigonometry to calculate angle size (int-4589)
Finding the angle when two sides are known (int-6046)

Exercise 5.6 Using trigonometry to calculate angle size
Individual pathways
1, 4, 7, 9, 12 2, 5, 8, 10, 13 3, 6, 11, 14
Fluency
1. WE13 Calculate the size of the angle, 𝜃, in each of the following. Give your answer correct to the
nearest degree.
a. b. c.
5.2 4.7
4.8 8
θ θ
θ
3.2
3
2. WE14b Calculate the size of the angle marked with the pronumeral in each of the following. Give your
answer correct to the nearest minute.
a. b. 7.2 m c.
β
12
17
4m θ
10
θ
12
3. WE14a Calculate the size of the angle marked with the pronumeral in each of the following. Give your
answer correct to the nearest second.
a. b. c.
α
5m
2.7
8
α
3m 3.5
θ
2
4. Calculate the size of the angle marked with the pronumeral in each of the following, giving your answer
correct to the nearest degree.
a. b. c. 106.4
13.5 a 89.4
92.7
15.3 b
c
77.3

5. Calculate the size of the angle marked with the pronumeral in each of the following, giving your answer
correct to the nearest degree.
a. b. c.
d 12.36
43.7
18.7 13.85 7.3 cm 12.2 cm
e
18.56
9.8 cm α
6. Calculate the size of each of the angles in the following, giving your answers correct to the nearest minute.
a. b. c.
x
a d 5.7
0.798 2.3
56.3
y
0.342 e
b
27.2
Understanding
7. Answer the following questions for the triangle shown. A
a. Calculate the length of the sides r, l and h. Write your answers r
correct to 2 decimal places. h l
125°
b. Calculate the area of ABC, correct to the nearest square
centimetre. D
20 cm B 30 cm C
c. Determine the size of ∠BCA.
8. In the sport of air racing, small aeroplanes have to travel between two
large towers (or pylons). The gap between a pair of pylons is smaller than
the wing-span of the plane, so the plane has to go through on an angle
with one wing higher than the other. The wing-span of a competition
plane is 8 metres.
a. Determine the angle, correct to 1 decimal place, that the plane has to
tilt if the gap between pylons is:
i. 7 metres ii. 6 metres iii. 5 metres.
b. Because the plane has rolled away from the horizontal as it travels
between the pylons it loses speed. If the plane’s speed is below 96 km/h it will stall and possibly crash.
For each degree of ‘tilt’ the speed of the plane is reduced by 0.98 km/h. Calculate the minimum speed the
plane must go through each of the pylons in part a. Write your answer correct to 2 decimal places.
Reasoning
9. Explain how calculating the angle of a right-angled triangle is different to calculating a side length.
10. There are two important triangles commonly used in trigonometry. Complete the following steps and answer
the questions to create these triangles.
Triangle 1
• Sketch an equilateral triangle with side length 2 units.
• Calculate the size of the internal angles.
• Bisect the triangle to form two right-angled triangles.
• Redraw one of the triangles formed.
• Calculate the side lengths of this right-angled triangle as exact values.
• Fully label your diagram showing all side lengths and angles.

Triangle 2
• Draw a right-angled isosceles triangle.
• Calculate the sizes of the internal angles.
• Let the sides of equal length be 1 unit long each.
• Calculate the length of the third side as an exact value.
• Fully label your diagram showing all side lengths and angles.
11. a. Use the triangles formed in question 10 to calculate exact values for sin(30°), cos(30°) and tan(30°).
Justify your answers.
sin(30°)
b. Use the exact values for sin(30°), cos(30°) and tan(30°) to show that tan(30°) = .
cos(30°)
O A sin(𝜃)
c. Use the formulas sin(𝜃) = and cos(𝜃) = to prove that tan(𝜃) = .
H H cos(𝜃)
Problem solving
12. During a Science excursion, a class visited an underground cave to observe Site 3
rock formations. They were required to walk along a series of paths and
steps as shown in the diagram below. 1.6 km
1.4 km
a. Calculate the angle of the incline (slope) required to travel down
Site 2
between each site. Give your answers to the nearest whole number. 2.1 km
b. Determine which path would have been the most challenging; that is, Site 1
2 km
which path had the steepest slope.
3.8 km
1 km
13. Determine the angle 𝜃 in degrees and minutes.
6
θ
100°
14. At midday, the hour hand and the minute hand on a standard clock are
both pointing at the twelve. Calculate the angles the minute hand and
the hour hand have moved 24.5 minutes later. Express both answers in
degrees and minutes.

5.7 Angles of elevation and depression
LEARNING INTENTION
• identify angles of elevation and depression and solve for unknown side lengths and angles.
5.7.1 Angles of elevation and depression

eles-4806
• Solving real-life problems usually involves the person measuring angles or lengths from their position
using trigonometry.
• They may have to either look up at the object or look down to it; hence the terms ‘angle of elevation’ and
‘angle of depression’ respectively.
Angle of elevation
Consider the points A and B, where B is at a higher elevation than A.

• If a horizontal line is drawn from A as shown, forming the angle 𝜃, then 𝜃 is called the angle of
elevation of B from A.
B
θ = angle of elevation of B
from A
A θ
Horizontal
Angle of depression
• If a horizontal line is drawn from B, forming the angle 𝛼, then 𝛼 is called the angle of depression of
A from B.
Horizontal
B
α
α = angle of depression
of A from B
A
Alternate angle rule

• Because the horizontal lines are parallel, 𝜃 and 𝛼 have the same size (alternate angles).
α B
θ=α
θ
A

WORKED EXAMPLE 15 Applying angles of elevation to solve problems
From a point P, on the ground, the angle of elevation of the top of a tree is 50°. If P is 8 metres from
the tree, determine the height of the tree correct to 2 decimal places.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1. Let the height of the tree be h. Sketch a
diagram and show the relevant information.
h
O
50°
8m A
O
2. Identify the appropriate trigonometric ratio. tan(𝜃) =
A
h
3. Substitute O = h, A = 8 and 𝜃 = 50°. tan(50°) =
8
4. Rearrange to make h the subject. h = 8 tan(50°)
5. Calculate and round the answer to ≈ 9.53
2 decimal places.
6. Write the answer in a sentence. The height of the tree is 9.53 m.
WORKED EXAMPLE 16 Applying angles of depression to solve problems
The angle of depression from a helicopter, at point H, to a swimmer in distress in the water is 60°. If
the helicopter is hovering 800 m above sea level, determine how far horizontally the swimmer is from
the helicopter. Write your answer in metres correct to 2 decimal places.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1. Let the horizontal distance between the H
swimmer and the helicopter be d. Sketch a 60º
diagram and show the relevant information.
800 m
60º d
O
2. Identify the appropriate trigonometric ratio. tan(𝜃) =
A
800
3. Substitute O = 800, Q = 60° and A = d. tan(60°) =
d
800
4. Rearrange to make d the subject. d=
tan(60°)
5. Calculate and round to 2 decimal places. d ≈ 461.88 m

6. Write the answer in a sentence. The horizontal distance between the swimmer and the
helicopter is 461.88 m.

Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivities Individual pathway interactivity: Angles of elevation and depression (int-4590)
Finding the angle of elevation and angle of depression (int-6047)
Exercise 5.7 Angles of elevation and depression

Individual pathways
1, 4, 6, 9, 12, 15 2, 5, 7, 10, 13, 16 3, 8, 11, 14, 17
Fluency
1. WE15 From a point P on the ground the angle of elevation from an observer to the top of a tree is 54°22′.
If the tree is known to be 12.19 m high, determine how far P is from the tree (measured horizontally). Write
your answer in metres correct to 2 decimal places.
2. WE16 From the top of a cliff 112 m high, the angle of depression to a boat is 9°15′. Determine how far the
boat is from the foot of the cliff. Write your answer in metres correct to 1 decimal place.
3. A person on a ship observes a lighthouse on the cliff, which is
830 metres away from the ship. The angle of elevation of the top
of the lighthouse is 12°.
a. Determine how far above sea level the top of the lighthouse is,
b. If the height of the lighthouse is 24 m, calculate the height of
the cliff, correct to 2 decimal places.
4. At a certain time of the day a post, 4 m tall, casts a shadow of
1.8 m. Calculate the angle of elevation of the sun at that time.
Write your answer correct to the nearest minute.
5. An observer who is standing 47 m from a building measures the angle of elevation of the top of the building
as 17°. If the observer’s eye is 167 cm from the ground, determine the height of the building. Write your
answer in metres correct to 2 decimal places.
Understanding
6. A surveyor needs to determine the height of a building. She
measures the angle of elevation of the top of the building from two
points, 38 m apart. The surveyor’s eye level is 180 cm above the h
ground.
47°12 35°5
' 0
'
a. Determine two expressions for the height of the building, h, in
x 38 m 180 cm
terms of x using the two angles.
b. Solve for x by equating the two expressions obtained in a. Write
your answer in metres correct to 2 decimal places
c. Determine the height of the building, in metres correct to
2 decimal places.

7. The height of another building needs to be determined but cannot
be found directly. The surveyor decides to measure the angle of
elevation of the top of the building from different sites, which are h
75 m apart. The surveyor’s eye level is 189 cm above the ground.
43°35 32°1
' 8'
a. Determine two expressions for the height of the building above
x 75 m 189 cm
the surveyor’s eye level, h, in terms of x using the two angles.
b. Solve for x. Write your answer in metres correct to 2 decimal
places.
c. Determine the height of the building, in metres correct to
2 decimal places.
8. A lookout tower has been erected on top of a cliff. At a distance of 5.8 km from the
foot of the cliff, the angle of elevation to the base of the tower is 15.7° and to the
observation deck at the top of the tower is 16° respectively, as shown in the figure
below. Determine how high from the top of the cliff the observation deck is, to the
nearest metre.
16°
15.7°
5.8 km
9. Elena and Sonja were on a camping trip to the Grampians, where Angle of depression
1.3 km
they spent their first day hiking. They first walked 1.5 km along 20°
a path inclined at an angle of 10° to the horizontal. Then they 1.5 km
150 m
10°
had to follow another path, which was at an angle of 20° to the 1.4 km
horizontal. They walked along this path for 1.3 km, which brought
them to the edge of the cliff. Here Elena spotted a large gum tree
1.4 km away. If the gum tree is 150 m high, calculate the angle
of depression from the top of the cliff to the top of the gum tree.
Express your answer in degrees correct to the nearest degree.
10. From a point on top of a cliff, two boats are observed. If the angles 32°
of depression are 58° and 32° and the cliff is 46 m above sea level, 58°
determine how far apart the boats are, in metres correct to 2 decimal 46 m
places.
11. A 2.05 m tall man, standing in front of a street light 3.08 m high, casts a
1.5 m shadow.
a. Calculate the angle of elevation, to the nearest degree, from the
ground to the source of light. 2.05 m
3.08 m
b. Determine how far the man is from the bottom of the light pole, in
metres correct to 2 decimal places. 1.5 m

Reasoning
12. Explain the difference between an angle of elevation and an angle of depression.
13. Joseph is asked to obtain an estimate of the height of his house using
any mathematical technique. He decides to use an inclinometer and
x
basic trigonometry. Using the inclinometer, Joseph determines the
angle of elevation, 𝜃, from his eye level to the top of his house to be θ
42°. The point from which Joseph measures the angle of elevation is
h d
15 m away from his house and the distance from Joseph’s eyes to the
ground is 1.76 m.
a. Determine the values for the pronumerals h, d and 𝜃.
b. Determine the height of Joseph’s house, in metres correct to 2 decimal places.
14. The angle of elevation of a vertically rising hot air balloon changes from 27° at 7:00 am to 61° at 7:03 am,
according to an observer who is 300 m away from the take-off point.
a. Assuming a constant speed, calculate that speed (in m/s and km/h) at which the balloon is rising, correct
b. The balloon then falls 120 metres. Determine the angle of elevation now. Write your answer in degrees
Problem solving
15. The competitors of a cross-country run are nearing the finish line. From a 40°
lookout 100 m above the track, the angles of depression to the two leaders, 62°
Nathan and Rachel, are 40° and 62° respectively. Evaluate how far apart,
to the nearest metre, the two competitors are. 100 m
16. The angle of depression from the top of one 30°

building to the foot of another building across
the same street and 45 metres horizontally away 65°
is 65°. The angle of depression to the roof of the
same building is 30°. Evaluate the height of the
shorter building. Write your answer in metres
45 m
17. P and Q are two points on a horizontal line that are

120 metres apart. The angles of elevation from P and Q
to the top of a mountain are 36° and 42° respectively.
Determine the height of the mountain, in metres,
36° 42°
P 120 m Q

5.8 Bearings
LEARNING INTENTION
• draw diagrams with correct angles to represent information to help solve triangles
• apply trigonometry to solve bearing problems involving compass and true bearings.
5.8.1 Using bearings

eles-4807
• A bearing gives the direction of travel from one point or object to another.
• The bearing of B from A tells how to get to B from A. A compass rose would be drawn at A.
N B
W E
A
To illustrate the bearing of A from B, a compass rose would be drawn at B.
W E
B
S
A
• There are two ways in which bearings are commonly written. They are compass bearings and true bearings.
Compass bearings
• A compass bearing (for example N40°E or S72°W) has three parts.
• The first part is either N or S (for north or south).
• The second part is an acute angle.
• The third part is either E or W (for east or west).
• For example, the compass bearing S20°E means start by facing south and then turn 20° towards the east.
This is the direction of travel.
N40°W means start by facing north and then turn 40° towards the west.

N N40°W N
40°
W E W E
20°
S20°E
S S
True bearings
• True bearings are measured from north in a clockwise direction and are expressed in 3 digits.
• The diagrams below show the bearings of 025° true and 250° true respectively. (These true bearings are
more commonly written as 025°T and 250°T.)
N 025°T N
25°
W E W E
250°
250°T
S S
WORKED EXAMPLE 17 Solving trigonometric problems involving bearings
A boat travels a distance of 5 km from P to Q in a direction of 035°T.

a. Calculate how far east of P is Q, correct to 2 decimal places.
b. Calculate how far north of P is Q, correct to 2 decimal places.
c. Calculate the true bearing of P from Q.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a. 1. Draw a diagram showing the distance and a. Q
bearing of Q from P. Complete a right-angled
triangle travelling x km due east from P and θ
N
then y km due north to Q. y
35°
P x
O
2. To determine how far Q is east of P, we need sin(𝜃) =
to determine the value of x. We are given the H
length of the hypotenuse (H) and need to find
the length of the opposite side (O). Write the
sine ratio.
x
3. Substitute O = x, H = 5 and 𝜃 = 35°. sin(35°) =
5

4. Make x the subject of the equation. x = 5 sin(35°)
5. Evaluate and round the answer, correct to ≈ 2.87
2 decimal places.
6. Write the answer in a sentence. Point Q is 2.87 km east of P.
A
b. 1. To determine how far Q is north of P, we b. cos(𝜃) =
need to find the value of y. This can be H
done in several ways, namely: using the
cosine ratio, the tangent ratio, or Pythagoras’
theorem. Write the cosine ratio.
y
2. Substitute A = y, H = 5 and 𝜃 = 35°. cos(35°) =
5
3. Make y the subject of the equation. y = 5 cos(35°)
4. Evaluate and round the answer, correct to ≈ 4.10
2 decimal places.
5. Write the answer in a sentence. Point B is 4.10 km north of A.
c. 1. To determine the bearing of P from Q, draw a c. N
compass rose at Q. The true bearing is given
by ∠𝜃. Q θ
35°
P x
2. The value of 𝜃 is the sum of 180° (from north True bearing = 180° + 𝛼
to south) and 35°. Write the value of 𝜃. 𝛼 = 35°
True bearing = 180° + 35°
= 215°
3. Write the answer in a sentence. The bearing of P from Q is 215°T.
• Sometimes a journey includes a change in directions. In such cases, each section of the journey should be
dealt with separately.
WORKED EXAMPLE 18 Solving bearings problems with 2 stages
A boy walks 2 km on a true bearing of 090° and then 3 km on a true bearing of 130°.
a. Calculate how far east of the starting point the boy is at the completion of his walk, correct to
1 decimal place.
b. Calculate how far south of the starting point the boy is at the completion of his walk, correct to
1 decimal place.
c. To return directly to his starting point, calculate how far the boy must walk and on what bearing.
Write your answers in km correct to 2 decimal places and in degrees and minutes correct to the
nearest minute.

THINK WRITE/DRAW
a. 1. Draw a diagram of the boy’s journey. The a. N N
first leg of the journey is due east. Label
the easterly component x and the southerly 2 130°
E
component y. O P
50° 3
y
x Q
O
2. Write the ratio to determine the value of x. sin(𝜃) =
H
x
3
5. Evaluate and round correct to ≈ 2.3 km

1 decimal place.
6. Add to this the 2 km east that was walked Total distance east = 2 + 2.3
in the first leg of the journey and write the = 4.3 km
answer in a sentence. The boy is 4.3 km east of the starting point.
b. 1. To determine the value of y (see the diagram b. Distance south = y km
in part a) we can use Pythagoras’ theorem, a2 = c2 − b2
as we know the lengths of two out of three
sides in the right-angled triangle. Round y2 = 32 − 2.32
the answer correct to 1 decimal place. Note: = 9 − 5.29
= 3.71
Alternatively, the cosine ratio could have √
been used. y = 3.71
= 1.9 km
2. Write the answer in a sentence. The boy is 1.9 km south of the starting point.
c. 1. Draw a diagram of the journey and write in c. 4.3
O
the results found in parts a and b. Draw a
compass rose at Q. 1.9
N
z
α
Q
β
2. Determine the value of z using Pythagoras’ z2 = 1.92 + 4.32

theorem. = 22.1
z = 22.1
≈ 4.70
4.3
3. Determine the value of 𝛼 using trigonometry. tan(𝛼) =
1.9
( )
−1 4.3
4. Make 𝛼 the subject of the equation using the 𝛼 = tan
inverse tangent function. 1.9

5. Evaluate and round to the nearest minute. = 66.161259 82°
= 66°9′40.535′′
= 66°10′
6. The angle 𝛽 gives the bearing. 𝛽 = 360° − 66°10′

= 293°50′
7. Write the answer in a sentence. The boy travels 4.70 km on a bearing of
293°50 T.
DISCUSSION
Explain the difference between true bearings and compass directions.
Resources
Resourceseses
Digital document SkillSHEET Drawing a diagram from given directions (doc-5228)
Video eLesson Bearings (eles-1935)

Interactivities Individual pathway interactivity: Bearings (int-4591)
Bearings (int-6481)
Exercise 5.8 Bearings

Individual pathways
1, 3, 7, 10, 14, 17 2, 5, 8, 11, 12, 15, 18 4, 6, 9, 13, 16, 19
Fluency
a. N20°E b. N20°W c. S35°W

a. S28°E b. N34°E c. S42°W
3. Change each of the following true bearings to compass bearings.

a. 049°T b. 132°T c. 267°T
4. Change each of the following true bearings to compass bearings.

a. 330°T b. 086°T c. 234°T

5. Describe the following paths using true bearings.
a. N b. N c. N
3k
35°
m
W E W E
22° 35°
2.5 m
km
8k
S S
6. Describe the following paths using true bearings.
a. N b. N c. N
N N
12 30
km 0m
35° 2.5 km 65°
50° m 40°
7k 50°
0m
4 km
50
7. Show each of the following journeys as a diagram.
a. A ship travels 040°T for 40 km and then 100°T for 30 km.
b. A plane flies for 230 km in a direction 135°T and a further 140 km in a direction 240°T.
8. Show each of the following journeys as a diagram.

a. A bushwalker travels in a direction 260°T for 0.8 km, then changes direction to 120°T for 1.3 km, and
finally travels in a direction of 32° for 2.1 km.
b. A boat travels N40°W for 8 km, then changes direction to S30°W for 5 km and then S50°E for 7 km.
c. A plane travels N20°E for 320 km, N70°E for 180 km and S30°E for 220 km.
9. WE17 A yacht travels 20 km from A to B on a bearing of 042°T.

a. Calculate how far east of A is B, in km correct to 2 decimal places.
b. Calculate how far north of A is B, in km correct to 2 decimal places.
c. Calculate the bearing of A from B.
The yacht then sails 80 km from B to C on a bearing of 130°T.
d. Show the journey using a diagram.
e. Calculate how far south of B is C, in km correct to 2 decimal places.
f. Calculate how far east of B is C, in km correct to 2 decimal places.
g. Calculate the bearing of B from C.
10. If a farmhouse is situated 220 m N35°E from a shed, calculate the true
bearing of the shed from the house.
Understanding
11. A pair of hikers travel 0.7 km on a true bearing of 240° and then 1.3 km on a true bearing of 300°. Calculate
how far west have they travelled from their starting point, in km correct to 3 decimal places.
12. WE18 A boat travels 6 km on a true bearing of 120° and then 4 km on a true bearing of 080°
a. Calculate how far east the boat is from the starting point on the completion of its journey, in km correct to
3 decimal places.
b. Calculate how far south the boat is from the starting point on the completion of its journey, in km correct
c. Calculate the bearing of the boat from the starting point on the completion of its journey, correct to the
nearest minute.
13. A plane flies on a true bearing of 320° for 450 km. It then
flies on a true bearing of 350° for 130 km and finally on a
true bearing of 050° for 330 km. Calculate how far north
of its starting point the plane is. Write your answer in km
Reasoning
14. A bushwalker leaves her tent and walks due east for 4.12 km, then walks a further 3.31 km on a bearing of
N20°E. If she wishes to return directly to her tent, determine how far she must walk and what bearing she
should take. Write your answers in km correct to 2 decimal places and to the nearest degree.
15. A car travels due south for 3 km and then due east for 8 km. Determine the bearing of the car from its
starting point, to the nearest degree. Show full working.
16. If the bearing of A from O is 𝜃°T, then (in terms of theta) determine the bearing of O from A:
a. if 0° < θ° < 180° b. if 180° < θ° < 360°.
Problem solving
17. A boat sails on a compass direction of E12°S for 10 km then changes
direction to S27°E for another 20 km. The boat then decides to return to its A
starting point. 12°
10 km B
a. Determine how far, correct to 2 decimal places, the boat is from its
starting point.
b. Determine on what bearing should the boat travel to return to its starting 27°
20 km
point. Write the angle correct to the nearest degree.
18. Samira and Tim set off early from the car park of a national
park to hike for the day. Initially they walk N60°E for 12 km
to see a spectacular waterfall. They then change direction and
walk in a south-easterly direction for 6 km, then stop for lunch.
Give all answers correct to 2 decimal places.
a. Make a scale diagram of the hiking path they completed.
b. Determine how far north of the car park they are at the
lunch stop.
c. Determine how far east of the car park they are at the
lunch stop.
d. Determine the bearing of the lunch stop from the car park.
e. If Samira and Tim then walk directly back to the car park,
calculate the distance they have covered after lunch.
19. Starting from their base in the national park, a group of bushwalkers travel 1.5 km at a true bearing of 030°,
then 3.5 km at a true bearing of 160°, and then 6.25 km at a true bearing of 300°. Evaluate how far, and at
what true bearing, the group should walk to return to its base. Write your answers in km correct to 2 decimal
places and to the nearest degree.

5.9 Applications
LEARNING INTENTION
• draw well-labelled diagrams to represent information
• apply trigonometry to solve various problems involving triangles.
5.9.1 Applications of trigonometry

eles-4808
• When applying trigonometry to practical situations, it is essential to draw good mathematical diagrams
using points, lines and angles.
• Several diagrams may be required to show all the necessary right-angled triangles.
WORKED EXAMPLE 19 Applying trigonometry to solve problems
A ladder of length 3 m makes an angle of 32° with the wall.

a. Calculate how far the foot of the ladder is from the wall, in metres, correct to 2 decimal places.
b. Calculate how far up the wall the ladder reaches, in metres, correct to 2 decimal places.
c. Calculate the value of the angle the ladder makes with the ground.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
Sketch a diagram and label the sides of the
right-angled triangle with respect to the given
angle. A
3m 32°
H y
α x
O
O
a. 1. We need to calculate the distance of the foot a. sin(𝜃) =
of the ladder from the wall (O) and are given H
the length of the ladder (H).
Write the sine ratio.
x
3
4. Evaluate and round the answer to ≈ 1.59 m
2 decimal places.
5. Write the answer in a sentence. The foot of the ladder is 1.59 m from the wall.
A
b. 1. We need to calculate the height the ladder b. cos(𝜃) =
reaches up the wall (A) and are given the H
hypotenuse (H). Write the cosine ratio.
y
2. Substitute A = y, H = 3 and 𝜃 = 32°. cos(32°) =
3
3. Make y the subject of the equation. y = 3 cos(32°)
4. Evaluate and round the answer to y ≈ 2.54 m
2 decimal places.
5. Write the answer in a sentence. The ladder reaches 2.54 m up the wall.

c. 1. To calculate the angle that the ladder makes c. 𝛼 + 90° + 32° = 180°
with the ground, we could use any of the 𝛼 + 122° = 180°
trigonometric ratios, as the lengths of all three 𝛼 = 180° − 122°
sides are known. However, it is quicker to use 𝛼 = 58°
the angle sum of a triangle.
2. Write the answer in a sentence. The ladder makes a 58° angle with the ground.

the entry
( lines as: ) the entry
( lines as: )
x x
solve sin (32) = , x solve sin (32) = , x
3 3
( ) ( )
y y
solve cos (32) = , y solve cos (32) = , y
3 3
180 − (90 + 32) 180 − (90 + 32)
Press ENTER after each entry. Press EXE after each entry.
x = 1.59 m correct to 2 decimal
places.
y = 2.54 mcorrect to 2 decimal
places. x = 1.59 m correct to
𝛼 = 58° 2 decimal places.
y = 2.54 mcorrect to
2 decimal places.
𝛼 = 58°
DISCUSSION
What are some real-life applications of trigonometry?
Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivity Individual pathway interactivity: Applications (int-4592)
Exercise 5.9 Applications

Individual pathways
1, 3, 4, 10, 11, 17 2, 5, 8, 12, 14, 16, 18 6, 7, 9, 13, 15, 19
Fluency
1. A carpenter wants to make a roof pitched at 29°30′, as shown in the R
diagram. Calculate how long, in metres correct to 2 decimal places, he
should cut the beam PR.
2. The mast of a boat is 7.7 m high. A guy wire from the top of the mast 29°30'
P Q
is fixed to the deck 4 m from the base of the mast. Determine the angle, 10.6 m
correct to the nearest minute, the wire makes with the horizontal.
Understanding
3. A steel roof truss is to be made to the following design. Write your answers in metres correct to
2 decimal places.
20°
10 m
a. Calculate how high the truss is.

b. Determine the total length of steel required to make the truss.
4. WE19 A ladder that is 2.7 m long is leaning against a wall at an angle of 20° as shown. T
If the base of the ladder is moved 50 cm further away from the wall, determine what angle
the ladder will make with the wall. Write your answer correct to the nearest minute.
20°
2.7 m
W B
5. A wooden framework is built as shown. C

Bella plans to reinforce the framework by adding a strut from C to the midpoint of
AB. Calculate the length of the strut, in metres correct to the 2 decimal places.
5m
38°
A B
6. Atlanta is standing due south of a 20 m flagpole at a point where the angle of elevation of the top of the pole
is 35°. Ginger is standing due east of the flagpole at a point where the angle of elevation of the top of the
pole is 27°. Calculate how far, to the nearest metre, Ginger is from Atlanta.
7. From a point at ground level, Henry measures the angle of elevation of the top of a tall building to be 41°.
After walking directly towards the building, he finds the angle of elevation to be 75°. If the building is 220 m
tall, determine how far Henry walked between measurements. Write your answer correct to the
nearest metre.
8. Sailing in the direction of a mountain peak of height 893 m, Imogen measured the angle of elevation to be
14°. A short time later the angle of elevation was 27°. Calculate how far, in km correct to 3 decimal places,
Imogen had sailed in that time.
9. A desk top of length 1.2 m and width 0.5 m rises to 10 cm.
E F
10 cm
0.5 m C D
A 1.2 m B
Calculate, correct to the nearest minute:

a. ∠DBF b. ∠CBE.

10. A cuboid has a square end. If the length of the cuboid is 45 cm and its height and
H G
width are 25 cm each, calculate:
X
a. the length of BD, correct to 2 decimal places
D C
b. the length of BG, correct to 2 decimal places E F
c. the length of BE, correct to 2 decimal places O
45 cm
d. the length of BH, correct to 2 decimal places A
25 cm B
e. ∠FBG, correct to the nearest minute
f. ∠EBH, correct to the nearest minute.
If the midpoint of FG is X and the centre of the rectangle ABFE is O calculate:
g. the length OF, correct to 2 decimal places
h. the length FX, correct to 1 decimal place
i. ∠FOX, correct to the nearest minute
j. the length OX, correct to 2 decimal places.
11. In a right square-based pyramid, the length of the side of the base is 12 cm and the height is 26 cm.
26 cm
12 cm
Determine:
a. the angle the triangular face makes with the base, correct to the nearest degree
b. the angle the sloping edge makes with the base, correct to the nearest minute
c. the length of the sloping edge, in cm correct to 2 decimal places.
12. In a right square-based pyramid, the length of the side of the square base is 5.7 cm.
68°
5.7 cm
If the angle between the triangular face and the base is 68°, calculate:
a. the height of the pyramid, in cm correct to 2 decimal places
b. the angle the sloping edge makes with the base, correct to the nearest minute
c. the length of the sloping edge, in cm correct to 2 decimal places.
13. In a right square-based pyramid, the height is 47 cm. If the angle between a triangular face and the base is
73°, calculate:
a. the length of the side of the square base, in cm correct to 2 decimal places
b. the length of the diagonal of the base, in cm correct to 2 decimal places
c. the angle the sloping edge makes with the base, correct to the nearest minute.

Reasoning
14. Explain whether sine of an acute angle can be 1 or greater.
15. Aldo the carpenter is lost in a rainforest. He comes across a large river and he knows that he can not swim
across it. Aldo intends to build a bridge across the river. He draws some plans to calculate the distance across
the river as shown in the diagram below.
72°
River Tree
4.5 cm
88°
a. Aldo used a scale of 1 cm to represent 20 m. Determine the real-life distance represented by 4.5 cm in
Aldo’s plans.
b. Use the diagram below to write an equation for h in terms of d and the two angles.
h
θ1 θ2
d–x x
d
c. Use your equation from part b to find the distance across the river, correct to the nearest metre.
16. A block of cheese is in the shape of a rectangular prism as shown. The cheese is to be sliced with a wide
blade that can slice it in one go. Calculate the angle (to the vertical correct to 2 decimal places) that the blade
must be inclined if:
a. the block is to be sliced diagonally into two identical triangular wedges
4.8 cm
7.4 cm
10 cm
b. the blade is to be placed in the middle of the block and sliced through to the bottom corner, as shown.
4.8 cm
7.4 cm
10 cm

Problem solving
17. A ship travels north for 7 km, then on a true bearing of 140° for another 13 km.
a. Draw a sketch of the situation.
b. Determine how far south the ship is from its starting point, in km correct to 2 decimal places.
c. Evaluate the bearing, correct to the nearest degree, the ship is now from its starting point.
18. The ninth hole on a municipal golf course is 630 m from the tee. A golfer drives a ball from the tee a
distance of 315 m at a 10° angle off the direct line as shown.
Hole
630 m
10°
315 m
Tee
Determine how far the ball is from the hole and state the angle of the direct line that the ball must be hit
along to go directly to the hole. Give your answers correct to 1 decimal place.
19. A sphere of radius length 2.5 cm rests in a hollow inverted cone as shown. The height of the cone is 12.5 cm
and its vertical angle is equal to 36°.
2.5 cm
h
a. Evaluate the distance, d, from the tip of the cone to the point of contact with the sphere, correct to
2 decimal places.
b. Determine the distance, h, from the open end of the cone to the bottom of the ball, correct to
2 decimal places.

5.10 Review
Similar triangles Pythagoras’ theorem
• When triangles have common angles, they are said to • When the length of two sides are known in a right-
be similar. angled triangle, the third side can be found using the
e.g. Triangles OAH, OBG and ODE are similar. rule a2 + b2 = c2.
E
F
G c a
H
25°
O b
A B C D
• Corresponding sides of similar triangles will have the —
• Length of the longest side c = √ a2 + b2
same ratio. — —
• Length of the shorter sides a = √ c2 – b2 or b = √ c2 – a2
FC ED HA
e.g. – = – = –
OC OD OA
TRIGONOMETRY I
Trigonometric ratios (SOHCAHTOA) Angles of elevation and depression
• In a right-angled triangle, the longest side is called the • If a horizontal line is drawn from A as shown, forming
hypotenuse. the angle θ, then θ is called the angle of elevation of
B from A. B
Opposite Hypotenuse
(O) (H)
θ = angle of elevation
θ of B from A
A θ
Adjacent
(A) Horizontal
• If an acute angle is known, then the trigonometric ratios • If a horizontal line is drawn from B as shown, forming
the angle α, then α is called the angle of depression of
O A O
sin θ = – , cos θ = – , tan θ = – A from B.
H H A Horizontal
• An acute angle can be calculated when two sides are B
α
known using the inverse operation of the correct
trigonometric ratio.
e.g. Since sin (30°) = 0.5, then sin−1 (0.5) = 30°; this is α = angle of depression
read as ‘inverse sine of 0.5 is 30°’. A of A from B
Bearings
There are two ways in which bearings can be written: N • True bearings are measured from N
• Compass bearings have 3 parts: north in a clockwise direction and 025°T
• First part is either N or S are expressed in 3 digits.
(for north or south).
• Second part is an acute angle. 25°
W E W E
• Third part is either E or W
(for east or west).
20°
e.g. S20°E means start by facing
south and then turn 20° towards the east. S20°E
S S

5.2 I can identify similar right-angled triangles when corresponding sides are in
the same ratio and corresponding angles are congruent.
I can apply Pythagoras’ theorem to calculate the third side of a right-
angled triangle when two other sides are known.
5.3 I can apply Pythagoras’ theorem to determine unknown lengths when a 3D
diagram is given.
I can apply Pythagoras’ theorem to determine unknown lengths in
situations by first drawing a diagram.
5.4 I can define trigonometric ratios according to the lengths of the
relevant sides.
I can write equations for trigonometric ratios.
5.5 I can apply trigonometric ratios to find the length of an unknown side when
the length of one other side and an acute angle is known.
5.6 I can apply inverse operations to calculate a known acute angle when two
sides are given.
5.7 I can identify angles of elevation and depression and solve for unknown
side lengths and angles.
5.8 I can draw diagrams with correct angles to represent information to help
solve triangles.
I can apply trigonometry to solve bearing problems involving compass and
true bearings.
5.9 I can draw well-labelled diagrams to represent information.
I can apply trigonometry to solve various problems involving triangles.
5.10.3 Project
How steep is the land?
When buying a block of land on which to build a house, the
slope of the land is often not very obvious. The slab of a house
built on the ground must be level, so it is frequently necessary
to remove or build up soil to obtain a flat area. The gradient of
the land can be determined from a contour map of the area.

Consider the building block shown. The contour lines join points having the same height above sea level.
Their measurements are in metres. The plan clearly shows that the land rises from A to B. The task is to
determine the angle of this slope.
1. A cross-section shows a profile of the surface of the ground. Let us look at the cross-section of the
ground between A and B. The technique used is as follows.
• Place the edge of a piece of paper on the line joining A and B.
• Mark the edge of the paper at the points where the contour lines intersect the paper.
• Transfer this paper edge to the horizontal scale of the profile and mark these points.
• Choose a vertical scale within the range of the heights of the contour lines.
• Plot the height at each point where a contour line crosses the paper.
• Join the points with a smooth curve.
172
B
173
172.5
171.5
171
Contour
lines
Rectangular
170.5
block of land
170
Scale 1 : 500
The cross-section has been started for you. Complete the profile of the line A B. You can now see a visual
picture of the profile of the soil between A and B.
Cross-section of AB
173 173
172.5 172.5
Height (metres)
Height (metres)
172 172
171.5 171.5
171 171
170.5 170.5
170 170
B A
Profile of line BA (metres)

2. We now need to determine the horizontal distance between A and B.
a. Measure the map distance between A and B using a ruler. What is the map length?
b. Using the scale of 1 : 500, calculate the actual horizontal distance AB (in metres).
3. The vertical difference in height between A and B is indicated by the contour lines. Calculate this
vertical distance.
4. Complete the measurements on this diagram.
B
Vertical
distance
= ........ m a
A
Horizontal distance = ........ m
5. The angle a represents the angle of the average slope of the land from A to B. Use the tangent ratio to
calculate this angle (to the nearest minute).
6. In general terms, an angle less than 5° can be considered a gradual to moderate rise. An angle between
5° and 15° is regarded as moderate to steep while more than 15° is a steep rise. How would you describe
this block of land?
7. Imagine that you are going on a bushwalk this weekend with a group of friends. A contour map of the
area is shown. Starting at X, the plan is to walk directly to the hut.
Draw a cross-section profile of the walk and calculate the average slope of the land. How would you
describe the walk?
30
0
Hut
0
25
200
150
X
Scale 1 : 20 000
Resources
Resourceseses


Fluency
1. MC The most accurate measurement for the length of the third side in the
triangle is:
A. 483 m
B. 23.3 cm 5.6 m
C. 3.94 m 2840 mm
D. 2330 mm
E. 4826 mm
2. MC The value of x in this figure is:

A. 5.4
x
B. 7.5 5
C. 10.1
D. 10.3
2 7
E. 4
3. MC Select the closest length of AG of the cube. A B

A. 10
B. 30 C
D 10
C. 20
D. 14 E
E. 17 F
10
H 10 G
4. MC If sin(38°) = 0.6157, identify which of the following will also give this result.
A. sin(218°)
B. sin(322°)
C. sin(578°)
D. sin(682°)
E. sin(142°)
5. MC The angle 118°52′34′′ is also equal to:

A. 118.5234°
52
B. 118 °
34
C. 118.861°
D. 118.876°
E. 118.786°

6. MC Identify which trigonometric ratio for the triangle shown below is incorrect.
a b
b
A. sin(𝛼) = α θ
c c
a
B. sin(𝛼) =
c
a
C. cos(𝛼) =
c
b
D. tan(𝛼) =
a
a
E. tan(𝜃) =
b
7. MC Identify which of the following statements is correct.

A. sin(55°) = cos(55°)
B. sin(45°) = cos(35°)
C. cos(15°) = sin(85°)
D. sin(30°) = sin(60°)
E. sin(42°) = cos(48°)
8. MC Identify which of the following can be used to determine the value of x

in the diagram.
A. 28.7 sin(35°) 28.7
B. 28.7 cos(35°)
C. 28.7 tan(35°) 35°
28.7 x
D.
sin(35°)
28.7
E.
cos(35°)
9. MC Identify which of the following expressions can be used to determine the value of a in the
triangle shown.
75
35
A. 35 sin(75°)
( )
−1 35
B. sin
75
)(
75
−1
C. sin
35
( )
35
D. cos−1
75
( )
75
E. cos−1
35

10. MC If a school is 320 m S42°W from the police station, calculate the true bearing of the police station
from the school.
A. 042°T
B. 048°T
C. 222°T
D. 228°T
E. 312°T
11. Calculate x, correct to 2 decimal places.

a. b. 117 mm
x
82 mm x
123.1 cm
48.7 cm
12. Calculate the value of the pronumeral, correct to 2 decimal places.
13.4 cm
x x
13. Calculate the height of this pyramid, in mm correct to 2 decimal places.
10 mm
8 mm
8 mm
14. A person standing 23 m away from a tree observes the top of the tree at an angle of elevation of 35°.
If the person’s eye level is 1.5 m from the ground, calculate the height of the tree, in metres correct to
1 decimal place.
15. A man with an eye level height of 1.8 m stands at the window of a tall building. He observes his young
daughter in the playground below. If the angle of depression from the man to the girl is 47° and the
floor on which the man stands is 27 m above the ground, determine how far from the bottom of the
building the child is, in metres correct to 2 decimal places.
16. A plane flies 780 km in a direction of 185°T. Evaluate how far west it has travelled from the starting
point, in km correct to 2 decimal places.
17. A hiker travels 3.2 km on a bearing of 250°T and then 1.8 km on a bearing of 320°T. Calculate far west
she has travelled from the starting point, in km correct to 2 decimal places.
18. If a 4 m ladder is placed against a wall and the foot of the ladder is 2.6 m from the wall, determine the
angle (in degrees and minutes, correct to the nearest minute) the ladder makes with the wall.

Problem solving
19. The height of a right square-based pyramid is 13 cm. If the angle the face makes with the base is 67°,
determine:
a. the length of the edge of the square base, in cm correct to 2 decimal places
b. the length of the diagonal of the base, in cm correct to 2 decimal places
c. the angle the slanted edge makes with the base in degrees and minutes, correct to the nearest minute.
20. A car is travelling northwards on an elevated expressway 6 m above ground at a speed of 72 km/h. At
noon another car passes under the expressway, at ground level, travelling west, at a speed of 90 km/h.
a. Determine how far apart, in metres, the two cars are 40 seconds after noon, in metres correct to
2 decimal places.
b. At this time the first car stops, while the second car keeps going. Determine the time when they will
be 3.5 km apart. Write your answer correct to the nearest tenth of a second.
21. Two towers face each other separated by a distance, d, of 20 metres. As seen from the top of the first
tower, the angle of depression of the second tower’s base is 59° and that of the top is 31°. Calculate the
height, in metres correct to 2 decimal places, of each of the towers.
22. A piece of flat pastry is cut in the shape of a right-angled triangle. The longest side is 6b cm and the
shortest is 2b cm.
a. Determine the length of the third side. Give your answer in exact form.
b. Determine the sizes of the angles in the triangle.
√
c. Show that the area of the triangle is equal to 4 2b2 cm2 .
23. A yacht is anchored off an island. It is 2.3 km from the yacht club and 4.6 km from a weather station.
The three points form a right angled triangle at the yacht club.
Yacht club Weather station
2.3 km
4.6 km
Yacht
a. Calculate the angle at the yacht between the yacht club and the weather station.
b. Evaluate the distance between the yacht club and the weather station, in km correct to
2 decimal places.
The next day the yacht travels directly towards the yacht club, but is prevented from reaching the club
because of dense fog. The weather station notifies the yacht that it is now 4.2 km from
the station.
c. Calculate the new angle at the yacht between the yacht club and the weather station, in degrees
d. Determine how far the yacht is now from the yacht club, correct to 2 decimal places.

eWorkbook 5.6 Individual pathway interactivity: Using trigonometry to

calculate angle size (int-4589) ⃞
Download the workbook for this topic, which includes Finding the angle when two sides are known
5.7 Individual pathway interactivity: Angles of elevation and
Solutions depression (int-4590) ⃞
Download a copy of the fully worked solutions to every Finding the angle of elevation and angle of depression
question in this topic (sol-0739) ⃞ (int-6047) ⃞
5.8 Individual pathway interactivity: Bearings (int-4591) ⃞
Digital documents Bearings (int-6481) ⃞
5.9 Individual pathway interactivity: Applications (int-4592) ⃞
5.2 SkillSHEET Rounding to a given number of decimal 5.10 Crossword (int-2869) ⃞
places (doc-5224) ⃞ Sudoku puzzle (int-3592) ⃞
5.3 SkillSHEET Drawing 3-D shapes (doc-5229) ⃞
5.4 SkillSHEET Labelling the sides of a right-angled triangle
(doc-5226) ⃞ Teacher resources
SkillSHEET Selecting an appropriate trigonometric ratio There are many resources available exclusively for teachers
based on the given information (doc-5231) ⃞ online.
5.6 SkillSHEET Rounding angles to the nearest degree
(doc-5232) ⃞
5.8 SkillSHEET Drawing a diagram from given directions
(doc-5228) ⃞
Video eLessons
5.2 Similar right-angled triangles (eles-4799) ⃞
Review of Pythagoras’ theorem (eles-4800) ⃞
5.3 Applying Pythagoras’ theorem in three dimensions
(eles-4801) ⃞
Pythagoras’ theorem in three dimensions (eles-1913) ⃞
5.4 Trigonometric ratios (eles-4802) ⃞
5.5 Using trigonometry to calculate side lengths
(eles-4804) ⃞
5.6 Using trigonometry to calculate angle size (eles-4805) ⃞
5.7 Angles of elevation and depression (eles-4806) ⃞
5.8 Using bearings (eles-4807) ⃞
Bearings (eles-1935) ⃞
5.9 Applications of trigonometry (eles-4808) ⃞
Interactivities
5.2 Individual pathway interactivity: Pythagoras’ theorem
(int-4585) ⃞
Finding a shorter side (int-3845) ⃞
Finding the hypotenuse (int-3844) ⃞
5.3 Individual pathway interactivity: Pythagoras’ theorem in
three dimensions (int-4586) ⃞
Right angles in 3-dimensional objects (int-6132) ⃞
5.4 Individual pathway interactivity: Trigonometric ratios
(int-4587) ⃞
Trigonometric ratios (int-2577) ⃞
5.5 Individual pathway interactivity: Using trigonometry to
calculate side lengths (int-4588) ⃞
Using trigonometry to calculate side lengths (int-6133) ⃞

Answers 25. a. 21 cm
b. 35 cm
Topic 5 Trigonometry I c. y = 12.6 cm and RS = 9.8 cm

26. 13.86 cm
27. 1.33 million km
1. w = 6.89 cm
2. x = 2.24 cm Exercise 5.3 Pythagoras’ theorem in
3. 16.97 cm three dimensions
4. 62.28 cm 1. a. 13.86 b. 13.93 c. 18.03
5. 0.3521 2. 12.21, 12.85
6. 𝜃 = 55°10′ 3. 4.84 m, 1.77 m
7. 𝜃 = 36°52′ 12′′ 4. 8.49, 4.24
8. y = 6.7 m 5. 31.62 cm
9. C 6. 10.58 cm
10. a. 020°T b. 227°T c. 327°T d. 163°T 7. 23 mm
11. A 8. a. i. 233.24 m ii. 200.12 m iii. 120.20 m
12. D b. 116.83 m
13. 551.2 m 9. 14.72 cm
14. E 10. 12.67 cm
15. x = 9.0 11. 42.27 cm
Exercise 5.2 Pythagoras’ theorem the online resources.
1. a. 7.86 b. 33.27 c. 980.95 13. 186.5 m
2. a. 12.68 b. 2.85 c. 175.14 2
14. a. 1.49 m b. 7.43m
√
3. a. 36.36 b. 1.62 c. 15.37 15. 1265 cm
4. a. 0.61 b. 2133.19 c. 453.90 16. 25.475
5. 23.04 cm 17. 28.6 m
6. 12.65 cm
7. a. 14.14 cm b. 24.04 cm c. 4.53 cm Exercise 5.4 Trigonometric ratios
8. a. 74.83 cm b. 249.67 cm c. 3741.66 cm2 1. a. 0.5000 b. 0.7071 c. 0.4663
d. 0.8387 e. 8.1443 f. 0.7193
9. a. 6.06 b. 4.24 c. 4.74
2. a. 0.6494 b. 0.5885 c. 0.5220
10. 14.84 cm d. −1.5013 e. 0.9990 f. 0.6709
11. 15.59 cm
3. a. 0.8120 b. 0.5253 c. −0.8031
12. 19.23 cm d. 0.4063 e. 0.9880
13. 72.75 cm; 3055.34 cm2
4. a. −0.9613 b. 1.7321 c. −0.5736 d. 0.1320
14. 39 m
5. a. 50° b. 24° c. 53°
15. 4.34 km
16. 38.2 m 6. a. 71° b. 86° c. 41°
17. 63.06 mm 7. a. 54°29′ b. 6°19′ c. 0°52′
2
18. a. 32 cm b. 768 cm 8. a. 72°47′ b. 44°48′ c. 26°45′
19. 26.83 diagonals, so would need to complete 27 9. a. 26°33′ 54′′ b. 64°1′ 25′′ c. 64°46′ 59′′
20. 4701.06 m
10. a. 48°5′ 22′′ b. 36°52′ 12′′ c. 88°41′ 27′′
21. 9.90 cm
11. a. 2.824 b. 71.014 c. 20.361 d. 2.828
22. a. 65 b. 185 c. 305
23. The value found using Pythagoras’ theorem represents 12. a. 226.735 b. 1.192 c. 7.232 d. 32.259
length and therefore can’t be negative. 13. a. 4909.913 b. 0.063 c. 0.904 d. 14.814
24. a. Neither 105 nor 208 can be the hypotenuse of the e d e
triangle, because they are the two smallest values. The 14. a. sin(𝜃) = b. cos(𝜃) = c. tan(𝜃) =
f f d
other two values could be the hypotenuse if they enable
i h i
the creation of a right-angled triangle. 15. a. sin(𝛼) = b. cos(𝛼) = c. tan(𝛼) =
g g h
b. 105, 208, 233

l j l 9. a. x = 30.91 cm, y = 29.86 cm, z = 39.30 cm

16. a. sin(𝛽) = b. cos(𝛽) = c. tan(𝛽) =
k k j b. 2941.54 cm2
n o n 10. a. In an isosceles right-angled triangle
17. a. sin(𝛾) = b. cos(𝛾) = c. tan(𝛾) =
m m o b. 𝜃 < 45°
b a b 11. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions in
18. a. sin(𝛽) = b. cos(𝛽) = c. tan(𝛽) =
c c a the online resources.
v t v 12.
′
a. h = tan(47°48 )x m
19. a. sin(𝛾) = b. cos(𝛾) = c. tan(𝛾) =
u u t h = tan(36°24′ ) (x + 64) m
15 22 7 b. 129.07 m
20. a. sin(𝜃) = b. cos(𝜃) = c. tan(𝜃) =
18 30 9 c. 144.29 m
3.6 13 18.6 13. Building A is 73.9 m and Building B is 29.5 m.
21. a. tan(𝜃) = b. sin(25°) = c. sin(𝛼) =
p t 23.5 14. 60
22. a.
H α 15. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions in
O the online resources.
37°
A Exercise 5.6 Using trigonometry to calculate
b. sin(37°) = 0.60
i.
angle size
ii. cos(37°) = 0.80
1. a. 67° b. 47° c. 69°
iii. tan(37°) = 0.75
′ ′
2. a. 54°47 b. 33°45 c. 33°33′
c. 𝛼 = 53°
23. a. i. sin(53°) = 0.80 3. a. 75°31′ 21′′ b. 36°52′ 12′′ c. 37°38′ 51′′
ii. cos(53°) = 0.60 4. a. 41° b. 30° c. 49°
iii. tan(53°) = 1.33 5. a. 65° b. 48° c. 37°
b. They are equal. 6. a. a = 25°47′ , b = 64°13′
c. They are equal. b. d = 25°23′ , e = 64°37′
d. The sin of an angle is equal to the cos of its c. x = 66°12′ , y = 23°48′
complement angle.
7. a. r = 57.58, l = 34.87, h = 28.56
opp adj sin(𝜃) opp
24. sin(𝜃) = , cos(𝜃) = ⇒ = = tan(𝜃) b. 428 cm2
hyp hyp cos(𝜃) adj
c. 29.7°
25. a. h2 = a2 − x2
2 2 2 2
8. a. i. 29.0° ii. 41.4° iii. 51.3°
b. h = c − b + 2bx − x
b. i. 124.42 km/h ii. 136.57 km/h iii. 146.27 km/h
in the online resources. 9. To find the size of acute angles, use inverse operations.
d. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions 10. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions in
in the online resources. the online resources. √ √
y 1 3 3
26. DC = x + 11. a. sin(30°) = , cos(30°) = , tan(30°) =
tan(𝜃) 2 2 3
27. To determine which trigonometric ratio to apply, the sides b. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions
in relation to the angle relevant in the question need to be in the online resources.
identified and named. c. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions
28. 110 tan(θ + 𝛼) − 110 tan(𝛼) in the online resources.
12. a. Between site 3 and site 2: 61°
Exercise 5.5 Using trigonometry to calculate Between site 2 and site 1: 18°
side lengths Between site 1 and bottom: 75°
1. a. 8.660 b. 7.250 c. 8.412 b. Between site 1 and bottom: 75° slope
2. a. 0.79 b. 4.72 c. 101.38 13. 58°3′
3. a. 33.45 m b. 74.89 m c. 44.82 m 14. 147°0′ ; 12°15′
4. a. 7.76 mm b. 80.82 km c. 9.04 cm
Exercise 5.7 Angles of elevation and depression
5. a. x = 31.58 cm b. y = 17.67 m c. z = 14.87 m 1. 8.74 m
6. a. p = 67.00 m 2. 687.7 m
b. p = 21.38 km, q = 42.29 km 3. a. 176.42 m b. 152.42 m
c. a = 0.70 km, b = 0.21 km ′
4. 65°46
7. a. 6.0 m b. 6.7 m
5. 16.04 m
8. 1.05 m

6. a. h = x tan(47°12′ ) m; h = (x + 38) tan(35°50′ ) m b. N
b. x = 76.69 m
c. 84.62 m
8k
N
m
5k
m
′ ′
7. a. h = x tan(43°35 ) m; h = (x + 75) tan(32°18 ) m 30° 40°
b. 148.37 m
c. 143.10 m 7k
50° m
8. 0.033 km or 33 m
9. 21° S
c. N
10. 44.88 m
11. a. 54° b. 0.75 m 70° 80 km
1
22
12. Angle of elevation is an angle measured upwards from
0
N 30°
km
the horizontal. Angle of depression is measured from the
horizontal downwards. 20°
m
S
k
13. a.
320
x
42°
9. a. 13.38 km
1.76 m 15 m b. 14.86 km
b. 15.27 m c. 222°T
14. a. 2.16 m/s, 7.77 km/h d. N
b. 54.5°
130°
15. 66 m N B
16. 70.522 m 80
42°
km
km
17. 451.5 m
20
A
Exercise 5.8 Bearings
C
1. a. 020°T b. 340°T c. 215°T
51.42 km
e.
2. a. 152°T b. 034°T c. 222°T f. 61.28 km
3. a. N49°E b. S48°E c. S87°W g. 310°T
4. a. N30°W b. N86°E c. S54°W 10. 215°T
5. a. 3 km 325°T b. 2.5 km 112°T c. 8 km 235°T 11. 1.732 km
6. a. 4 km 090°T, then 2.5 km 035°T 12. a. 9.135 km b. 2.305 km c. 104°10′ T

b. 12 km 115°T, then 7 km 050°T 13. 684.86 km
c. 300 m 310°T, then 500 m 220°T 14. 6.10 km and 239°T
15. 111°T
7. a. N ( )
16. a. 180 − 𝜃 °T b. (𝜃 − 180) °T
100°
N 17. a. 27.42 km b. N43°W or 317°T
30 km
18. a.
km
40°
40
45°
b
a
b. N
N D Lunch stop
135° Car park 60° a–b
c d
23 N
0 θ
km
1.76 km North
b.
14.63 km East
c.
m
0k 240°
14 d. N83.15°E
8. a. e. D = 14.74 km
N
N 19. 3.65 km on a bearing of 108°T
120° 260°
0.8 km N
km
2.1
1.3 32°
km

Exercise 5.9 Applications Project

1. 6.09 m 1. Cross-section of AB
′
2. 62°33
173 173
3. a. 1.82 m b. 27.78 m
4. 31°49′ 172.5 172.5
5. 5.94 m
6. 49 m
Height (metres)
Height (metres)
172 172
7. 194 m
8. 1.829 km
′ 171.5 171.5
9. a. 11°32 b. 4°25′
10. a. 35.36 cm b. 51.48 cm c. 51.48 cm
171 171
d. 57.23 cm e. 29°3′ f. 25°54′
g. 25.74 cm h. 12.5 cm i. 25°54′
j. 28.61 cm 170.5 170.5
′
11. a. 77° b. 71°56 c. 27.35 cm
12. a. 7.05 cm b. 60°15′ c. 8.12 cm 170 170
B A
′ Profile of line BA (metres)
13. a. 28.74 cm b. 40.64 cm c. 66°37
O 2. a. 8 cm b. 40 m
14. sin(𝜃) = . Since the hypotenuse H is the longest side in
H 3. 3m
the right-angled triangle, when dividing O by H the value
4. B
will be between 0 and 1.
Vertical
15. a. 90 m distance
d tan(𝜃1 )
b. h = × tan(𝜃2 ) =3m a
A
tan(𝜃1 ) + tan(𝜃2 ) Horizontal distance = 40 m
c. 250 m
5. a = 4°17′
16. a. 122.97° b. 142.37°
6. Gradual to moderate
17. a.
140º 7. Cross-section X to hut
300 300
40º
Height (metres)
Height (metres)
250 250
7 km
13 km
200 200
Start 150 150

X Hut
Profile of X to hut
Finish The average slope is 11.46° — moderate to steep.
2.96 km
b.
110°
c.
1. E
18. Golfer must hit the ball 324.4 m at an angle of 9.7° off the
direct line. 2. D
19. a. 7.69 cm b. 6.91 cm 3. E
4. E
5. D
6. B
7. E
8. B
9. B
10. A
11. a. x = 113.06 cm b. x = 83.46 mm
12. 9.48 cm
13. 8.25 mm

14. 17.6 m
15. 26.86 m
16. 67.98 km
17. 4.16 km
18. 40°32′
19. a. 11.04 cm b. 15.61 cm c. 59°1′
20. a. 1280.64 m b. 12 ∶ 02 ∶ 16.3 pm
21. 33.29 m, 21.27 m
√
22. a. 4 2b
b. 19.5°, 70.5°, 90°.
1
c. Area = base × height
2
1 √
= × 2b × 4 2b
2
√
= 4 2b2 cm2 .
23. a. 60° b. 3.98 km c. 71.5° d. 1.33 km

Surface area and
6 volume
LEARNING SEQUENCE
6.1 Overview ................................................................................................................................................................. 372
6.2 Area ...........................................................................................................................................................................376
6.3 Total surface area ................................................................................................................................................ 386
6.4 Volume ..................................................................................................................................................................... 397
6.5 Review ..................................................................................................................................................................... 411
6.1 Overview
Why learn this?
People must measure! How much paint or carpet will you need to
redecorate your bedroom? How many litres of water will it take to fill the
new pool? How many tiles do you need to order to retile the bathroom
walls? How far is it from the North Pole to the South Pole? These are just
a few examples where measurement skills are needed.
Measuring tools have advanced significantly in their capability to measure
extremely small and extremely large amounts and objects, leading to
many breakthroughs in medicine, engineering, science, architecture and
astronomy.
In architecture, not all buildings are simple rectangular prisms. In
our cities and towns, you will see buildings that are cylindrical in
shape, buildings with domes and even buildings that are hexagonal or
octagonal in shape. Architects, engineers and builders all understand the
relationships between these various shapes and how they are connected.
Industrial and interior designers use the properties of plane figures, prisms,
pyramids and spheres in various aspects of their work.
Have you ever wondered why tennis balls are sold in cylindrical
containers? This is an example of manufacturers wanting to minimise the amount of waste in packaging.
Understanding the concepts involved in calculating the surface area and volume of common shapes we see
around us is beneficial in many real-life situations.
Where to get help

Fully worked
solutions
eLessons
to every
question
Digital
eWorkbook
documents

1. Calculate the area of the shape, correct to 2 decimal places.
7.3 mm
6.1 mm
15.2 mm
2. Calculate the area of the ellipse, correct to 1 decimal place.
8 cm
5 cm
3. MC Select the total surface area of the rectangular prism from the following.
1.5 m
2m
3.2 m
A. 9.6 m2 B. 14.2 m2 C. 22.0 m2 D. 25.4 m2 E. 28.4 m2
4. Calculate the total surface area of the sphere, correct to 1 decimal place.
15 cm
5. Calculate the volume of the solid.
4 cm
A = 3 cm2
TOPIC 6 Surface area and volume 373

6. Calculate the area of the shape, correct to 1 decimal place.
2 cm
45°
3 cm
7. A council park is shown below.
240 m
100 m
80 m 30 m
A worker charges $30 per 1000 m2 to mow the grass. Determine how much it will cost the council to
have the grass mown.
8. MC Select the total surface area of the object shown from the following.
2.5 cm
9 cm
A. 109.96 cm2 B. 112.63 cm2 C. 151.9 cm2 D. 124.36 cm2 E. 91.63 cm2
9. Determine the volume of the triangular prism.
10 mm
5 mm
3 mm

10. MC Select the volume of the object from the following.
15 cm
20 cm
10 cm
A. 2748.9 cm3 B. 1701.7 cm3 C. 1963.5 cm3 D. 7854 cm3 E. 6806.8 cm3
11. MC The volume of the frustum of a square-based pyramid is given by:
y
h
1 ( 2 ) 1 ( 2 ) 1 ( )
A. V = 𝜋 x + y2 B. V = 𝜋 x + xy + y2 C. V = h𝜋 x2 + xy + y2
3 3 3
1 ( 2 ) 1 ( )
D. V = h x + 2xy + y2 E. V = h x2 + xy + y2
3 3
4 3
12. The volume of a ball is given by the formula V = 𝜋r . Evaluate the radius of a ball with a volume of
3
384.66 cm3 . Give your answer correct to 1 decimal place.
13. MC Determine what effect doubling the radius and halving the height of a cone will have on
its volume.
A. The volume will be the same.
B. The volume will be halved.
C. The volume will be doubled.
D. The volume will be quadrupled.
E. The volume will be divided by a quarter.
14. Using Heron’s formula, evaluate the area of the triangle correct to 1 decimal place.
9 cm
4 cm
7 cm
15. A cylindrical soft drink can has a diameter of 6.4 cm and a height of 14.3 cm.
If the can is only half full, determine what capacity of soft drink remains, to the nearest millilitre.

6.2 Area
LEARNING INTENTION
• convert between units of area
• calculate the area of plane figures using area formulas
• calculate the area of a triangle using Heron’s formula.
6.2.1 Area
eles-4809
• The area of a figure is the amount of surface covered by the figure.
• The units used for area are mm2 , cm2 , m2 , km2 and ha (hectares).
• One unit that is often used when measuring land is the hectare. It is equal to 10 000 m2 .
• The following diagram can be used to convert between units of area.
÷ 102 ÷ 1002 ÷ 10002
mm2 cm2 m2 km2
× 102 × 1002 × 10002
Area formulas
• The table below shows the formula for the area of some common shapes.
Shape Diagram Formula
Square A = l2
Rectangle l A = lw
1
Triangle A = bh
2
h
Parallelogram A = bh
h

1
Trapezium a A = (a + b)h
2
h
1
Kite (including rhombus) A= xy
2
y
x
Circle A = 𝜋r2
r
𝜃°
Sector A= × 𝜋r2
360°
θ˚
r
Ellipse A = 𝜋ab
b
a
Heron’s formula
• The area of a triangle can be calculated if the lengths of all three sides are known.
b a
• The area, A, of a triangle given the lengths of the three sides a, b and c is:
√
A= s (s − a) (s − b) (s − c)
a+b+c
where s = , the semi-perimeter.
2

Digital technology
When using the number 𝜋 in calculations, it is best to use a calculator.

Calculators use the exact value of 𝜋, which will ensure your answer is exactly
correct.
The 𝜋 button on the TI-nspire CX CAS calculator is found near the bottom left
of the calculator, as can be seen in the image at right.
If you do not have a calculator to hand, you can use the approximations 𝜋 ≈
22
≈ 3.14; however, your answer may differ from the exact answer by a small
7
amount.
WORKED EXAMPLE 1 Calculating areas of plane figures
Calculate the areas of the following plane figures, correct to 2 decimal places.
a. b. c.
2 cm
3 cm 5 cm
5 cm 15 cm
40°
6 cm
THINK WRITE
√
a. 1. Three side lengths are known; apply Heron’s a. A = s (s − a) (s − b) (s − c)
formula.
2. Identify the values of a, b and c. a = 3, b = 5, c = 6
a+b+c
3. Calculate the value of s, the semi-perimeter of s=
the triangle. 2
3+5+6
=
2
14
=
2
=7
√
4. Substitute the values of a, b, c and s into A= 7 (7 − 3) (7 − 5) (7 − 6)
Heron’s formula and evaluate, correct to √
2 decimal places. = 7×4×2×1
√
= 56
= 7.48 cm2
b. 1. The shape shown is an ellipse. Write the b. A = 𝜋ab

appropriate area formula.
2. Identify the values of a and b (the semi-major a = 5, b = 2
and semi-minor axes).

3. Substitute the values of a and b into the A = 𝜋×5×2
formula and evaluate, correct to 2 decimal = 31.42 cm2
places.
𝜃
c. 1. The shape shown is a sector. Write the c. A = × 𝜋r2
formula for finding the area of a sector. 360°
2. Write the value of 𝜃 and r. 𝜃 = 40°, r = 15
40°
3. Substitute and evaluate the expression, correct A= × 𝜋 × 152
to 2 decimal places. 360°
= 78.54 cm2
6.2.2 Areas of composite figures

eles-4810
• A composite figure is a figure made up of a combination of simple figures.
• The area of a composite figure can be calculated by:
• calculating the sum of the areas of the simple figures that make up the composite figure
• calculating the area of a larger shape and then subtracting the extra area involved.
WORKED EXAMPLE 2 Calculating areas of composite shapes
Calculate the area of each of the following composite shapes.

a. C b. A B
AB = 8 cm
EC = 6 cm
FD = 2 cm 9 cm
D C
2 cm
F E
A B
E
5 cm
D
H 10 cm G
THINK WRITE
a. 1. ACBD is a quadrilateral that can be split into a. Area ACBD = Area ΔABC + Area ΔABD
two triangles: ΔABC and ΔABD.
1
2. Write the formula for the area of a triangle Atriangle = bh
containing base and height. 2
3. Identify the values of b and h for ΔABC. ΔABC: b = AB = 8, h = EC = 6
1
4. Substitute the values of the pronumerals into Area of ΔABC = × AB × EC
the formula and calculate the area of ΔABC. 2
1
= ×8×6
2
= 24 cm2
5. Identify the values of b and h for ΔABD. ΔABD: b = AB = 8, h = FD = 2

1
6. Calculate the area of ΔABD. Area of ΔABD = AB × FD
2
1
= ×8×2
2
= 8 cm2
7. Add the areas of the two triangles together to Area of ACBD = 24 cm2 + 8 cm2
find the area of the quadrilateral ACBD. = 32 cm2
b. 1. One way to find the area of the shape shown b. Area = Area ABGH − Area DEFC
is to find the total area of the rectangle ABGH
and then subtract the area of the smaller
rectangle DEFC.
2. Write the formula for the area of a rectangle. Arectangle = l × w
3. Identify the values of the pronumerals for the Rectangle ABGH: l = 9 + 2 + 9

rectangle ABGH. = 20
w = 10
4. Substitute the values of the pronumerals into Area of ABGH = 20 × 10

the formula to find the area of the rectangle = 200 cm2
ABGH.
5. Identify the values of the pronumerals for the Rectangle DEFC: l = 5, w = 2
rectangle DEFC.
6. Substitute the values of the pronumerals into Area of DEFC = 5 × 2
the formula to find the area of the rectangle = 10 cm2
DEFC.
7. Subtract the area of the rectangle DEFC from Area = 200 − 10
the area of the rectangle ABGH to find the = 190 cm2
area of the given shape.
Resources
Resourceseses
eWorkbook Topic 6 workbook (worksheets, code puzzle and a project) (ewbk-2032)
Digital documents SkillSHEET Conversion of area units (doc-5236)
SkillSHEET Using a formula to find the area of a common shape (doc-5237)
Video eLesson Composite area (eles-1886)
Interactivities Individual pathway interactivity: Area (int-4593)
Conversion chart for area (int-3783)
Area of rectangles (int-3784)
Area of parallelograms (int-3786)
Area of trapeziums (int-3790)
Area of circles (int-3788)
Area of a sector (int-6076)
Area of a kite (int-6136)
Area of an ellipse (int-6137)
Using Heron’s formula to find the area of a triangle (int-6475)

Exercise 6.2 Area
Individual pathways
1, 4, 7, 9, 11, 14, 15, 19, 22 2, 5, 8, 12, 16, 17, 20, 23 3, 6, 10, 13, 18, 21, 24
To answer questions online and to receive immediate feedback and sample responses for every question, go to
your learnON title at www.jacplus.com.au.
Unless told otherwise, where appropriate, give answers correct to 2 decimal places.
Fluency
1. Calculate the areas of the following shapes.
a. b. c.
4 cm
4 cm
12 cm 15 cm
10 cm
a. 12 cm b. c.
8 cm
15 cm 8 mm 13 mm
18 cm
7 mm

a. b. c.
6m 15 cm
10 cm
7m
18 cm
4. WE1a Use Heron’s formula to calculate the area of the following triangles correct to 2 decimal places.
a. b.
3 cm
8 cm
5 cm
16 cm
6 cm
12 cm

5. WE1b Calculate the areas of the following ellipses. Answer correct to 1 decimal place.
a. b.
9 mm
12 mm
4 mm
5 mm
6. WE1c Calculate the area of each of the following shapes:

i. stating the answer exactly, that is, in terms of 𝜋
ii. correct to 2 decimal places.
a. b. c.
30° 18 cm
6 mm 70°
12 cm
345°
7. MC A figure has an area of about 64 cm2 . Identify which of the following cannot possibly represent
the figure.
A. A triangle with base length 16 cm and height 8 cm
B. A circle with radius 4.51 cm
C. A rectangle with dimensions 16 cm and 4 cm
D. A square with side length 8 cm
C
E. A rhombus with diagonals 16 cm and 4 cm
8. MC Identify from the following list, all the lengths required to F
calculate the area of the quadrilateral shown. B
A. AB, BC, CD and AD
B. AB, BE, AC and CD
C. BC, BE, AD and CD E
D. AC, BE and FD
E. AC, CD and AB A D
9. WE2 Calculate the areas of the following composite shapes.

a. 20 cm b. 40 m c. 8 cm
3 cm 2 cm
28 m 4 cm
15 cm

10. Calculate the areas of the following composite shapes.
a. b. c.
28 cm
2.1 m 18 cm
3.8 m
5 cm
12 cm
11. Calculate the shaded area in each of the following.
a. b. 16 m
2m 2m
3 cm 8m
7 cm

a. b.
8m 3m
40°
5m

a. 8m b. 15 m
5m
7.5 m
3m
2m
13 m 7 m

Understanding
14. A sheet of cardboard is 1.6 m by 0.8 m. The following shapes are cut from the cardboard:
• a circular piece with radius 12 cm
• a rectangular piece 20 cm by 15 cm
• two triangular pieces with base length 30 cm and height 10 cm
• a triangular piece with side lengths 12 cm, 10 cm and 8 cm.
Calculate the area of the remaining piece of cardboard.
15. A rectangular block of land, 12 m by 8 m, is surrounded by a
concrete path 0.5 m wide. Calculate the area of the path.
16. Concrete slabs 1 m by 0.5 m are used to cover a footpath 20 m
by 1.5 m. Determine how many slabs are needed.
17. A city council builds a 0.5 m wide concrete path around the garden as shown below.
12 m
5m
8m
3m
Determine the cost of the job if the worker charges $40.00 per m2 .
18. A tennis court used for doubles is 10.97 m
wide, but a singles court is only 8.23 m
wide, as shown in the diagram.
a. Calculate the area of the doubles tennis
court. 8.23 m
b. Calculate the area of the singles court. 6.40 m 10.97 m
c. Determine the percentage of the 11.89 m
doubles court that is used for singles.
Give your answer to the nearest whole
number.
Reasoning
19. Dan has purchased a country property with layout and dimensions as shown in the N
diagram.
a. Show that the property has a total area of 987.5 ha. 1500 m
b. Dan wants to split the property in half (in terms of area) by building a straight- 5000 m
lined fence running either north–south or east–west through the property. 2000 m
Assuming the cost of the fencing is a fixed amount per linear metre, justify
where the fence should be built (that is, how many metres from the top 1000 m
left-hand corner and in which direction) to minimise the cost.

20. Ron the excavator operator has 100 metres of barricade mesh and needs to enclose an area to safely work in.
He chooses to make a rectangular region with dimensions x and y. Show your working when required.
a. Write an equation that connects x, y and the perimeter.
b. Write y in terms of x.
c. Write an equation for the area of the region in terms of x.
d. Fill in the table for different values of x.
x 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
( 2
)
Area m
e. Can x have a value more than 50? Why?

f. Sketch a graph of area against x.
g. Determine the value of x that makes the area a maximum.
h. Determine the value of y for maximum area.
i. Determine the shape that encloses the maximum area.
j. Calculate the maximum area.
Ron decides to choose to make a circular area with the barricade mesh.
k. Calculate the radius of this circular region.
l. Calculate the area that is enclosed in this circular region.
m. Determine how much extra area Ron now has compared to his rectangular region.
21. In question 20, Ron the excavator operator could choose to enclose a rectangular or circular area with 150 m
of barricade mesh. In this case, the circular region resulted in a larger safe work area.
a. Show that for 150 m of barricade mesh, a circular region again results in a larger safe work area as
opposed to a rectangular region.
b. Show that for n metres of barricade mesh, a circular region will result in a larger safe work area as
opposed to a rectangular region.
Problem solving
22. A vegetable gardener is going to build four new rectangular garden beds side by side. Each garden bed
measures 12.5 metres long and 3.2 metres wide. To access the garden beds, the gardener requires a path
1 metre wide between each garden bed and around the outside of the beds.
a. Evaluate the total area the vegetable gardener would need for the garden beds and paths.
b. The garden beds need to be mulched. Bags of mulch, costing $29.50 each, cover an area of 25 square
metres. Determine how many bags of mulch the gardener will need to purchase.
c. The path is to be resurfaced at a cost of $39.50 per 50 square metres. Evaluate the cost of resurfacing
the path.
d. The gardener needs to spend a further $150 on plants. Determine the total cost of building these new
garden beds and paths.
23. The diagram shows one smaller square drawn inside a larger square on grid paper.
a. Determine what fraction of the area of the larger square is the area of the smaller square.

b. Another square with side lengths of 10 cm has a smaller square drawn inside. Determine the values of x
and y if the smaller square is half the larger square.
24. The shaded area in the diagram is called a segment of a circle.

A circle with a radius of 10 cm has ∠AOB equal to 90°.
A second circle, also with a radius of 10 cm, has ∠AOB equal to 120°.
Evaluate the difference in the areas of the segments of these two circles, O
A B
6.3 Total surface area

LEARNING INTENTION
• calculate the total surface area of rectangular prisms and pyramids
• calculate the total surface area of cylinders and spheres
• calculate the total surface area of cones
6.3.1 Total surface area of solids

eles-4811
• The total surface area (TSA) of a solid is the sum of the areas of all the faces of that solid.
TSA of rectangular prisms and cubes

Rectangular prism (cuboid) TSA = 2 (lh + lw + wh)
h w
l
Cube TSA = 6l2
w
l

TSA of spheres and cylinders

Sphere TSA = 4𝜋r2
Radius
Cylinder r TSA = Acurved surface + Acircular ends

= 2𝜋rh + 2𝜋r2
= 2𝜋r (h + r)
h
WORKED EXAMPLE 3 Calculating TSA of solids
Calculate the total surface area of the solids, correct to the nearest cm2 .
a. r = 7 cm b. 50 cm
r
1.5 m
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Write the formula for the TSA of a sphere. a. TSA = 4𝜋r2
2. Identify the value for r. r=7
3. Substitute and evaluate. TSA = 4 × 𝜋 × 72

≈ 615.8 cm2
4. Write the answer to correct to the ≈ 616 cm2
nearest cm2 .
b. 1. Write the formula for the TSA of a cylinder. b. TSA = 2𝜋r (r + h)
2. Identify the values for r and h. Note that the r = 50 cm, h = 1.5 m
units will need to be the same. = 150 cm
3. Substitute and evaluate. TSA = 2 × 𝜋 × 50 × (50 + 150)

= 62 831.9 cm2
4. Write the answer to correct to the ≈ 62 832 cm2
nearest cm2 .

6.3.2 Total surface area of cones
eles-4812
• The total surface area of a cone can be found by considering its net, which is comprised of a small circle
and a sector of a larger circle.
l r = radius of the cone
l = slant height of the cone
l
r r
• The sector is a fraction of the full circle of radius l with circumference 2𝜋l.
• The sector has an arc length equivalent to the circumference of the base of the cone, 2𝜋r.
• The fraction of the full circle represented by the sector can be found by writing the arc length as a fraction
2𝜋r r
of the circumference of the full circle, = .
2𝜋l l
Area of a sector = fraction of the circle × 𝜋l2

r
= × 𝜋l2
l
= 𝜋rl
Total surface area of a cone

Cone TSA = Acurved surface + Acircular end
= 𝜋r2 + 𝜋rl
l
= 𝜋r (r + l)
r
WORKED EXAMPLE 4 Calculating the TSA of a cone
Calculate the total surface area of the cone shown.
15 cm
12 cm
THINK WRITE
1. Write the formula for the TSA of a cone. TSA = 𝜋r (r + l)
2. State the values of r and l. r = 12, l = 15
3. Substitute and evaluate to obtain the answer. TSA = 𝜋 × 12 × (12 + 15)
= 1017.9 cm2

On the Calculator page, On the Main screen in decimal
complete the entry line as: mode, complete the entry lines as:
𝜋 (r + s) ∣ r = 12 𝜋r (r + s) ∣ r = 12 ∣ s = 15
and s = 15 Then press EXE.
Press CTRL ENTER to get a
decimal approximation.
The total surface area of the cone

is 1017.9 cm2 correct to
1 decimal place.
The total surface area of the

cone is 1017.9 cm2 correct
to1 decimal place.
6.3.3 Total surface area of other solids

eles-4813
• TSA can be found by summing the areas of each face.
• Check the total number of faces to ensure that none are left out.
WORKED EXAMPLE 5 Calculating the TSA of a pyramid
Calculate the total surface area of the square-based pyramid shown.

5 cm
6 cm
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1. There are five faces: The square base and four TSA = Area of square base + area of four
identical triangles. triangular faces
2. Calculate the area of the square base. Area of base = l2 , where l = 6

Area of base = 62
= 36 cm2
3. Draw and label one triangular face and write

the formula for determining its area. 5 cm
h
3 cm
1
Area of a triangular face = bh; b = 6
2
4. Calculate the height of the triangle, h, using a2 = c2 − b2 , where a = h, b = 3, c = 5
Pythagoras’ theorem. h2 = 52 − 32
h2 = 25 − 9
h2 = 16
h = 4 cm

1
5. Calculate the area of the triangular face by Area of triangular face = × 6 × 4
substituting b = 6 and h = 4. 2
= 12 cm2
6. Calculate the TSA by adding the area of the TSA = 36 + 4 × 12

square base and the area of four identical = 36 + 48
triangular faces together. = 84 cm2
Note: The area of the triangular faces can be found using Heron’s formula. This method is demonstrated in
the following worked example.
WORKED EXAMPLE 6 Calculating the TSA of a solid
Calculate the total surface area of the solid shown correct to 1 decimal place.
6 cm
10 cm
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1. The solid shown has nine faces — five identical TSA = 5 × area of a square
squares and four identical triangles. + 4 × area of a triangle
2. Calculate the area of one square face with the side Asquare = l2 , where l = 10
length 10 cm. A = 102
A = 100 cm2
3. Draw a triangular face and label the three sides.
Use Heron’s formula to calculate the area.
6 cm 6 cm
10 cm
a+b+c
4. State the formula for s, the semi-perimeter. s=
Substitute the values of a, b and c and evaluate the 2
value of s. 6 + 6 + 10
s=
2
s = 11
5. State Heron’s formula for the area of one triangle. √

A= s (s − a) (s − b) (s − c)
Substitute and evaluate.
√
A= 11 (11 − 6) (11 − 6) (11 − 10)
√
A= 275
A = 16.583 124 … cm2

6. Determine the TSA of the solid by adding the area of TSA = 5 × 100 + 4 × 16.583 124 …
the five squares and four triangles. = 566.3325 …
= 566.3 cm2 (to 1 decimal place)
Note: Rounding is not done until the final step. It is important to realise that rounding too early can affect
the accuracy of results.
WORKED EXAMPLE 7 Applying surface area in worded problems
The silo shown is to be built from metal. The top portion of the silo is a cylinder of diameter 4 m and
height 8 m. The bottom part of the silo is a cone of slant height 3 m. The silo has a circular opening of
radius 30 cm on the top.
4m 8m
3m
a. Calculate the area of metal (to the nearest m2 ) that is required to build the silo.
b. If it costs $12.50 per m2 to cover the surface with an anti-rust material, determine how much will it
cost to cover the silo completely.
THINK WRITE
a. 1. The surface area of the silo consists of an a. TSA = area of annulus
annulus, the curved part of the cylinder and + area of curved section of a cylinder
the curved section of the cone. + area of curved section of a cone
2. To calculate the area of the annulus, subtract Area of annulus = Alarge circle − Asmall circle
the area of the small circle from the area of = 𝜋r2 − 𝜋R2
the larger circle. 4
Let R = radius of small circle. Remember to where r = = 2 m and R = 30 cm = 0.3 m.
2
convert all measurements to the same units. Area of annulus = 𝜋 × 22 − 𝜋 × 0.32
= 12.28 m
3. The middle part of the silo is the curved part Area of curved section of cylinder = 2𝜋rh
of a cylinder. Determine its area. (Note that where r = 2, h = 8.
in the formula TSAcylinder = 2𝜋r2 + 2𝜋rh, the Area of curved section of cylinder = 2 × 𝜋 × 2 × 8
curved part is represented by 2𝜋rh.) = 100.53 m2
4. The bottom part of the silo is the curved Area of curved section of cone = 𝜋rl
section of a cone. Determine its area. (Note where r = 2, l = 3.
that in the formula TSAcone = 𝜋r2 + 𝜋rl, the Area of curved section of cone = 𝜋 × 2 × 3
curved part is given by 𝜋rl.) = 18.85 m2

5. Calculate the total surface area of the silo TSA = 12.28 + 100.53 + 18.85
by finding the sum of the surface areas = 131.66 m2
calculated above.
6. Write the answer in words. The area of metal required is 132 m2 , correct to
the nearest square metre.
b. To determine the total cost, multiply the total b. Cost = 132 × $12.50
surface area of the silo by the cost of the anti- = $1650.00
rust material per m2 ($12.50).
Resources
Resourceseses
Digital document SkillSHEET Total surface area of cubes and rectangular prisms (doc-5238)
Video eLesson Total surface area of prisms (eles-1909)
Interactivities Individual pathway interactivity: Total surface area (int-4594)
Surface area of a prism (int-6079)
Surface area of a cylinder (int-6080)
Surface area (int-6477)
Exercise 6.3 Total surface area

Individual pathways
1, 5, 7, 10, 12, 17, 20 2, 6, 9, 11, 14, 15, 18, 21 3, 4, 8, 13, 16, 19, 22
Unless told otherwise, where appropriate, give answers correct to 1 decimal place.
Fluency
1. Calculate the total surface areas of the solids shown.
a. b. c. 12 cm d. 2m
15 cm 1.5 m
20 cm 3m
10 cm 8 cm
2. WE3 Calculate the total surface area of the solids shown below.
a. r=3m b. 21 cm c. 0.5 m d.
12 cm
r 30 cm 2.1 m

3. WE4 Calculate the total surface area of the cones below.
a. b.
8 cm
20 cm
12 cm
14 cm
4. WE5 Calculate the total surface area of the solids below.

a. b. c. d.
9.1 cm
12 cm 2.5 m m
8c 14 cm
6 cm
10 cm
5.1 cm 7.2 cm
15 cm 1.5 m 7 cm
5. Calculate the surface areas of the following.

a. A cube of side length 1.5 m
b. A rectangular prism 6 m × 4 m × 2.1 m
c. A cylinder of radius 30 cm and height 45 cm, open at one end
6. Calculate the surface areas of the following.

a. A sphere of radius 28 mm
b. An open cone of radius 4 cm and slant height 10 cm
c. A square pyramid of base length 20 cm and slant edge 30 cm
7. WE6 Calculate the total surface area of the objects shown.

a. 8 cm b. c.
10 cm
5 cm
12 cm
5 cm 5 cm
20 cm 20 cm
35 cm
3 cm
12 cm
8. Calculate the total surface area of the objects shown.
a. b. c. 5 cm
2 cm 3.5 cm
m 20 cm
2.5 c
3 cm
10 cm
12 cm
15 cm
9. MC A cube has a total surface area of 384 cm2 . Calculate the length of the edge of the cube.
A. 9 cm B. 8 cm C. 7 cm D. 6 cm E. 5 cm

Understanding
10. WE7 The greenhouse shown is to be built using shade cloth. It has a wooden door of dimensions
1.2 m × 0.5 m.
a. Calculate the total area of shade cloth needed to complete the greenhouse.
b. Determine the cost of the shade cloth at $6.50 per m2 .
2.5 m 5m
3m
11. A cylinder is joined to a hemisphere to make a cake holder, as shown. The surface of
the cake holder is to be chromed at 5.5 cents per cm2 .
a. Calculate the total surface area to be chromed.
b. Determine the cost of chroming the cake holder.
10 cm
15 cm
12. A steel girder is to be painted. Calculate the area of the surface to be painted.
2 cm
2 cm
5 cm
20 cm
120 cm
2 cm
12 cm
13. Open cones are made from nets cut from a large sheet of paper 1.2 m × 1.0 m. If a cone has a radius of 6 cm
and a slant height of 10 cm, determine how many cones can be made from the sheet. (Assume there is 5%
wastage of paper.)
14. A prism of height 25 cm has a base in the shape of a rhombus with diagonals of 12 cm and 16 cm.
Calculate the total surface area of the prism.
15. A hemispherical glass dome, with a diameter of 24 cm, sits on a concrete cube with sides of 50 cm. To
protect the structure, all exposed sides are to be treated. The glass costs $1.50/cm2 to treat and the concrete
costs 5 c/cm2 .
Calculate the cost in treating the structure if the base of the cube is already fixed to the ground. Give your
answer to the nearest dollar.

16. An inverted cone with side length 4 metres is placed on top of a sphere such that the
centre of the cone’s
√ base is 0.5 metres above the centre of the sphere. The radius of
the sphere is 2 metres. 4m
0.5 m
2m
a. Calculate the exact total surface area of the sphere.
2m
b. Calculate the radius of the cone exactly.

c. Calculate the area of the curved surface of the cone exactly.
4m
Reasoning
17. A shower recess with dimensions 1500 mm (back wall) by 900 mm (side wall) needs to have the back and
two side walls tiled to a height of 2 m.
a. Calculate the area to be tiled in m2 .
b. Justify that 180 tiles (including those that need to be cut) of dimension 20 cm by 20 cm will be required.
Disregard the grout and assume that once a tile is cut, only one piece of the tile can be used.
c. Evaluate the cheapest option of tiling; $1.50/tile or $39.50/box, where a box covers 1 m2 , or tiles of
dimension 30 cm by 30 cm costing $3.50/tile.
18. The table shown below is to be varnished (including the base of 80 cm
each leg). The tabletop has a thickness of 180 mm and the cross- 60 cm
sectional dimensions of the legs are 50 mm by 50 mm.
A friend completes the calculation without a calculator as shown.
Assume there are no simple calculating errors. Analyse the
working presented and justify if the TSA calculated is correct. 70 cm
Tabletop (inc. leg bases) 0.96 2 × (0.8 × 0.6)

Legs 0.416 16 × (0.52 × 0.05)
Tabletop edging 0.504 0.18 × (2 (0.8 + 0.6))
TSA 1.88 m2

19. A soccer ball is made up of a number of hexagons sewn together on its surface. Each hexagon can be
considered to have dimensions as shown in the diagram.
a. Calculate 𝜃°. 2 cm
b. Calculate the values of x and y exactly.
c. Calculate the area of the trapezium in the diagram. y
d. Hence, determine the area of the hexagon. x
√
e. If the total surface area of the soccer ball is 192 3 cm2 , determine how many
hexagons are on its surface.
θ
Problem solving
20. Tina is re-covering a footstool in the shape of a cylinder with diameter 50 cm and height
30 cm. She also intends to cover the base of the cushion. She has 1 m2 of fabric to make
this footstool.
When calculating the area of fabric required, allow an extra 20% of the total surface area
to cater for seams and pattern placings.
Explain whether Tina has enough material to cover the footstool.
21. If the surface area of a sphere to that of a cylinder is in the ratio 4 ∶ 3 and the sphere has a radius of 3a, show
√
3 3a
that if the radius of the cylinder is equal to its height, then the radius of the cylinder is .
2
22. A frustum of a cone is a cone with the top sliced off, as shown.
t
s s
When the curved side is ‘opened up’, it creates a shape, ABYX, as shown in the diagram.
V
x x
A θ B
s 2πt s
X Y
2πr
a. Write an expression for the arc length XY in terms of the angle 𝜃. Write another expression for the arc
2𝜋 (r − t)
length AB in terms of the same angle 𝜃. Show that, in radians, 𝜃 = .
s
st
b. i. Using the above formula for 𝜃, show that x = .
(r − t)
ii. Use similar triangles to confirm this formula.
c. Determine the area of sectors AVB and XVY and hence determine the area of ABYX. Add the areas of
the 2 circles to the area of ABYX to determine the TSA of a frustum.

6.4 Volume
LEARNING INTENTION
• calculate the volume of prisms, including cylinders
• calculate the volume of spheres
• calculate the volume of pyramids.
6.4.1 Volume
eles-4814
• The volume of a 3-dimensional object is the amount of space it takes up.
• Volume is measured in units of mm3 , cm3 and m3 .
• The following diagram can be used to convert between units of volume.
÷ 103 ÷ 1003
mm3 cm3 m3
× 103 × 1003
Volume of a prism
• The volume of any solid with a uniform cross-sectional area is given by the formula shown below.
Volume of a solid with uniform cross-sectional area
V = AH
where A is the area of the cross-section and H is the height of the solid.

Cube Volume = AH
= area of a square × height
l
= l2 × l
= l3
Rectangular prism Volume = AH

h = area of a rectangle × height
= lwh
w
l
(continued)

Cylinder r Volume = AH
= area of a circle × height
h = 𝜋r2 h
Triangular prism Volume = AH

= area of a triangle × height
1
H = bh × H
h 2
b
WORKED EXAMPLE 8 Calculating volumes of prisms
Calculate the volumes of the following shapes.

a. 14 cm b. 5 cm
20 cm 4 cm
10 cm
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Write the formula for the volume of the a. V = AH
cylinder (prism). = 𝜋r2 h
2. Identify the value of the pronumerals. r = 14, h = 20
3. Substitute and evaluate the answer. V = 𝜋 × 142 × 20

≈ 12 315.04 cm3
1
b. 1. Write the formula for the volume of a b. V = bh × H
triangular prism. 2
2. Identify the value of the pronumerals. b = 4, h = 5, H = 10
(Note: h is the height of the triangle and H
is the depth of the prism.)
1
3. Substitute and evaluate the answer. V= × 4 × 5 × 10
2
= 100 cm3
WORKED EXAMPLE 9 Changing the dimensions of a prism
a. If each of the side lengths of a cube are doubled, then determine the effect on its volume.
b. If the radius is halved and the height of a cylinder is doubled, then determine the effect on
its volume.

THINK WRITE
a. 1. Write the formula for the volume of the cube. a. V = l3

2. Identify the value of the pronumeral. Note: lnew = 2l
Doubling is the same as multiplying by 2.
3. Substitute and evaluate. Vnew = (2l)3
4. Compare the answer obtained in step 3 with = 8l3

the volume of the original shape.
5. Write your answer. Doubling each side length of a cube increases
the volume by a factor of 8; that is, the new
volume will be 8 times as large as the original
volume.
b. 1. Write the formula for the volume of b. V = 𝜋r2 h
the cylinder.
r
2. Identify the value of the pronumerals. Note: rnew = , hnew = 2h
Halving is the same as dividing by 2. 2
( )2
r
3. Substitute and evaluate. Vnew = 𝜋 2h
2
r2
= 𝜋× × 2h

24
𝜋r2 h
=
2
1 2
4. Compare the answer obtained in step 3 with = 𝜋r h
the volume of the original shape. 2
5. Write your answer. Halving the radius and doubling the height of a
cylinder decreases the volume by a factor of 2;
that is, the new volume will be half the original
volume.
6.4.2 Volumes of common shapes

eles-4815
Volume of a sphere
• The volume of a sphere of radius r is given by the following formula.
Volume of a sphere
Sphere 4
V = 𝜋r3
3

WORKED EXAMPLE 10 Calculating the volume of a sphere
Find the volume of a sphere of radius 9 cm. Answer correct to 1 decimal place.
THINK WRITE
4
1. Write the formula for the volume of a sphere. V = 𝜋r3
3
2. Identify the value of r. r=9
4
3. Substitute and evaluate. V= × 𝜋 × 93
3
= 3053.6 cm3
Volume of a pyramid
• Pyramids are not prisms, as the cross-section changes from the base upwards.
• The volume of a pyramid is one-third the volume of the prism with the same base
and height.
Volume of a pyramid
1
Pyramid Vpyramid = AH
3
Area of base = A
Base
Volume of a cone
• The cone is a pyramid with a circular base.

Volume of a cone
1
Cone Vcone = 𝜋r2 h
3
WORKED EXAMPLE 11 Calculating the volume of pyramids and cones
Calculate the volume of each of the following solids.

a. b.
10 cm 12 cm
8 cm
8 cm
THINK WRITE
1 2
a. 1. Write the formula for the volume of a cone. a. V = 𝜋r h
3
2. Identify the values of r and h. r = 8, h = 10
1
3. Substitute and evaluate. V= × 𝜋 × 82 × 10
3
= 670.21 cm3
1
b. 1. Write the formula for the volume of a b. V = AH
pyramid. 3
2. Calculate the area of the square base. A = l2 where l = 8

A = 82
= 64 cm2
3. Identify the value of H. H = 12
1
4. Substitute and evaluate. V= × 64 × 12
3
= 256 cm3
6.4.3 Volume of composite solids

eles-4816
• A composite solid is a combination of a number of solids.
• Calculate the volume of each solid separately.
• Sum these volumes to give the volume of the composite solid.

WORKED EXAMPLE 12 Calculating the volume of a composite solid
Calculate the volume of the composite solid shown.
3m
1.5 m
THINK WRITE
1. The given solid is a composite figure, made up V = Volume of cube + Volume of pyramid
of a cube and a square-based pyramid.
2. Calculate the volume of the cube. Vcube = l3 where l = 3
Vcube = 33
= 27 m3
1
3. Write the formula for the volume of a Vsquare-based pyramid = AH
square-based pyramid. 3
4. Calculate the area of the square base. A = l2

= 32
= 9 m2
5. Identify the value of H. H = 1.5

1
6. Substitute and evaluate the volume of Vsquare-based pyramid = × 9 × 1.5
the pyramid. 3
= 4.5 m3
7. Calculate the total volume by adding the V = 27 + 4.5

volume of the cube and pyramid. = 31.5 m3
6.4.4 Capacity
eles-4817
• Some 3-dimensional objects are hollow and can be filled with liquid or some other substance.
• The amount of substance that a container can hold is called its capacity.
• Capacity is essentially the same as volume but is usually measured in mL, L, kL and ML (megalitres)
where 1 mL = 1 cm3
1 L = 1000 cm3
1 kL = 1 m3 .

• The following diagram can be used to convert between units of capacity.
÷ 1000 ÷ 1000 ÷ 1000
mL L kL mL
× 1000 × 1000 × 1000
WORKED EXAMPLE 13 Calculating the capacity of a prism
Determine the capacity (in litres) of a cuboidal aquarium that is 50 cm long, 30 cm wide and
40 cm high.
THINK WRITE
1. Write the formula for the volume of a V = lwh
rectangular prism.
2. Identify the values of the pronumerals. l = 50, w = 30, h = 40
3. Substitute and evaluate. V = 50 × 30 × 40
= 60 000 cm3
4. State the capacity of the container in = 60 000 mL
millilitres, using 1 cm3 = 1 mL.
5. Since 1 L = 1000 mL, to convert millilitres = 60 L
to litres divide by 1000.
6. Write the answer in a sentence. The capacity of the fish tank is 60 L.
Resources
Resourceseses
Digital documents SkillSHEET Conversion of volume units (doc-5239)
SkillSHEET Volume of cubes and rectangular prisms (doc-5240)
Interactivities Individual pathway interactivity: Volume (int-4595)
Volume 1 (int-3791)
Volume 2 (int-6476)
Volume of solids (int-3794)

Exercise 6.4 Volume
Individual pathways
1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 12, 15, 18, 23, 27 2, 6, 8, 10, 13, 16, 19, 21, 24, 28 4, 11, 14, 17, 20, 22, 25, 26, 29, 30
Fluency
1. Calculate the volumes of the following prisms.
a. b. c. 12 cm d.
15 cm
4.2 cm
20 cm
7.5 cm
3 cm 4.2 m 3 cm
2. Calculate the volume of each of these solids.
a. b.
18 mm
15 cm
[Base area: 25 mm2]

[Base area: 24 cm2]
3. WE8 Calculate the volume of each of the following. Give each answer correct to 1 decimal place
where appropriate.
a. b. c.
10 cm
14 cm 2.7 m 7 cm
12 cm 1.5 m
8 cm
4. Calculate the volume of each of the following. Give each answer correct to 1 decimal place
where appropriate.
a. b. c.
12 mm
45 c
6.
m
5
m
8 mm
35° 18 cm
6 mm
7.1 m

5. WE10 Determine the volume of a sphere (correct to 1 decimal place) with a radius of:
a. 1.2 m b. 15 cm c. 7 mm d. 50 cm
6. Calculate the volume of each of these figures, correct to 2 decimal places.

a. b.
30 cm
1.4 m
c. d.
4.6 m
18 mm
7. WE11a Determine the volume of each of the following cones, correct to 1 decimal place.
a. b.
20 mm 22 mm
10 cm
6 cm
8. WE11b Calculate the volume of each of the following pyramids.

a. 12 cm b.
42 cm
24 cm
10 cm 30 cm
9. WE12 Calculate the volume of each of the following composite solids correct to 2 decimal places
where appropriate.
a. 8 cm b.
10 cm
5 cm
12 cm
5 cm
20 cm
20 cm
35 cm
12 cm

10. Calculate the volume of each of the following composite solids correct to 2 decimal places
where appropriate.
a. b.
2 cm
m
5 cm 2.5 c
3 cm
3 cm
11. Calculate the volume of each of the following composite solids correct to 2 decimal places
where appropriate.
a. b. 5 cm
3.5 cm
20 cm
10 cm
12 cm
15 cm
Understanding
12. WE9 Answer the following questions.
a. If the side length of a cube is tripled, then determine the effect on
its volume.
b. If the side length of a cube is halved, then determine the effect on
its volume.
c. If the radius is doubled and the height of a cylinder is halved, then
determine the effect on its volume.
d. If the radius is doubled and the height of a cylinder is divided by
four, then determine the effect on its volume.
e. If the length is doubled, the width is halved and the height of a
rectangular prism is tripled, then determine the effect on its volume.
13. MC A hemispherical bowl has a thickness of 2 cm and an outer diameter of 25 cm.
2 cm
25 cm
If the bowl is filled with water, the capacity of the water will be closest to:
A. 1.526 L B. 1.30833 L C. 3.05208 L D. 2.61666 L E. 2.42452 L

14. Tennis balls of diameter 8 cm are packed in a box 40 cm × 32 cm × 10 cm, as shown.
Determine, correct to 2 decimal places, how much space is left unfilled.
15. WE13 A cylindrical water tank has a diameter of 1.5 m and a height of 2.5 m. Determine the capacity
(in litres) of the tank, correct to 1 decimal place.
16. A monument in the shape of a rectangular pyramid (base length of 10 cm, base width of 6 cm, height of
8 cm), a spherical glass ball (diameter of 17 cm) and conical glassware (radius of 14 cm, height of 10 cm) are
packed in a rectangular prism of dimensions 30 cm by 25 cm by 20 cm. The extra space in the box is filled
up by a packing material. Determine, correct to 2 decimal places, the volume of packing material that
is required.
17. A swimming pool is being constructed so that it is the upper part of an inverted 8m
square-based pyramid.
a. Calculate H.
3m
b. Calculate the volume of the pool.
c. Determine how many 6 m3 bins will be required to take the dirt away. 4m
H
d. Determine how many litres of water are required to fill this pool.
e. Determine how deep the pool is when it is half-filled.
18. A soft drink manufacturer is looking to repackage cans of soft drink to minimise the cost of packaging while
keeping the volume constant. Consider a can of soft drink with a capacity of 400 mL.
a. If the soft drink was packaged in a spherical can:
i. calculate the radius of the sphere, correct to 2 decimal places
ii. determine the total surface area of this can, correct to 1 decimal place.
b. If the soft drink was packaged in a cylindrical can with a radius
of 3 cm:
i. calculate the height of the cylinder, correct to 2 decimal places
ii. determine the total surface area of this can, correct to 2 decimal places.
c. If the soft drink was packaged in a square-based pyramid with a base side
length of 6 cm:
i. calculate the height of the pyramid, correct to 2 decimal places
ii. determine the total surface area of this can, correct to 2 decimal places.
d. Explain which can you would recommend the soft drink manufacturer use for its repackaging.

“c06SurfaceAreaAndVolume_PrintPDF” — 2021/12/11 — 9:56 — page 408 — #38
19. The volume of a cylinder is given by the formula V = 𝜋r2 h.

a. Transpose the formula to make h the subject.
b. A given cylinder has a volume of 1600 cm3 . Calculate its height, correct to 1 decimal place, if it has a
radius of:
i. 4 cm ii. 8 cm.
c. Transpose the formula to make r the subject.
d. Explain what restrictions must be placed on r.
e. A given cylinder has a volume of 1800 cm3 . Determine its radius, correct to 1 decimal place, if it has a
height of:
i. 10 cm ii. 15 cm.
20. A toy maker has enough rubber to make one super-ball of radius 30 cm. Determine how many balls of radius
3 cm he can make from this rubber.
21. A manufacturer plans to make a cylindrical water tank to hold 2000 L of water.
a. Calculate the height, correct to 2 decimal places, if he uses a radius of 500 cm.
b. Calculate the radius, correct to 2 decimal places if he uses a height of 500 cm.
c. Determine the surface area of each of the two tanks. Assume the tank is a closed cylinder and give your
answer in square metres correct to 2 decimal places.
22. The ancient Egyptians knew that the volume of the frustum of a square-based pyramid was given by the
1 ( )
formula V = h x2 + xy + y2 , although how they discovered this is unclear. (A frustum is the part of a cone
3
or pyramid that is left when the top is cut off.)
a. Calculate the volume of the frustum below, correct to 2 decimal places.

b. Determine the volume of the missing portion of the square-based pyramid shown, correct to
2 decimal places.
4m
5m
6m

Reasoning
23. The Hastings’ family house has a rectangular roof with dimensions 17 m × 10 m providing water to three
cylindrical water tanks, each with a radius of 1.25 m and a height of 2.1 m. Show that approximately
182 millimetres of rain must fall on the roof to fill the tanks.
24. Archimedes is considered to be one of the greatest mathematicians of all time. He discovered several of the
formulas used in this chapter. Inscribed on his tombstone was a diagram of his proudest discovery. It shows a
sphere inscribed (fitting exactly) into a cylinder. Show that:
volume of the cylinder surface area of the cylinder

=
volume of the sphere surface area of the sphere
25. Marion has mixed together ingredients for a cake. The recipe requires a baking tin that is cylindrical in
shape with a diameter of 20 cm and a height of 5 cm. Marion only has a tin in the shape of a trapezoidal
prism and a muffin tray consisting of 24 muffin cups. Each of the muffin cups in the tray is a portion of a
cone. Both the tin and muffin cup are shown in the diagrams. Explain whether Marion should use the tin or
the muffin tray.
12 cm
8 cm
4 cm
4 cm
10 cm
15 cm
8 cm
26. Sam is having his 16th birthday party and wants to make an
ice trough to keep drinks cold. He has found a square piece
of sheet metal with a side length of 2 metres. He cuts
squares of side length x metres from each corner, then bends
the sides of the remaining sheet.
When four squares of the appropriate side length are
cut from the corners, the capacity of the trough can be
maximised at 588 litres. Explain how Sam should proceed
to maximise the capacity of the trough.

Problem solving
27. Nathaniel and Annie are going to the snow for survival camp. They plan
to construct an igloo, consisting of an entrance and a hemispherical
living section as shown. Nathaniel and Annie are asked to redraw their 1.5 m
plans and increase the height of the liveable region (hemispherical
structure) so that the total volume (including entrance) is doubled.
Determine what must the new height of the hemisphere be to achieve
this so that the total volume (including entrance) is doubled. Write your 1.5 m
1m
answer in metres correct to 2 decimal places.
28. Six tennis balls are just contained in a cylinder as the balls touch the sides and the end sections of the
cylinder. Each tennis ball has a radius of R cm.
a. Express the height of the cylinder in terms of R.
b. Evaluate the total volume of the tennis balls.
c. Determine the volume of the cylinder in terms of R.
d. Show that the ratio of the volume of the tennis balls to the volume
of the cylinder is 2 ∶ 3.
29. A frustum of a square-based pyramid is a square pyramid with the top sliced off. H is the height of the full
pyramid and h is the height of the frustum.
x
H
x
X
X
a. Determine the volume of the large pyramid that has a square base side of X cm.
b. Evaluate the volume of the small pyramid that has a square base side of x cm.
Xh
c. Show that the relationship between H and h is given by H = .
X−x
1 ( )
d. Show that the volume of the frustum is given by h X2 + x2 + Xx .
3
30. A large container is five-eighths full of ice-cream. After removing 27 identical scoops, it is one-quarter full.
Determine how many scoops of ice-cream are left in the container.

6.5 Review
6.5.1 Topic summary
Prisms and cylinders Units of area, volume and capacity
• Prisms are 3D objects that have a uniform Area:
÷ 102 ÷ 1002 ÷ 10002
• The surface area of a prism is calculated by adding the
areas of its faces. square square square square
• The volume of a prism is V = AH, where A is the millimetres centimetres metres kilometres
cross-sectional area of the prism, and H is the (mm2) (cm2) (m2) (km2)
perpendicular height. 102 = 100 1002 = 10 000 10002 = 1 000 000
• A cylinder is a 3D object that
has a circular cross-section. × 102 × 1002 × 10002
• The curved surface area
of a cylinder is 2πrh, and 1 hectare (ha) = 10 000 m2
the total surface area is h Volume:
2πr 2 + 2πrh = 2πrh(r + h). ÷ 103 ÷ 1003 ÷ 10003
r
V = πr h.
• The volume of a cylinder is
2
mm3 cm3 m3 km3
SURFACE AREA × 103 × 1003 × 10003
AND VOLUME Capacity:

÷ 1000 ÷ 1000 ÷ 1000
Pyramids mL L kL ML
• The surface area of a pyramid can be calculated
by adding the surface areas of its faces.
1 × 1000 × 1000 × 1000
• The volume of a pyramid is V = – AH, where
3 1 cm3 = 1 mL
A is the area of the base and H is the height. 1 L = 1 000 cm3
Cones Area formulas
SAcurved = πrl, where l is the

• The curved surface area of a cone is • Square: A = l 2
• Rectangle: A = lw
slant height. 1
• Triangle: A = – bh
SA = πrl + πr 2 = πr(l + r).
• The total surface area is h l 2
• Parallelogram: A = bh
• The volume of a cone is 1
V = – πr 2h.
r • Trapezium: A = – (a + b)h
1 1 2
• Kite: A = – xy
• Circle: A = πr 2
3 2
• Sector: A = – × πr 2
θ
• Ellipse: A = πab
Spheres 360
• The surface area of a sphere is A = 4πr 2.

• The volume of a sphere is
V = – πr 3.
4 a Heron’s formula
r
3 • Heron’s formula is an alternate method to calculate the area of
a triangle.
• For a triangle with sides of length a, b and c the area is
a + b+ c
A = s(s – a)(s – b)(s – c), where s = – .
2

6.2 I can convert between units of area.
I can calculate the area of plane figures using area formulas.
I can calculate the area of a triangle using Heron’s formula.
6.3 I can calculate the total surface area of rectangular prisms and pyramids.
I can calculate the total surface area of cylinders and spheres.
I can calculate the total surface area of cones.
6.4 I can calculate the volume of a prisms, including cylinders.
I can calculate the volume of spheres.
I can calculate the volume of pyramids.
6.5.3 Project
So close!
Humans must measure! Imagine what a chaotic world it would be if we didn’t measure anything. Some of
the things we measure are time, length, weight and temperature; we also use other measures derived from
these such as area, volume, speed.
Accurate measurement is important. The accuracy of a measurement depends on the instrument being
used to measure and the interpretation of the measurement. There is no such thing as a perfectly accurate
measurement. The best we can do is learn how to make meaningful use of the numbers we read off our
devices. It is also important to use appropriate units of measurement.

Measurement errors
When we measure a quantity by using a scale, the accuracy of our measurement depends on the markings
on the scale. For example, the ruler shown can measure both in centimetres and millimetres.
Measurements made with this ruler would have ± 0.5 mm added to the measurement. The quantity
± 0.5 mm is called the tolerance of measurement or measurement error.
1
Tolerance of measurement = × size of smallest marked unit
2
For a measurement of 5.6 ± 0.5 mm, the largest possible value is 5.6 cm + 0.5 mm = 5.65 cm, and the
smallest value is 5.6 cm − 0.5 mm = 5.55 cm.
1. For the thermometer scale shown:
a. identify the temperature ˚c
b. state the measurement with its tolerance 45
c. calculate the largest and smallest possible values.
40
2. Calculate the largest and smallest values for:
a. (56.2 ± 0.1) − (19.07 ± 0.05) 35
b. (78.4 ± 0.25) × (34 ± 0.1) .
30
Significant figures in measurement
A significant figure is any non zero-digit, any zero appearing between two non-zero digits, any 25
trailing zeros in a number containing a decimal point, and any digits in the decimal places. For 20
example, the number 345.6054 has 7 significant figures, whereas 300 has 1 significant figure.
15
The number of significant figures is an expression of the accuracy of a measurement. The greater
the number of significant figures, the more accurate the measurement. For example, a fast food
chain claims it has sold 6 000 000 000 hamburgers, not 6 453 456 102. The first measurement has
only 1 significant figure and is a very rough approximation of the actual number sold, which has
10 significant figures.
Reducing the number of significant figures is a process that is similar to rounding.
Rounding and measurement error in calculations
When you perform calculations, it is important to keep as many significant digits as practical
and to perform any rounding as the final step. For example, calculating 5.34 × 341 by rounding
to 2 significant figures before multiplying gives 5.30 × 340 = 1802, compared with 1820 if the
rounding is carried out after the multiplication.
Calculations that involve numbers from measurements containing errors can result in answers with even
larger errors. The smaller the tolerances, the more accurate the answers will be.

3. a. Calculate 45 943.4503 × 86.765 303 by:
i. first rounding each number to 2 significant figures
ii. rounding only the answer to 2 significant figures.
b. Compare the two results.
Error in area and volume resulting from an error in a length measurement

The side length of a cube is measured and incorrectly recorded as 5 cm. The actual length is 6 cm. The
effect of the length measurement error used on calculations of the surface area is shown below.
Error used in length measurement = 1 cm
Surface area calculated with incorrectly recorded value = 52 × 6 = 150 cm2
Surface area calculated with actual value = 62 × 6 = 216 cm2
216 − 150
Percentage error = × 100% ≈ 30.5%
6
4. a. Complete a similar calculation for the volume of the cube using the incorrectly recorded length. What
conclusion can you make regarding errors when the number of dimensions increase?
b. Give three examples of a practical situation where an error in measuring or recording would have a
potentially disastrous impact.
Resources
Resourceseses
Unless told otherwise, where appropriate, give answers correct to 2 decimal places.
Fluency
1. MC If all measurements are in cm, the area of the figure is:
7 3
A. 16.49 cm2 B. 39.25 cm2 C. 9.81 cm2 D. 23.56 cm2 E. 30 cm2

2. MC If all measurements are in centimetres, the area of the figure is: 6
A. 50.73 cm2
5
B. 99.82 cm2
C. 80.18 cm2
D. 90 cm2 5
E. 119.45 cm2
5
3. MC If all measurements are in centimetres, the shaded area of the figure is:
30°
2
7
A. 3.93 cm2 B. 11.52 cm2 C. 388.77 cm2 D. 141.11 cm2 E. 129.59 cm2
4. MC The total surface area of the solid is:
28 mm
40 mm
2
A. 8444.6 mm2 B. 9221 mm C. 14 146.5 mm2 D. 50 271.1 mm2 E. 16 609.5 mm2
5. Calculate the areas of the following plane figures. All measurements are in cm.
a. b. 10 c.
3
8 7
14
15
5
12
6. Calculate the areas of the following plane figures. All measurements are in cm.
a. b. c.
10 80°
3 10
6
12

7. Calculate the areas of the following figures. All measurements are in cm.
a. b. c. 10
12
15 6
10
10 5
20
20
8. Calculate the blue shaded area in each of the following. All measurements are in cm.
a. Q b. c.
QO = 15 cm 5
SO = 8 cm
PR = 18 cm
O 12.5
S R
P
9. Calculate the total surface area of each of the following solids.

a. b. 14 mm c.
35 cm
50 cm 8 cm
20 mm
10. Calculate the total surface area of each of the following solids.
a. 14 cm b. 10 mm
10 mm
14 mm 4 mm
18 cm
[closed at both ends]

12 cm
c.
12 cm
10 cm
10 cm
10 cm

11. Calculate the volume of each of the following.
a. b. c. 35 cm
7 cm
40 cm
8 cm
12 cm
7 cm
12. Determine the volume of each of the following.

a. b. c.
10 cm
12 cm
3.7 m 30 cm
1m 12 cm
10 cm
13. Determine the volume of each of the following.

a. b. c.
11 cm
30 cm
12 mm
20 cm
9 cm 42 cm
Problem solving
14. A rectangular block of land 4 m × 25 m is surrounded by a concrete path 1 m wide.
a. Calculate the area of the path.
b. Determine the cost of concreting at $45 per square metre.
15. If the radius is tripled and the height of a cylinder is divided by six, then determine the effect on its
volume (in comparison with the original shape).
16. If the length is halved, the width is tripled and the height of a rectangular prism is doubled, then
determine the effect on its volume (in comparison with the original shape).
17. A cylinder of radius 14 cm and height 20 cm is joined to a hemisphere of radius 14 cm to form a bread
holder.
a. Calculate the total surface area.
b. Determine the cost of chroming the bread holder on the outside at $0.05 per cm2 .
c. Calculate the storage volume of the bread holder.
d. Determine how much more space is in this new bread holder than the one it is replacing, which had a
quarter circle end with a radius of 18 cm and a length of 35 cm.

18. Bella Silos has two rows of silos for storing wheat.
Each row has 16 silos and all the silos are identical,
with a cylindrical base (height of 5 m, diameter of
1.5 m) and conical top (diameter of 1.5 m, height
of 1.1 m).
a. Calculate the slant height of the conical tops.
b. Determine the total surface area of all the silos.
c. Evaluate the cost of painting the silos if one litre of
paint covers 40 m2 at a bulk order price of $28.95
per litre.
d. Determine how much wheat can be stored altogether
in these silos.
e. Wheat is pumped from these silos into cartage trucks with rectangular containers 2.4 m wide, 5 m
long and 2.5 m high. Determine how many truckloads are necessary to empty all the silos.
f. If wheat is pumped out of the silos at 2.5 m3 /min, determine how long it will take to fill one truck.
19. The Greek mathematician Eratosthenes developed an accurate method for calculating the circumference
of the Earth 2200 years ago! The figure illustrates how he did this.
B V
A
S
In this figure, A is the town of Alexandria and S is the town of Syene, exactly 787 km due south. When
the sun’s rays (blue lines) were vertical at Syene, they formed an angle of 7.2° at Alexandria
(∠BVA = 7.2°), obtained by placing a stick at A and measuring the angle formed by the sun’s shadow
with the stick.
a. Assuming that the sun’s rays are parallel, evaluate the angle ∠SCA, correct to 1 decimal place.
b. Given that the arc AS = 787 km, determine the radius of the Earth, SC. Write your answer correct to
the nearest kilometre.
c. Given that the true radius is 6380 km, determine Eratosthenes’ percentage error, correct to 1 decimal
place.

eWorkbook 6.4 Individual pathway interactivity: Volume (int-4595) ⃞

Volume 1 (int-3791) ⃞
Download the workbook for this topic, which includes Volume 2 (int-6476) ⃞
worksheets, a code puzzle and a project (ewbk-2032) ⃞ Volume of solids (int-3794) ⃞
6.5 Crossword (int-2842) ⃞
Solutions Sudoku puzzle (int-3593) ⃞
question in this topic (sol-0740) ⃞ Teacher resources
Digital documents There are many resources available exclusively for teachers
online.
6.2 SkillSHEET Conversion of area units (doc-5236) ⃞
SkillSHEET Using a formula to find the area of a
common shape (doc-5237) ⃞
6.3 SkillSHEET Total surface area of cubes and rectangular
prisms (doc-5238) ⃞
6.4 SkillSHEET Conversion of volume units (doc-5239) ⃞
SkillSHEET Volume of cubes and rectangular prisms
(doc-5240) ⃞
Video eLessons
6.2 Area (eles-4809) ⃞
Areas of composite figures (eles-4810) ⃞
Composite area (eles-1886) ⃞
6.3 Total surface area of solids (eles-4811) ⃞
Total surface area of cones (eles-4812) ⃞
Total surface area of other solids (eles-4813) ⃞
Total surface area of prisms (eles-1909) ⃞
6.4 Volume (eles-4814) ⃞
Volumes of common shapes (eles-4815) ⃞
Volume of composite solids (eles-4816) ⃞
Capacity (eles-4817) ⃞
Interactivities
6.2 Individual pathway interactivity: Area (int-4593) ⃞
Conversion chart for area (int-3783) ⃞
Area of rectangles (int-3784) ⃞
Area of parallelograms (int-3786) ⃞
Area of trapeziums (int-3790) ⃞
Area of circles (int-3788) ⃞
Area of a sector (int-6076) ⃞
Area of a kite (int-6136) ⃞
Area of an ellipse (int-6137) ⃞
Using Heron’s formula to find the area of a triangle
(int-6475) ⃞
6.3 Individual pathway interactivity: Total surface area
(int-4594) ⃞
Surface area of a prism (int-6079) ⃞
Surface area of a cylinder (int-6080) ⃞
Surface area (int-6477) ⃞

Answers 20. a.
b.
50 = x + y
y = 50 − x
Topic 6 Surface area and volume c. Area = 50x − x2
d. See the table at bottom of the page.*
e. No, impossible to make a rectangle.
1. 68.63 mm2
f. y
2. 125.7 cm2 600
3. E 500
706.9 cm2
Area
4. 400
5. 4 cm3 300
200
6. 57.7 cm2
100
7. $864
0 x
8. B 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
9. 60 mm3 g. x = 25
10. C h. y = 25
11. E i. Square
2
12. 4.5 cm j. 625 m
13. C k. r = 15.92 m
2
14. 13.4 cm2 l. 795.77 m
2
15. 230 mL m. 170.77 m
2 2
21. a. Circular area, 1790.49 m ; rectangular area, 1406.25 m
Exercise 6.2 Area ( )
1 2
b. Circular area, n m2 ; rectangular (square) area,
1. a. 16 cm2 b. 48 cm2 c. 75 cm2 ( ) 4𝜋
1 2 4
2. a. 120 cm2 b. 706.86 cm2 c. 73.5 mm2 n m2 . Circular area is always or 1.27 times
16 𝜋
3. a. 254.47 cm2 b. 21 m2 c. 75 cm2 larger.
2
22. a. 258.1 m b. 7 bags c. $79
4. a. 20.66 cm2 b. 7.64 cm2
d. $435.50
5. a. 113.1 mm2 b. 188.5 mm2 29
6. a. i. 12𝜋 cm2 ii. 37.70 cm2 23. a. b. x = 5, y = 5
50
69𝜋 ii. 108.38 mm2 24. 32.88 cm
2
b. i. mm2
2
c. i. 261𝜋 cm2 ii. 819.96 cm2 Exercise 6.3 Total surface area
7. E 1. a. 600 cm2 b. 384 cm2 c. 1440 cm2
d. 27 m2
8. D
9. a. 123.29 cm2 b. 1427.88 m2 c. 52 cm2 2. a. 113.1 m2 b. 6729.3 cm2 c. 8.2 m2
2
d. 452.4 cm
10. a. 30.4 m2 b. 78 cm2 c. 2015.50 cm2
3. a. 1495.4 cm2 b. 502.7 cm2
11. a. 125.66 cm2 b. 102.87 m2
4. a. 506.0 cm2 b. 9.4 m2 c. 340.4 cm2
12. a. 13.73 m2 b. 153.59 m2 2
d. 224.1 cm
13. a. 27.86 m2 b. 37.5 m2
5. a. 13.5 m2 b. 90 m2 c. 11 309.7 cm2
14. 11 707.92 cm2 2 2
6. a. 9852.0 mm b. 125.7 cm c. 1531.4 cm2
15. 21 m2
7. a. 880 cm2 b. 3072.8 cm2 c. 75 cm2
16. 60
17. $840 8. a. 70.4 cm2 b. 193.5 cm2 c. 1547.2 cm2
18. a. 260.87 m
2
b. 195.71 m2 c. 75% 9. B
19. a. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions 10. a. 70.0 m2 b. $455
11. a. 3063.1 cm b. $168.47
b. 2020.83 m; horizontal. If vertical split 987.5 m.
12. 11 216 cm2
*20. d.
x 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
2
Area(m ) 0 225 400 525 600 625 600 525 400 225 0

13. 60 12. a. Vnew = 27l3 , the volume will be 27 times as large as the
14. 1592 cm
2 original volume.
1 1
15. $1960
√ b. Vnew = l2 , the volume will be of the original volume.
√ 8 8
7
16. a. 8𝜋 m2 b. m c. 4 2𝜋 m2 c. Vnew = 2𝜋r2 h, the volume will be twice as large as the
2 original volume.
17. a. 6.6 m2 d. Vnew = 𝜋r2 h, the volume will remain the same.
b. Back wall = 80 tiles e. Vnew = 3lwh, the volume will be 3 times as large as the
Side wall = 50 tiles original value.
80 + 50 + 50 = 180 tiles 13. E
c. Cheapest: 30 cm by 30 cm, $269.50; 20 cm by 20 cm
14. 7438.35 cm3
(individually) $270; 20 cm by 20 cm (boxed) $276.50
15. 4417.9 L
18. The calculation is correct.
√ 16. 10 215.05 cm3
19. a. 𝜃 = 120° b. x = 1; y = 3
√ √ 17. a. H = 6 m b. 112 m3 c. 19 bins
2 2
c. 3 3 cm d. 6 3 cm
d. 112 000 L e. 1.95 m from floor
e. 32
18. a. i. 4.57 cm
20. The area of material required is 1.04 m2 . If Tina is careful 2
ii. 262.5 cm
in placing the pattern pieces, she may be able to cover the
b. i. 14.15 cm
footstool.
√ 2
ii. 323.27 cm
3 3a
21. r = c. i. 33.33 cm
2
2
22. a. Arc length XY = (x + s)𝜃 ii. 437.62 cm
Arc length AB = x𝜃 d. Sphere. Costs less for a smaller surface area.
2𝜋t st V
b. i. x = = 19. a. h =
𝜃 r−t 𝜋r2
x t
ii. = b. i. 31.8 cm
x+s r ii. 8.0 cm
x2 𝜃 √
c. Area of sector AVB = V
2 c.
(s + x)2 𝜃 𝜋h
Area of sector XVY = d. r ≥ 0, since r is a length
2
s𝜃 (s + 2x) e. i. 7.6 cm
Area of ABYX = ii. 6.2 cm
2
(2 ) s𝜃 (s + 2x) 20. 1000
TSA of frustum = 𝜋 t + r2 +
2 21. a. 2.55 cm
b. 35.68 cm
Exercise 6.4 Volume 2 2
c. Aa = 157.88 m , Ab = 12.01 m
1. a. 27 cm3 b. 74.088 m3 c. 3600 cm3 3 3
22. a. 126.67 m b. 53.33 m
d. 94.5 cm3
23. Volume of water needed; 30.9 m3 .
2. a. 450 mm3 b. 360 cm2
3. a. 6333.5 cm3 b. 19.1 m3 c. 280 cm3 the online resources.
4. a. 288 mm3 b. 91.6 m3 c. 21 470.8 cm3 25. Required volume = 1570.80 cm3 ; tin volume = 1500 cm3 ;
5. a. 7.2 m3
b. 14 137.2 cm
3
c. 1436.8 mm 3 muffin tray volume = 2814.72 cm3 . Marion could fill the tin
d. 523 598.8 cm3 and have a small amount of mixture left over, or she could
almost fill 14 of the muffin cups and leave the remaining
6. a. 113 097.34 cm3 b. 1.44 m3 cups empty.
c. 12 214.51 mm3 d. 101.93 26. Cut squares of side length s = 0.3 m or 0.368 m from
7. a. 377.0 cm3 b. 2303.8 mm3 the corners.
8. a. 400 cm3 b. 10 080 cm3 27. 1.94 m.
3 3
28. a. H = 12R b. 8𝜋R c. 12𝜋R
9. a. 1400 cm3 b. 10 379.20 cm3
d. 8 ∶ 12 = 2 ∶ 3
10. a. 41.31 cm3 b. 48.17 cm3 1 2 1 2
29. a. X H b. x (H − h)
11. a. 218.08 cm3 b. 3691.37 cm3 3 3
30. 18 scoops

“c06SurfaceAreaAndVolume_PrintPDF” — 2021/12/11 — 9:56 — page 422 — #52
Project
1. a. The temperature reading is 26.5 °C.
b. The smallest unit mark is 1°C, so the tolerance is 0.5.
c. Largest possible value = 27 °C,
smallest possible value = 26 °C
2. a. Largest value = 37.28, smallest value = 36.98
b. Largest value = 2681.965, smallest value = 2649.285
3. a. i. 4 002 000
ii. 4 000 000
b. The result for i has 4 significant figures, whereas ii has
only 1 significant figure after rounding. However, ii is
closer to the actual value (3 986 297.386 144 940 9).
3
4. Volume using the incorrectly recorded value = 125 cm
3
Volume using the actual value = 216 cm
The percentage error is 42.1%, which shows that the error
compounds as the number of dimensions increases.

1. D
2. C
3. E
4. A
5. a. 84 cm2 b. 100 cm2 c. 6.50 cm2
6. a. 56.52 cm2 b. 60 cm2 c. 244.35 cm2
7. a. 300 cm2 b. 224.55 cm2 c. 160 cm2
8. a. 499.86 cm2 b. 44.59 cm2 c. 128.76 cm2
9. a. 18 692.48 cm2 b. 1495.40 mm2 c. 804.25 cm2
10. a. 871.79 cm2 b. 873.36 mm2 c. 760 cm2
3 3
11. a. 343 cm b. 672 cm c. 153 938.04 cm3
12. a. 1.45 m3 b. 1800 cm3 c. 1256.64 cm3
13. a. 297 cm3 b. 8400 cm3 c. 7238.23 mm3
14. a. 62 m2 b. $2790
3 2
15. V = 𝜋r h, the volume will be 1.5 times as large as the
2
original volume.
16. V = 3lwh, the volume will be 3 times as large as (or triple)
the original volume.
2 3
17. a. 3606.55 cm b. $180.33 c. 18 062.06 cm
d. 9155.65 cm3
18. a. 1.33 m
b. 910.91 m2
c. $618.35 or $636.90 assuming you have to buy full litres
(i.e not 0.7 of a litre)
d. 303.48 m3
e. 11 trucks
f. 12 minutes
19. a. 7.2° b. 6263 km c. 1.8% error

7 Quadratic expressions
LEARNING SEQUENCE
7.1 Overview ................................................................................................................................................................. 424
7.2 Expanding algebraic expressions ................................................................................................................. 426
7.3 Factorising expressions with three terms .................................................................................................. 434
7.4 Factorising expressions with two or four terms .......................................................................................439
7.5 Factorising by completing the square ......................................................................................................... 445
7.6 Mixed factorisation ............................................................................................................................................. 451
7.7 Review ..................................................................................................................................................................... 455
7.1 Overview
Why learn this?
How is your algebraic tool kit? Is there some room to expand your
skills? As expressions become more complex, more power will be
needed to manipulate them and to carry out basic algebraic skills
such as adding, multiplying, expanding and factorising.
We have sent humans into space to live for months at a time on
the International Space Station and even landed people on the
moon. We have satellites circling our globe which enable us to
communicate with friends and family around the world. Satellites
also send out weather information, allowing meteorologists
to study the patterns and changes and predict the upcoming
weather conditions.
Technology connects us with others via our mobile phones or
computers, often using a digital social media platform. All of these
things that have become such important parts of our modern lives
are only possible due to the application of mathematical techniques
that we will begin to explore in this topic.
Many careers require a strong understanding of algebraic
techniques. An example is a structural engineer. When designing
structures, bridges, high rise buildings or domestic homes, they
need to make decisions based on mathematics to ensure the
structure is strong, durable and passes all regulations. This topic will help you develop your knowledge of
algebraic expressions, so that you can apply them to real-life situations.
Where to get help

Fully worked
solutions
eLessons
to every
question
Digital
eWorkbook
documents

1. Expand −2(x + 3).
2. Factorise 4m − 20m2 .
3. Factorise 4a2 + a2 b + 4ac + abc.
4. Factorise x2 + 3x − 10.
2
5. Expand and simplify −(3x + 1) . Write your answer in descending powers.
(√ ) (√ ) √
6. MC 2 + 5x 5 − 2x + 2x when expanded and simplified is:
√ √ √ √ √ √
A. 10 − 2x + 5 5x − 10x2 B. 10 − 2x + 5 5x − 10x
√ √ √ √
C. 10 − 2x + 5 5x − 10x2 D. 10 − 2x + 5 5x − 10x
√ √
E. 10 − 10 5x − 10x2
7. MC 7x2 − 700 when factorised is:

(√ ) (√ ) (√ ) (√ )
A. 7x − 100 7x + 100 B. 7x − 10 7x + 10
C. (7x − 100) (7x + 100) D. 7(x − 100)(x + 100)
E. 7(x − 10)(x + 10)
8. MC 4(2x + 1)2 − 9(y − 4)2 when factorised is:

A. (4x + 3y − 11) (4x − 3y − 11) B. (8x − 9y + 1) (8x + 9y + 16)
C. (4x + 3y − 10) (4x − 3y + 14) D. (2x + y − 3) (2x − y + 5)
E. 6(2x + y − 4)(2x − y + 4)
9. Complete the square to factorise x2 + 4x − 6.
10. Expand (x − 2) (x + 1) (2x + 3). Write your answer in descending powers.
11. Factorise fully the algebraical expression 2x2 − 6x − 10.
12. MC −2x2 + 10x + 6 when factorised is:

( √ )( √ )
5 17 5 17 ( √ )( √ )
A. −2 x − − x− + B. −2 x − 5 − 37 x − 5 + 37
2 2 2 2
( √ )( √ ) ( √ )( √ )
5 37 5 37 5 37 5 37
C. 2 x + − x+ + D. −2 x − − x− +
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
( √ )( √ )
5 13 5 13
E. −2 x − − x− +
2 2 2 2
x2 − 1 x+1
13. Simplify
2
÷ .
x + 2x − 3 2x + 6
TOPIC 7 Quadratic expressions 425

2
14. Factorise 4(x + 6) + 11(x + 6) − 3.
6x2 + 11x − 2 x2 − 4x + 4
15. MC × can be simplified to:
6x2 − x x2 − 4
−15x − 2 x−2 C. −2 −44x − 2 x+2
A. B. D. E.
−x x x x
7.2 Expanding algebraic expressions

LEARNING INTENTION
• expand binomial expressions using FOIL
• expand squares of binomial expressions
• expand binomial expressions using the difference of two squares (DOTS).
7.2.1 Binomial expansion

eles-4825
• Consider the rectangle of length a + b and width c + d shown below. Its area is equal to (a + b) (c + d) .
a + b
c ac bc
+
d ad bd
The diagram shows that (a

⏟⎵ +⎵⎵⏟⎵
b) (c⎵+
⎵⏟d) = ⏟⎵⎵⎵⎵⏟⎵⎵⎵⎵⏟
ac + ad + bc + bd.
factorised form expanded form
• Expansion of the binomial expression (x + 3) (x + 2) can be shown by this area model.
x + 3
x x × x = x2 3 × x = 3x
2 2 × x = 2x 3×2=6
Expressed mathematically this is:

(x + 3)(x + 2) = x2 + 2x + 3x + 6
= x2 + 5x + 6
⏟⎵⎵⎵⏟⎵⎵⎵⏟
factorised form expanded
⏟⎵⎵⎵⏟⎵⎵⎵⏟ form
• There are several methods that can be used to expand binomial factors.

FOIL method
• The word FOIL provides us with an acronym for the expansion of a binomial product.
• First: multiply the first terms in each bracket
F
(x + a)(x − b)
• Outer: multiply the two outer terms
O
(x + a)(x − b)
• Inner: multiply the two inner terms
I
(x + a)(x − b)
• Last: multiply the last terms in each bracket
L
(x + a)(x − b)
WORKED EXAMPLE 1 Expanding binomial expressions using FOIL
Expand each of the following.

a. (x + 3) (x + 2) b. (x − 7) (6 − x)
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Write the expression. a. (x + 3) (x + 2)
2. Use FOIL to expand the pair of brackets. (x × x) + (x × 2) + (3 × x) + (3 × 2)

3. Simplify and then collect like terms. = x2 + 2x + 3x + 6
= x2 + 5x + 6
b. 1. Write the expression. b. (x − 7) (6 − x)
2. Use FOIL to expand the pair of brackets. (x × 6) + (x × −x) + (−7 × 6) + (−7 × −x)
Remember to include the negative signs
where appropriate.
3. Simplify and then collect like terms. = 6x − x2 − 42 + 7x
= −x2 + 13x − 42
• If there is a term outside the pair of brackets, expand the brackets and then multiply each term of the
expansion by that term.

WORKED EXAMPLE 2 Expanding binomial expressions
Expand 3(x + 8)(x + 2).
THINK WRITE
1. Write the expression.
3(x + 8)(x + 2)
2. Use FOIL to expand the pair of brackets. = 3(x2 + 2x + 8x + 16)
3. Collect like terms within the brackets. = 3(x2 + 10x + 16)
4. Multiply each of the terms inside the brackets = 3x2 + 30x + 48

by the term outside the brackets.
7.2.2 The square of a binomial expression

eles-4827
• The expansion of (a + b)2 can be represented by this area model.
a + b
a a × a = a2 a × b = ab
b a × b = ab b × b = b2
• This result provides a shortcut method for squaring binomials.
Squaring binomial expressions
(a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2
Similarly,
(a − b)2 = a2 − 2ab + b2
• This expansion is often memorised. To determine the square of a binomial:

• square the first term
• multiply the two terms together and then double the product
• square the last term.

WORKED EXAMPLE 3 Expanding and simplifying binomial expressions
Expand and simplify each of the following.

2 2
a. (2x − 5) b. −3(2x + 7)
THINK WRITE
2
a. 1. Write the expression. a. (2x − 5)
2. Expand using the rule = (2x)2 − 2 × 2x × 5 + (5)2

(a − b)2 = a2 − 2ab + b2 . = 4x2 − 20x + 25
2
b. 1. Write the expression. b. −3(2x + 7)
2. Expand the brackets using the rule = −3[(2x)2 + 2 × 2x × 7 + (7)2 ]

2 2 2
(a + b) = a + 2ab + b . = −3(4x2 + 28x + 49)
3. Multiply every term inside the brackets by the = −12x2 − 84x − 147
term outside the brackets.
In a new problem, on a On the Main screen, tap:
Calculator page, press: • Action
• CATALOG • Transformation
• 1 • expand
• E Complete the entry lines
Then scroll down to as:
2
select expand( ( − 5)
expand (2x )
Complete the entry lines expand −3(2x + 7)2
as: ( ) Press EXE after each entry.
expand ((2x − 5)2 ) (2x − 5)2 = 4x2 − 20x + 25
expand −3(2x + 7)2 −3(2x + 7)2 = −12x2 − 84x − 147
entry. (2x − 5)2 = 4x2 − 20x + 25
−3(2x + 7)2 = −12x2 − 84x − 147
7.2.3 The difference of two squares

eles-4828
• When (a + b) is multiplied by (a − b) (or vice-versa),
(a + b) (a − b) = a2 − ab + ab − b2
= a2 − b2
The expression is called the difference of two squares and is often referred to as DOTS.
D Difference
O Of
T Two
S Squares
Difference of two squares
(a + b) (a − b) = a2 − b2

WORKED EXAMPLE 4 Expanding using DOTS
Expand and simplify each of the following.

a. (3x + 1) (3x − 1) b. 4(2x − 7)(2x + 7)
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Write the expression. a. (3x + 1) (3x − 1)
2. Expand using the rule (a + b) (a − b) = a2 − b2 . = (3x)2 − (1)2

= 9x2 − 1
b. 1. Write the expression. b. 4(2x − 7)(2x + 7)
2. Expand using the difference of two squares rule. = 4[(2x)2 − (7)2 ]

= 4(4x2 − 49)
3. Multiply by 4. = 16x2 − 196
Resources
Resourceseses
Digital documents SkillSHEET Expanding brackets (doc-5244)
SkillSHEET Expanding a pair of brackets (doc-5245)
Video eLesson Expansion of binomial expressions (eles-1908)
Interactivities Individual pathway interactivity: Expanding algebraic expressions (int-4596)
Expanding binomial factors (int-6033)
Difference of two squares (int-6036)
Exercise 7.2 Expanding algebraic expressions

Individual pathways
1, 4, 7, 10, 14, 16, 17, 20, 23, 28, 2, 5, 8, 11, 12, 15, 18, 21, 24, 26, 3, 6, 9, 13, 19, 22, 25, 27, 32,
29, 30, 34 31, 35 33, 36
Fluency
For questions 1–3, expand the expressions.
1. a. 2(x + 3) b. 4(x − 5) c. 3(7 − x) d. −(x + 3)
2. a. x(x + 2) b. 2x(x − 4) c. 3x(5x − 2) d. 5x(2 − 3x)
3. a. 2x(4x + 1) b. 2x2 (2x − 3) c. 3x2 (2x − 1) d. 5x2 (3x + 4)

WE1 For questions 4–6, expand the expressions.
4. a. (x + 3) (x − 4) b. (x + 1) (x − 3) c. (x − 7) (x + 2) d. (x − 1) (x − 5)
5. a. (2 − x) (x + 3) b. (x − 4) (x − 2) c. (2x − 3) (x − 7) d. (x − 1) (3x + 2)
6. a. (3x − 1) (2x − 5) b. (3 − 2x) (7 − x) c. (5 − 2x) (3 + 4x) d. (11 − 3x) (10 + 7x)
WE2 For questions 7–11, expand the expressions.

7. a. 2(x + 1)(x − 3) b. 4(2x + 1)(x − 4) c. −2(x + 1)(x − 7)
8. a. 2x(x − 1)(x + 1) b. 3x(x − 5)(x + 5) c. 6x(x − 3)(x + 3)
9. a. −2x(3 − x)(x − 3) b. −5x(2 − x)(x − 4) c. 6x(x + 5)(4 − x)
10. a. (x − 1) (x + 1) (x + 2) b. (x − 3) (x − 1) (x + 2) c. (x − 5) (x + 1) (x − 1)
11. a. (x − 1) (x − 2) (x − 3) b. (2x − 1) (x + 1) (x − 4) c. (3x + 1) (2x − 1) (x − 1)
For questions 12 and 13, expand and simplify the expressions.

12. a. (x + 2) (x − 1) − 2x b. 3x − (2x − 5) (x + 2)
c. (2x − 3) (x + 1) + (3x + 1) (x − 2) d. (3 − 2x) (2x − 1) + (4x − 5) (x + 4)
13. a. (x + 1) (x − 7) − (x + 2) (x − 3) b. (x − 2) (x − 5) − (x − 1) (x − 4)
√ (√ ) (√ ) √
c. (x − 3) (x + 1) + 3x d. 2 − 3x 3 + 2x − 5x
14. MC (3x − 1) (2x + 4) expands to:

A. 6x2 + 10x − 4 B. 5x2 − 24x + 3 C. 3x2 + 2x − 4
D. 6x2 − 10x − 4 E. 6x2 − 4
15. MC −2x (x − 1) (x + 3) expands to:

2
A. x + 2x − 3 B. −2x2 − 4x + 6 C. −2x3 − 4x2 + 6x
D. −2x3 + 4x2 − 6x E. −2x3 − 3
16. MC The expression (x − 1) (x − 3) (x + 2) is not the same as:

A. (x − 3) (x − 1) (x + 2) B. (x + 3) (x − 1) (x − 2) C. (x − 1) (x + 2) (x − 3)
D. (x + 2) (x − 1) (x − 3) E. (x − 3) (x + 2) (x − 1)
WE3a For questions 17–19, expand and simplify the expressions.

2 2 2 2
17. a. (x − 1) b. (x + 2) c. (x + 5) d. (4 + x)
2 2 2 2
18. a. (7 − x) b. (12 − x) c. (3x − 1) d. (12x − 3)
2 2 2 2
19. a. (5x + 2) b. (2 − 3x) c. (5 − 4x) d. (1 − 5x)
Understanding
WE3b For questions 20–22, expand and simplify the expressions.
2 2 2
20. a. 2(x − 3) b. 4(x − 7) c. 3(x + 1)
2 2 2
21. a. −(2x + 3) b. −(7x − 1) c. 2(2x − 3)
2 2 2
22. a. −3(2 − 9x) b. −5(3 − 11x) c. −4(2x + 1)

WE4 For questions 23–25, expand and simplify the expressions.
23. a. (x + 7) (x − 7) b. (x + 9) (x − 9) c. (x − 5) (x + 5)
24. a. (x − 1) (x + 1) b. (2x − 3) (2x + 3) c. (3x − 1) (3x + 1)
25. a. (7 − x) (7 + x) b. (8 + x) (8 − x) c. (3 − 2x) (3 + 2x)
26. The length of the side of a rectangle is (x + 1) cm and the width is (x − 3) cm.
a. Determine an expression for the area of the rectangle.
b. Simplify the expression by expanding.
c. If x = 5 cm, calculate the dimensions of the rectangle and, hence, its area.
27. Chickens are kept in a square enclosure with sides measuring x m. The number of chickens is increasing and
so the size of the enclosure is to have 1 metre added to one side and 2 metres to the adjacent side.
a. Draw a diagram of the original enclosure.
b. Add to the first diagram or draw another one to show the new enclosure. Mark the lengths on each side
on your diagram.
c. Write an expression for the area of the new enclosure in factorised form.
d. Expand and simplify the expression by removing the brackets.
e. If the original enclosure had sides of 2 metres, calculate the area of the original square and then the area
of the new enclosure.
28. Write an expression in factorised and expanded form that is:
a. a quadratic trinomial b. the square of a binomial
c. the difference of two squares d. both a and b.
Reasoning
29. Shown below are three students’ attempts at expanding (3x + 4) (2x + 5).
STUDENT A
STUDENT B
STUDENT C
a. Identify which student’s work was correct.

b. Correct the mistakes in each wrong case as though you were the teacher of these students.
Explain your answer.
30. If a = 5 and b = 3, show that (a − b) (a + b) = a2 − b2 by evaluating both expressions.
2
31. If a = 5 and b = 3, show that (a + b) = a2 + 2ab + b2 by evaluating both expressions.
32. Show that (a + b) (c + d) = (c + d) (a + b).
33. Explain the difference between ‘the square of a binomial’ and ‘the difference between two squares’.
Problem solving
34. Determine an expanded expression for the volume of the cuboid shown.
(2x – 3) cm
) cm
–4
(3x
(x – 2) cm
35. Determine an expanded expression for the total surface area of the square-based pyramid.
(2x – 1) cm
(2x – 1) cm
(2x + 3) cm
(2x + 3) cm
36. Expand the following.

2
a. (2x + 3y − 5z)
(( ) )2
1
b. 1+ − 2x
2x

7.3 Factorising expressions with three terms
LEARNING INTENTION
• recognise monic and non-monic quadratic expressions
• factorise monic quadratic trinomials
• factorise non-monic quadratic trinomials.
7.3.1 Factorising monic quadratic trinomials

eles-4829
• A monic quadratic expression is an expression in the form ax2 + bx + c where a = 1.
• To factorise a monic quadratic expression x2 + bx + c, we need to determine the numbers f and h such
that x2 + bx + c = (x + f) (x + h).
• Using FOIL, or the area model, (x + f) (x + h) can be expanded as follows:
x + f
x x2 fx
+
h hx fh
(x + f) (x + h) = x2 + xh + xf + fh
= x2 + (f + h)x + fh
• Equating the quadratics: x2 + bx + c = x2 + (f + h) x + fh.

• Therefore, to factorise the quadratic we must determine factors of c that add to b.
• For example, to factorise x2 + 7x + 12 we must determine factors of 12 that add to 7.
Factors of 12 Sum of factors

1 and 12 13
2 and 6 8
3 and 4 7
The factors of 12 that add to 7 are 3 and 4. Therefore, x2 + 7x + 12 = (x + 3) (x + 4).

• This result can be checked by expanding using FOIL.
(x + 3) (x + 4) = x2 + 4x + 3x + 12
= x2 + 7x + 12
Factorising a monic quadratic
x2 + bx + c = (x + f) (x + h)
where f and h are factors of c that sum to b.

WORKED EXAMPLE 5 Factorising monic quadratic trinomials
Factorise the following quadratic expressions.

a. x2 + 5x + 6 b. x2 + 10x + 24
THINK WRITE
a. 1. List all of the factors of 6 and determine the
sum of each pair of factors.
1 and 6 7
Highlight the pair of factors which add to 5.
2 and 3 5
2. Factorise the quadratic using the factor pair x2 + 5x + 6 = (x + 2) (x + 3)
highlighted in step 1.
b. 1. List all of the factors of 24 and determine the
sum of each pair of factors.
1 and 24 25
Highlight the pair of factors which add to 10.
2 and 12 14
3 and 8 11
4 and 6 10
2. Factorise the quadratic using the factor pair x2 + 10x + 24 = (x + 4) (x + 6)
highlighted in step 1.
7.3.2 Factorising non-monic quadratic trinomials

eles-4830
• A non-monic quadratic expression is an expression in the form ax2 + bx + c, where a ≠ 1.
• Quadratic expressions of the form ax2 + bx + c can be factorised by following the process shown below.
The example in the right column will help you to understand each step.
Process Example: 2x2 + 11x + 12
Step 1: Determine factors of ac that add up to b. a = 2, b = 11, c = 12, ac = 24
The factors of 24 that add up to 11 are
8 and 3.
Step 2: Rewrite the quadratic expression as 2x + 11x + 12 = 2x2 + 8x + 3x + 12
2
ax2 + mx + nx + c, where m and n are the factors of ac

that add up to b (as found in step 1).
( )
Step 3: Order the terms in ax2 + mx + nx + c so that = 2x2 + 8x + (3x + 12)
the two terms on the left share a common factor
and the two terms on the right also share a common
factor.
Step 4: Factorise the two left terms and two right = 2x (x + 4) + 3 (x + 4)
terms independently by taking out their common
factor.
Step 5: Factorise the expression by taking out the = (x + 4) (2x + 3)
binomial factor.
• The reasoning behind step 1 is not given in the table above. The working below shows why we use factors
of ac that add to b. You do not need to be able to complete this working yourself, but try to read along and
understand it.

(dx + e) (fx + g) = dfx2 + dgx + efx + eg
= dfx2 + (dg + ef) x + eg
m + n = dg + ef and m × n = dg × ef
=b = dgef
= dfeg
= ac
Factorising a non-monic quadratic
To factorise a general quadratic of the form ax2 + bx + c, find factors of ac that sum to b.
Then rewrite the expression as four terms that can then be regrouped and factorised.
ax2 + bx + c = ax2 + mx + nx + c
Factors of ac that sum to b
WORKED EXAMPLE 6 Factorising a non-monic quadratic trinomial
Factorise 6x2 − 11x − 10.

THINK WRITE
1. Write the expression and look for common factors 6x2 − 11x − 10
and special patterns. The expression is a general
quadratic with a = 6, b = −11 and c = −10.
2. List factors of −60 and determine the sum of
Factors of −60 (6 × −10) Sum of factors
each pair of factors.
−60, 1 −59
Highlight the pair of factors which add to −11.
−20, 3 −17
−30, 2 −28
15, − 4 11
−15, 4 −11
3. Rewrite the quadratic expression: 6x2 − 11x − 10 = 6x2 + 4x + −15x − 10
2 2
ax + bx + c = ax + mx + nx + c
with m = 4 and n = −15.
4. Factorise using the grouping method: 6x2 − 11x − 10 = 2x (3x + 2) + −5 (3x + 2)
6x2 + 4x = 2x(3x + 2) and = (3x + 2) (2x − 5)
−15x − 10 = −5(3x + 2)
Write the answer.
Resources
Resourceseses
Digital document SkillSHEET Finding a factor pair that adds to a given number (doc-5250)
Video eLesson Factorisation of trinomials (eles-1921)
Interactivities Individual pathway interactivity: Factorising expressions with three terms (int-4597)
Factorising monic quadratic trinomials (int-6143)
Factorising trinomials by grouping (int-6144)

Exercise 7.3 Factorising expressions with three terms
Individual pathways
1, 4, 7, 10, 12, 13, 16, 19, 22, 25 2, 5, 8, 11, 14, 17, 20, 23, 26, 27 3, 6, 9, 15, 18, 21, 24, 28, 29
Fluency
WE5 For questions 1–3, factorise the expressions.
1. a. x2 + 3x + 2 b. x2 + 4x + 3 c. x2 + 10x + 16
d. x2 + 8x + 16 e. x2 − 2x − 3
2. a. x2 − 3x − 4 b. x2 − 11x − 12 c. x2 − 4x − 12
d. x2 + 3x − 4 e. x2 + 4x − 5
3. a. x2 + 6x − 7 b. x2 + 3x − 10 c. x2 − 4x + 3
d. x2 − 9x + 20 e. x2 + 9x − 70
4. a. −2x2 − 20x − 18 b. −3x2 − 9x − 6 c. −x2 − 3x − 2 d. −x2 − 11x − 10
5. a. −x2 − 7x − 10 b. −x2 − 13x − 12 c. −x2 − 7x − 12 d. −x2 − 8x − 12
6. a. 2x2 + 14x + 20 b. 3x2 + 33x + 30 c. 5x2 + 105x + 100 d. 5x2 + 45x + 100
7. a. a2 − 6a − 7 b. t2 − 6t + 8 c. b2 + 5b + 4 d. m2 + 2m − 15
8. a. p2 − 13p − 48 b. c2 + 13c − 48 c. k2 + 22k + 57 d. s2 − 16s − 57
9. a. g2 − g − 72 b. v2 − 28v + 75 c. x2 + 14x − 32 d. x2 − 19x + 60
10. MC To factorise −14x2 − 49x + 21, the first step is to:

A. Determine factors of 14 and 21 that will add to −49.
B. Take out 14 as a common factor.
C. Take out −7 as a common factor.
D. Determine factors of 14 and −49 that will add to make 21.
E. Take out −14 as a common factor.
11. MC The expression 42x2 − 9x − 6 can be completely factorised to:
A. (6x − 3) (7x + 2) B. 3(2x − 1)(7x + 2) C. (2x − 1) (21x + 6)
D. 3(2x + 1)(7x − 2) E. 42(x − 3)(x + 2)
12. MC When factorised, (x + 2)2 − (y + 3)2 equals:

A. (x + y − 2) (x + y + 2) B. (x − y − 1) (x + y − 1) C. (x − y − 1) (x + y + 5)
D. (x − y + 1) (x + y + 5) E. (x + y − 1) (x + y + 2)

Understanding
For questions 13–15, factorise the expressions using an appropriate method.
13. a. 2x2 + 5x + 2 b. 2x2 − 3x + 1 c. 4x2 − 17x − 15 d. 4x2 + 4x − 3
14. a. 2x2 − 9x − 35 b. 3x2 + 10x + 3 c. 6x2 − 17x + 7 d. 12x2 − 13x − 14
15. a. 10x2 − 9x − 9 b. 20x2 + 3x − 2 c. 12x2 + 5x − 2 d. 15x2 + x − 2
For questions 16–18, factorise the expressions. Remember to look for a common factor first.
16. a. 4x2 + 2x − 6 b. 9x2 − 60x − 21 c. 72x2 + 12x − 12 d. −18x2 + 3x + 3
17. a. −60x2 + 150x + 90 b. 24ax2 + 18ax − 105a c. −8x2 + 22x − 12 d. −10x2 + 31x + 14
18. a. −24x2 + 35x − 4 b. −12x2 − 2xy + 2y2

c. −30x2 + 85xy + 70y2 d. −600x2 − 780xy − 252y2
2
19. Consider the expression (x − 1) + 5(x − 1) − 6.
a. Substitute w = x − 1 in this expression.
b. Factorise the resulting quadratic.
c. Replace w with x − 1 and simplify each factor. This is the factorised form of the original expression.
For questions 20 and 21, use the method outlined in question 19 to factorise the expressions.
2 2 2
20. a. (x + 1) + 3(x + 1) − 4 b. (x + 2) + (x + 2) − 6 c. (x − 3) + 4(x − 3) + 4
2 2 2
21. a. (x + 3) + 8(x + 3) + 12 b. (x − 7) − 7(x − 7) − 8 c. (x − 5) − 3(x − 5) − 10
Reasoning
22. Fabric pieces comprising yellow squares, white squares and black rectangles are sewn
y b y
together to make larger squares (patches) as shown in the diagram. The length of each
black rectangle is twice its width. These patches are then sewn together to make a
b w b
patchwork quilt. A finished square quilt, made from 100 patches, has an area of 1.44 m2 .
a. Determine the size of each yellow, black and white section in one fabric piece. Show
y b y
your working. ( )
b. Determine how much in m2 of each of the coloured fabrics would be needed to
construct the quilt. (Ignore seam allowances.)
c. Sketch a section of the finished product.
23. Each factorisation below contains an error. Identify the error in each statement.
a. x2 − 7x + 12 = (x + 3) (x − 4) b. x2 − x − 12 = (x − 3) (x + 4)
c. x2 − x − 2 = (x − 1) (x + 2) d. x2 − 4x − 21 = (x − 3) (x − 7)
24. Each factorisation below contains an error. Identify the error in each statement.
a. x2 + 4x − 21 = (x + 3) (x − 7) b. x2 − x − 30 = (x − 5) (x + 6)
c. x2 + 7x − 8 = (x + 1) (x − 8) d. x2 − 11x + 30 = (x − 5) (x + 6)
Problem solving
25. Cameron wants to build an in-ground ‘endless’ pool. Basic models have a depth of 2 metres and a length
triple the width. A spa will also be attached to the end of the pool.
a. The pool needs to be tiled. Write an expression for the surface area of the empty pool (that is, the floor
and walls only).
b. The spa needs an additional 16 m2 of tiles. Write an expression for the total area of tiles needed for both
the pool and the spa.
c. Factorise this expression.
d. Cameron decides to use tiles that are selling at a discount price, but there are only 280 m2 of the tile
available. Determine the maximum dimensions of the pool he can build if the width is in whole metres.
Assume the spa is to be included in the tiling.
e. Evaluate the area of tiles that is actually needed to construct the spa and pool.
f. Determine the volume of water the pool can hold.
26. Factorise x2 + x − 0.75.

( )
27. The area of a rectangular playground is given by the general expression 6x2 + 11x + 3 m2 where x is a
positive whole number.
a. Determine the length and width of the playground in terms of x.
b. Write an expression for the perimeter of the playground.
c. If the perimeter of a particular playground is 88 metres, evaluate x.
28. Factorise:
2
a. 6(3a − 1) − 13(3a − 1) − 5
b. 3m4 − 19m2 − 14
2
c. 2sin (x) − 3 sin(x) + 1.
29. Students decide to make Science Day invitation cards.

The total area of each card is equal to (x2 − 4x − 5) cm2 .
a. Factorise the expression to determine the dimensions of the cards in terms of x.
b. Write down the length of the shorter side in terms of x.
c. If the shorter side of a card is 10 cm in length and the longer side is 16 cm in length, determine the value
of x.
d. Evaluate the area of the card proposed in part c.
e. If the students want to make 3000 Science Day invitation cards, determine how much cardboard will be
required. Give your answer in terms of x.
7.4 Factorising expressions with two or four terms

LEARNING INTENTION
• factorise expressions by taking out the highest common factor
• recognise and factorise expressions that can be written as DOTS
• factorise expressions with four terms by grouping.
7.4.1 Factorising expressions with two terms

eles-4831
• To factorise an expression with two terms, follow the following steps:
Step 1: look for the highest common factor (HCF) of the terms
Step 2: take out the HCF
Step 3: check to see if the remaining expression is a DOTS.
For example:
( )
4x2 − 36 = 4 x2 − 9 taking out the HCF of 4
= 4 (x − 3) (x + 3) using DOTS
Remember, the formula for the difference of two squares (DOTS) is:
a2 − b2 = (a − b) (a + b)

WORKED EXAMPLE 7 Factorising expressions with two terms
Factorise the following.

a. 12k2 + 18 b. 16a2 − 25b4
THINK WRITE
( )
a. 1. Write the expression and look for common factors. The a. 12k2 + 18 = 6 2k2 + 3
terms have a highest common factor of 6. Write the 6 in
front of a set of brackets, then determine what must go
inside the brackets. 12k2 = 6 × 2k2 , 18 = 6 × 3
2. Look for patterns in the expression inside the brackets
to factorise further. The expression inside the brackets
cannot be factorised further.
b. 1. Write the expression and look for common factors. b. 16a2 − 25b4
The expression has no common factors.
( )2
2. Look for the DOTS pattern in the expression. Write = 42 a2 − 52 b2
the equation showing squares. ( )2
= (4a)2 − 5b2
( )( )
3. Use the pattern for DOTS to write the factors. = 4a + 5b2 4a − 5b2
a2 − b2 = (a + b) (a − b)
7.4.2 Factorising expressions with four terms

eles-4832
• To factorise an expression with four terms, follow the following steps:
Step 1: look for a common factor
Step 2: group in pairs that have a common factor
Step 3: factorise each pair by taking out the common factor
Step 4: factorise fully by taking out the common binomial factor
• This process is known as grouping ‘two and two’.
For example,
10a − 30b + 15ac − 45bc terms have a common factor of 5
= 5 (2a−6b + 3ac−9bc) grouping in pairs
= 5 (2(a − 3b) + 3c(a − 3b)) factorising each pair
= 5 (a − 3b) (2 + 3c) common binomial factor
WORKED EXAMPLE 8 Factorising expressions with four terms by grouping ‘two and two’
Factorise each of the following.

a. x − 4y + mx − 4my b. x2 + 3x − y2 + 3y
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Write the expression and look for a common a. x − 4y + mx − 4my
factor. (There isn’t one.)
2. Group the terms so that those with common = (x − 4y) + (mx − 4my)
factors are next to each other.

3. Take out a common factor from each group = 1(x − 4y) + m(x − 4y)
(it may be 1).
4. Factorise by taking out a common binomial = (x − 4y) (1 + m)
factor. The factor (x − 4y) is common to
both groups.
b. 1. Write the expression and look for a b. x2 + 3x − y2 + 3y
common factor.
( )
2. Group the terms so that those with common = x2 − y2 + (3x + 3y)
factors are next to each other.
3. Factorise each group. = (x + y)(x − y) + 3(x + y)
4. Factorise by taking out a common binomial = (x + y) (x − y + 3)
factor. The factor (x + y) is common to
both groups.
• Sometimes an expression containing four terms can be factorised by grouping three terms together and
then factorising. This method is known as grouping “three and one” and it is demonstrated in the Worked
example 9.
WORKED EXAMPLE 9 Factorising by grouping ‘three and one’
Factorise the following expression: x2 + 12x + 36 − y2 .
THINK WRITE
1. Write the expression and look for a common factor. x2 + 12x + 36 − y2
( )
2. Group the terms so that those that can be factorised are = x2 + 12x + 36 − y2
next to each other.
3. Factorise the quadratic trinomial. = (x + 6) (x + 6) − y2
This is the form of a perfect square. = (x + 6)2 − y2
4. Factorise the expression using a2 − b2 = (a + b) (a − b). = (x + 6 + y) (x + 6 − y)
Resources
Resourceseses
Digital documents SkillSHEET Factorising by taking out the highest common factor (doc-5246)
SkillSHEET Factorising by taking out a common binomial factor (doc-5247)
Interactivities Individual pathway interactivity: Factorising expressions with two or four terms (int-4598)
Factorising expressions with four terms (int-6145)

Exercise 7.4 Factorising expressions with two or four terms
Individual pathways
1, 4, 6, 9, 12, 15, 16, 19, 22, 25, 2, 5, 7, 10, 13, 17, 20, 23, 26, 27, 3, 8, 11, 14, 18, 21, 24, 28, 30, 34,
31, 32, 35, 38 29, 33, 36, 39 37, 40
Fluency
For questions 1–3, factorise the expressions by taking out a common factor.
1. a. x2 + 3x b. x2 − 4x c. 3x2 − 6x
2. a. 4x2 + 16x b. 9x2 − 3x c. 8x − 8x2
3. a. 12x − 3x2 b. 8x − 12x2 c. 8x2 − 11x
For questions 4 and 5, factorise the expressions by taking out a common binomial factor.
2
4. a. 3x (x − 2) + 2(x − 2) b. 5(x + 3) − 2x(x + 3) c. (x − 1) + 6(x − 1)
2
5. a. (x + 1) − 2(x + 1) b. (x + 4)(x − 4) + 2(x + 4) c. 7(x − 3) − (x + 3)(x − 3)

6. a. x2 − 1 b. x2 − 9 c. x2 − 25
7. a. x2 − 100 b. y2 − k2 c. 4x2 − 9y2
8. a. 16a2 − 49 b. 25p2 − 36q2 c. 1 − 100d2
9. a. 4x2 − 4 b. 5x2 − 80 c. ax2 − 9a
10. a. 2b2 − 8d2 b. 100x2 − 1600 c. 3ax2 − 147a
11. a. 4px2 − 256p b. 36x2 − 16 c. 108 − 3x2
12. MC If the factorised expression is (x + 7) (x − 7), then the expanded expression must have been:
A. x2 − 7 B. x2 + 7 C. x2 − 49 D. x2 + 49 E. x2 − 14x + 49
( )( )
x 3 x 3
13. MC If the factorised expression is − + then the original expression must have been:
4 5 4 5
(√ )2
2 2 2 3
x 3 x 9 x
A. − B. − C. − (√ )2
4 5 16 25 4
5
(√ )2
3
x2 9 x2
D. − E. − (√ )2
4 25 16
5
14. MC The factorised form of 64x2 − 9y2 is:

A. (64x + 9y) (64x − 9y) B. (8x + 3y) (8x − 3y) C. (8x − 3y) (8x − 3y)
D. (8x + 3y) (8x + 3y) E. (16x + 3y) (16x − 3y)

15. MC Which of the following expressions would be factorised by grouping ‘two and two’?
A. x − a2 + 12a − 36
2
B. x2 − 7x − 10 C. 2x2 − 6x − xy + 3y
2 2
D. (s − 5) − 25(s + 3) E. (r + 5) − (r + 3) (r + 5)
For questions 16–18, factorise the expressions over the set of real numbers.
16. a. x2 − 11 b. x2 − 7 c. x2 − 15
17. a. 4x2 − 13 b. 9x2 − 19 c. 3x2 − 66
18. a. 5x2 − 15 b. 2x2 − 4 c. 12x2 − 36
Understanding
For questions 19–21, factorise the expressions.
2 2 2
19. a. (x − 1) − 4 b. (x + 1) − 25 c. (x − 2) − 9
2 2 2
20. a. (x + 3) − 16 b. 49 − (x + 1) c. 36 − (x − 4)
2 2 2 2 2 2
21. a. (x − 1) − (x − 5) b. 4(x + 2) − 9(x − 1) c. 25(x − 2) − 16(x + 3)
WE8a For questions 22–26, factorise the expressions.

22. a. x − 2y + ax − 2ay b. 2x + ax + 2y + ay c. ax − ay + bx − by d. 4x + 4y + xz + yz
23. a. ef − 2e + 3f − 6 b. mn − 7 m + n − 7
c. 6rt − 3st + 6ru − 3su d. 7 mn − 21 n + 35m − 105
24. a. 64 − 8j + 16k − 2jk b. 3a2 − a2 b + 3ac − abc

c. 5x2 + 10x + x2 y + 2xy d. 2m2 − m2 n + 2mn − mn2
25. a. xy + 7x − 2y − 14 b. mn + 2n − 3m − 6 c. pq + 5p − 3q − 15
26. a. s2 + 3s − 4st − 12t b. a2 b − cd − bc + a2 d c. xy − z − 5z2 + 5xyz
WE8b For questions 27 and 28, factorise the expressions.

27. a. a2 − b2 + 4a − 4b b. p2 − q2 − 3p + 3q c. m2 − n2 + lm + ln
28. a. 7x + 7y + x2 − y2 b. 5p − 10pq + 1 − 4q2 c. 49g2 − 36h2 − 28g − 24h
WE9 For questions 29 and 30, factorise the expressions.

29. a. x2 + 14x + 49 − y2 b. x2 + 20x + 100 − y2 c. a2 − 22a + 121 − b2
30. a. 9a2 + 12a + 4 − b2 b. 25p2 − 40p + 16 − 9t2 c. 36t2 − 12t + 1 − 5v2
31. MC In the expression 3(x − 2) + 4y(x − 2), the common binomial factor is:
A. 3 + 4y B. 3 − 4y C. x D. −x + 2 E. x − 2
32. MC Identify which of the following terms is a perfect square.

2
A. 9 B. (x + 1) (x − 1) C. 3x2 D. 5(a + b) E. 25x
33. MC Identify which of the following expressions can be factorised using grouping.
A. x − y2
2
B. 1 + 4y − 2xy + 4x2 C. 3a2 + 8a + 4
D. x2 + x + y − y2 E. 2a + 4b − 6ab + 18

34. MC When factorised, 6(a + b) − x(a + b) equals:
A. 6 − x (a + b) B. (6 − x) (a + b) C. 6 (a + b − x)
D. (6 + x) (a − b) E. (6 + x) (a + b)
Reasoning
35. Jack and Jill both attempt to factorise the expression 4x2 − 12x + 8.
Jack’s solution Jill’s solution

4x2 − 12x + 8 4x2 − 12x + 8
= 4(x2 − 3x + 2) = 4(x2 − 3x + 2)
= 4(x − 1)(x + 3) = 4(x − 2)(x − 1)
a. State who was correct.

b. Explain what error was made in the incorrect solution.
36. Jack and Jill attempted to factorise another expression. Their solutions are given below.
Explain why they both had the same correct answer but their working was different.
Jack’s solution Jill’s solution

6x2 + 7x − 20 6x2 + 7x − 20
= 6x2 − 8x + 15x − 20 = 6x2 + 15x − 8x − 20
= 2x(3x − 4) + 5(3x − 4) = 3x(2x + 5) − 4(2x + 5)
= (3x − 4)(2x + 5) = (2x + 5)(3x − 4)
37. Factorise the following expressions. Explain your answer.

a. x2 − 4xy + 4y2 − a2 + 6ab − b2 b. 12x2 − 75y2 − 9(4x − 3)
Problem solving
( )
38. The area of a rectangle is x2 − 25 cm2 .
a. Factorise the expression.
b. Determine the length of the rectangle if the width is (x + 5) cm.
c. If x = 7 cm, calculate the dimensions of the rectangle.
d. Hence, evaluate the area of the rectangle.
e. If x = 13 cm, determine how much bigger the area of this rectangle would be.
39. A circular garden of diameter 2r m is to have a gravel
path laid around it. The path is to be 1 m wide.
a. Determine the area of the garden in terms of r.
b. Determine the area of the garden and path
together in terms of r, using the formula for the
area of a circle.
c. Write an expression for the area of the path in
fully factorised form.
d. If the radius of the garden is 5 m, determine the
area of the path, correct to 2 decimal places.

40. A roll of material is (x + 2) metres wide. Annie
buys (x + 3) metres of the material and Bronwyn
buys 5 metres of the material.
a. Write an expression, in terms of x, for the area
of each piece of material purchased.
b. If Annie has bought more material than
Bronwyn, write an expression for how much
more she has than Bronwyn.
c. Factorise and simplify this expression.
d. Evaluate the width of the material if Annie has
5 m2 more than Bronwyn.
e. Determine how much material each
person has.
7.5 Factorising by completing the square

LEARNING INTENTION
• complete the square for a given quadratic expression
• factorise a quadratic expression by completing the square.
7.5.1 Completing the square

eles-4833
• Completing the square is the process of writing a general quadratic expression in turning point form.
ax2 + bx + c = a(x−h)2 + k
General form Turning point form
• The expression x2 + 8x can be modelled as a square with a smaller square missing from the corner, as
shown below.
x 8 x + 4
x x2 + x 8x = x x2 4x x
+
4 4x 4
x 4
x2 + 8x = (x + 4)2 – (4)2

• In ‘completing the square’, the general equation is written as the area of the large square minus the area of
the small square.
• In general, to complete the square for x2 + bx, the small square has a side length equal to half of the
( )2
b
coefficient of x; that is, the area of the small square is .
2
x b x + b
2
x x2 x x2 bx x
+ x bx =
2
+
b bx b
2 2 2
x b
2 2 2
x2 + bx = (x + b2 ) – ( b2 )
• The process of completing the square is sometimes described as the process of adding the square of half
of the coefficient of x then subtracting it, as shown in purple below. The result of this process is a perfect
square that is then factorised, as shown in blue.
( )2 ( )2
2 2 b b
x + bx = x + bx + −
2 2
( )2 ( )2
b b
= x2 + bx + −
2 2
( )2 ( )2
b b
= x+ −
2 2
WORKED EXAMPLE 10 Converting expressions into turning point form
Write the following in turning point form by completing the square.

a. x2 + 4x b. x2 + 7x + 1
THINK WRITE
a. • The square will consist of a square that a. x + 2
has an area of x2 and two identical
rectangles with a total area of 4x.
x x2 2x x
• The length of the large square is (x + 2) so
its area is (x + 2)2 . +
• The area of the smaller square is (2)2 . 2 2x
• Write x2 + 4x in turning point form. x
22
x2 + 4x = (x + 2)2 − (2)2
= (x + 2)2 − 4

b. 1. • Complete the square with the terms b. x + 7
2
containing x.
• The square will consist of a square that
7x x
has an area of x2 and two identical x x2 2
rectangles with a total area of 7x.( ) +
7 7 7x
(72) 2
• The length of the large square is x+ 2 2
2 x
( )2
7 ( )2 ( )2
so its area is x + . 2 7 7
2 x + 7x + 1 = x+ − +1
( )2 2 2
7
• The area of the smaller square is .
2
• Write x2 + 7x + 1 in turning point form.
(
)2
7 49 4
2. Simplify the last two terms. = x+ − +
2 4 4
( )2
7 45
= x+ −
2 4
7.5.2 Factorising by completing the square

eles-4834
• When an equation is written in turning point form, it can be factorised as a difference of two squares.
For example, factorise x2 + 8x + 2 by completing the square.
( )2 ( )2
2 8 8
x + 8x + − +2
2 2
= x2 + 8x + (4)2 − (4)2 + 2
= x2 + 8x + 16 − 16 + 2
= (x + 4)2 − 14
2
= (x
( + 4) −√14 ) ( √ )
= x + 4 − 14 x + 4 + 14
WORKED EXAMPLE 11 Factorising by completing the square
Factorise the following by completing the square.

a. x2 + 4x + 2 b. x2 − 9x + 1
THINK WRITE
( )2 ( )2
2 4 2 4
a. 1. To complete the square, add the square of a. x + 4x + 2 = x + 4x + − +2
half of the coefficient of x and then subtract it. 2 2
2. Write the perfect square created in its = x2 + 4x + (2)2 − (2)2 + 2

factorised form. = (x + 2)2 − (2)2 + 2

3. Write the expression as a difference of two = (x + 2)2 − 4 + 2
squares by: = (x + 2)2 − 2
• simplifying the numerical terms (√ )2
• writing the numerical term as a square
( = (x + 2)2 −
(√ )2 )
2
2= 2 .
( √ )( √ )
4. Use the pattern for DOTS, = x+2+ 2 x+2− 2
a2 − b2 = (a − b) (a √
+ b), where
a = (x + 2) and b = 2. ( )2 ( )2
9 9
b. 1. To complete the square, add the square b. x2 − 9x + 1 = x2 − 9x + − +1
of half of the coefficient of x, then 2 2
subtract it. ( )2 ( )2
2 9 9
2. Write the perfect square created in its = x − 9x + − +1
factorised form. 2 2
( )2 ( )2
9 9
= x− − +1
2 2
( )2
9 81
3. Write the expression as a difference of two = x− − +1
squares by: ( 2 )2 4
• simplifying the numerical terms 9 77
= x− −
• writing the numerical term as 2 4
(√ )2 ( √ )2 ( )2 ( √ )2
77 77 77 9 77
a square. = = = x− −
4 4 2 2 2
( √ )( √ )
9 77 9 77
4. Use the pattern for DOTS: = x− + x− −
a2 − b2 = (a − b) (a + b),√
where 2 2 2 2
( )
9 77
a= x+− and b = .
2 2

In a new problem, on a On the Main screen, tap:
• CATALOG • Transformation
• 1 • factor
• F • rFactor
Then scroll down to select Complete the entry lines
factor( as: ( )
Complete the entry lines rfactor (x2 + 4x + 2)
as: ( ) rfactor x2 − 9x + 1
factor (x2 + 4x + 2, x) Press EXE after each
factor x2 − 9x + 1, x entry.
Press EXE after each
entry. ( √ )( √ )
x2 + 4x + 2 = x + 2 + 2 x − 2 + 2
( √ )( √ )
x2 + 4x + 2 = x + 2 + 2 x − 2 + 2 ( √ )( √ )
( )( ) 77 9 77 9
√ √ 2
x − 9x + 1 = x+ − x− −
2x + 77 − 9 2x − 77 − 9 2 2 2 2
x2 − 9x + 1 =
4

• Remember that you can expand the brackets to check your answer.
• If the coefficient of x2 ≠ 1, factorise the expression before completing the square.
• For example, 2x2 − 8x + 2
= 2(x2 − 4x + 1)
( ( )2 ( )2 )
−4 −4
= 2 x2 −4x + − +1
2 2
= 2((x − 2)2 − 4 + 1)
= 2((x − 2)2 − 3)
( √ )( √ )
=2 x−2− 3 x−2+ 3
Resources
Resourceseses
Video eLesson Factorisation by completing the square (eles-1939)
Interactivities Individual pathway interactivity: Factorising by completing the square (int-4599)
Completing the square (int-2559)
Exercise 7.5 Factorising by completing the square

Individual pathways
1, 3, 4, 7, 10, 13, 16 2, 5, 8, 11, 14, 17 6, 9, 12, 15, 18
Fluency
WE10 For questions 1 and 2, write the expressions in turning point form by completing the square.
1. a. x2 + 10x b. x2 + 6x c. x2 − 4x d. x2 + 16x e. x2 − 20x
2. a. x2 + 8x b. x2 − 14x c. x2 + 50x d. x2 + 7x e. x2 − x
WE11 For questions 3–6, factorise the expressions by completing the square.
3. a. x2 − 4x − 7 b. x2 + 2x − 2 c. x2 − 10x + 12 d. x2 + 6x − 10 e. x2 + 16x − 1
4. a. x2 − 14x + 43 b. x2 + 8x + 9 c. x2 − 4x − 13 d. x2 − 12x + 25 e. x2 − 6x + 4
5. a. x2 − x − 1 b. x2 − 3x − 3 c. x2 + x − 5 d. x2 + 3x − 1 e. x2 + 5x + 2
6. a. x2 + 5x − 2 b. x2 − 7x − 1 c. x2 − 9x + 13 d. x2 − x − 3 e. x2 − x − 1

For questions 7 and 8, factorise the expressions by first looking for a common factor and then completing
the square.
7. a. 2x2 + 4x − 4 b. 4x2 − 8x − 20 c. 5x2 + 30x + 5
d. 3x2 − 12x − 39 e. 5x2 − 30x + 10
8. a. 6x2 + 24x − 6 b. 3x2 + 30x + 39 c. 2x2 − 8x − 14

d. 6x2 + 36x − 30 e. 4x2 − 8x − 16
Understanding
9. From the following list, determine which method of factorising is
the most appropriate for each of the expressions given.
a. Factorising using common factors
b. Factorising using the difference of two squares rule
c. Factorising by grouping
d. Factorising quadratic trinomials
e. Completing the square
i. 3x2 − 8x − 3 ii. 49m2 − 16n2
iii. x2 + 8x + 4 − y2 iv. 7x2 − 28x
v. 6a − 6b + a2 − b2 vi. x2 + x − 5
2
vii. (x − 3) + 3(x − 3) − 10 viii. x2 − 7x − 1
10. MC To complete the square, the term which should be added to x2 + 4x is:
A. 16 B. 4 C. 4x D. 2 E. 2x
11. MC To factorise the expression x2 − 3x + 1, the term that must be both added and subtracted is:
3 9
A. 9 B. 3 C. 3x D. E.
2 4
12. MC The factorised form of x2 − 6x + 2 is:
( √ )( √ ) ( √ )( √ ) ( √ )( √ )
A. x + 3 − 7 x+3+ 7 B. x + 3 − 7 x−3+ 7 C. x−3− 7 x−3− 7
( √ )( √ ) ( √ )( √ )
D. x − 3 − 7 x+3+ 7 E. x − 3 + 7 x−3− 7
Reasoning
13. Show that x2 + 4x + 6 cannot be factorised by completing the square.
14. A square measuring x cm in side length has a cm added to its length and b cm added to its width. The
( )
resulting rectangle has an area of x2 + 6x + 3 cm2 . Evaluate a and b, correct to 2 decimal places.
15. Show that 2x2 + 3x + 4 cannot be factorised by completing the square.
Problem solving
16. Students were asked to choose one quadratic expression from a given list.
Peter chose x2 − 4x + 9 and Annabelle chose x2 − 4x − 9.
Using the technique of completing the square to write the expression in turning point form, determine which
student was able to factorise their expression.
17. Use the technique of completion of the square to factorise x2 + 2(1 − p)x + p(p − 2).
18. For each of the following, complete the square to factorise the expression.
a. 2x2 + 8x + 1 b. 3x2 − 7x + 5

7.6 Mixed factorisation
LEARNING INTENTION
• factorise by grouping
• factorise by completing the square
• factorise using DOTS.
7.6.1 Mixed factorisation

eles-4835
• To factorise quadratic trinomials and other expressions, remember:
Quadratic expression
Common factors
DOTS Grouping Completing the square
() ( )
2 2
a2 – b2 • Two and two b b
x2 + bx + – = x + –
= (a – b) (a + b) • Three and one 2 2
WORKED EXAMPLE 12 Applying mixed factorisation to expressions
Factorise and simplify each of the following expressions. ( ) ( 2 )

6x − 24 5x + 10 x2 + 6x + 8 x + 5x + 6
a. × b. ÷
x2 − 16 8(x + 2) x2 + 2x + 1 (x + 1)
THINK WRITE
6x − 24 5x + 10
a. 1. Write the expression. a.
2
×
x − 16 8(x + 2)
6(x − 4) 5(x + 2)
2. Look for common factors. = 2 ×
x − 16 8(x + 2)
6(x − 4) 5(x + 2)
3. Look for the DOTS pattern in the expression. = ×
Use a2 − b2 = (a + b)(a − b) to write the (x − 4)(x + 4) 8(x + 2)
factors.

3
6 −
(x 4)1 5 (x + 2)1
4. Cancel the common factors. = ×
1 −
(x 4)(x + 4) 4 81 (x+2)
3 5
5. Simplify and write the answer. = ×
(x + 4) 4
15
=
4(x + 4)

x2 + 6x + 8 x2 + 5x + 6
x2 + 2x + 1 (x + 1)
x2 + 6x + 8 x+1
2. Change the division to multiplication. Flip the = 2
× 2
second expression. x + 2x + 1 x + 5x + 6
(x + 2)(x + 4) x+1
3. Factorise and look for common factors. = 2
×
(x + 1) (x + 3)(x + 2)

1
+
(x 2)(x + 4) +
(x 1)1
4. Cancel the common factors. = ×

(x + 1)21 (x + 3)1 (x+
2)
(x + 4) 1
5. Simplify and write the answer. = ×
(x + 1) (x + 3)
(x + 4)
=
(x + 1)(x + 3)
Resources
Resourceseses
Digital documents SkillSHEET Simplifying algebraic fractions (doc-5248)
SkillSHEET Simplifying surds (doc-5249)
SkillSHEET Factorising by grouping three and one (doc-5252)
Interactivity Individual pathway interactivity: Mixed factorisation (int-4600)
Exercise 7.6 Mixed factorisation

Individual pathways
1, 4, 7, 10, 11, 14, 17 2, 5, 8, 12, 15, 18 3, 6, 9, 13, 16, 19
Fluency
For questions 1–9, factorise each of the following expressions.
1. a. 3x + 9 b. x2 + 4x + 4 − 9y2 c. x2 − 36
d. x2 − 49 e. 5x2 − 9x − 2
2. a. 15x − 20y b. 5c + de + dc + 5e c. 5x2 − 80

d. −x2 − 6x − 5 e. x2 + x − 12
3. a. mn + 1 + m + n b. x2 − 7 c. 16x2 − 4x
d. 5x2 + 60x + 100 e. 18 + 9x − 6y − 3xy
4. a. x2 − 8x + 16 − y2 b. 4x2 + 8 c. fg + 2h + 2g + fh
d. x2 − 5 e. 10mn − 5n + 10m − 5

5. a. x2 + 6x + 5 b. x2 − 10x − 11 c. x2 − 4
d. −5a + bc + ac − 5b e. xy − 1 + x − y
6. a. 3x2 + 5x + 2 b. 7x2 − 28 c. −4x2 − 28x − 24

d. 2p − rs + pr − 2s e. 3x2 − 27
7. a. −3u + tv + ut − 3v b. x2 − 11 c. 12x2 − 7x + 1
2 2
d. (x − 1) − 4 e. (x + 2) − 16
2 2 2
8. a. (2x + 3) − 25 b. 3(x + 5) − 27 c. 25 − (x − 2)
2 2 2
d. 4(3 − x) − 16y2 e. (x + 2y) − (2x + y)
2 2 2 2 2
9. a. (x + 3) − (x + 1) b. (2x − 3y) − (x − y) c. (x + 3) + 5 (x + 3) + 4
2 2
d. (x − 3) + 3 (x − 3) − 10 e. 2(x + 1) + 5 (x + 1) + 2
Understanding
10. Consider the following product of algebraic fractions.
x2 + 3x − 10 x2 + 4x + 4
× 2
x2 − 4 x − 2x − 8
a. Factorise the expression in each numerator and denominator.

b. Cancel factors common to both the numerator and the denominator.
c. Simplify the expression as a single fraction.
WE12 For questions 11–13, factorise and simplify each of the following expressions.
Note: You may choose to follow the procedure in question 10.
x2 − 4x + 3 x2 + 5x + 6 3x2 − 17x + 10 x2 − 1
11. a. × b. ×
x2 − 4x − 12 x2 − 9 6x2 + 5x − 6 x2 − 6x + 5
6x − 12 3x + 6
c.
2
×
x −4 x (x − 5)
6x2 − x − 2 2x2 + x − 1 x2 + 4x − 5 x2 + 10x + 25

12. a. × b. ÷ 2
2x2 + 3x + 1 3x2 + 10x − 8 x2 + x − 2 x + 4x + 4
x2 − 7x + 6 x2 − x − 12
c. ÷
x2 + x − 2 x2 − 2x − 8
4ab + 8a 5ac + 5a p2 − 7p p2 + p − 6
13. a. ÷ b. ÷
(c − 3) c2 − 2c − 3 p2 − 49 p2 + 14p + 49
m2 + 4m + 4 − n2 2m2 + 4m − 2mn
c. ÷
4m2 − 4m − 15 10m2 + 15m
Reasoning
14. a. Determine the original expression if the factorised expression is:
( )( ) ( )( )
x 3 x 3 −x 3 −x 3
i. + − ii. + −
4 5 4 5 4 5 4 5
b. Explain why your answers are the same.

15. Factorise the following using grouping ‘three and one’ and DOTS.
a. x2 − 18x + 81 − y2 b. 4x2 + 12x − 16y2 + 9
16. The expansion of perfect squares

(a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2 and (a − b)2 = a2 − 2ab + b2 can be used to simplify some arithmetic calculations.
For example:
972 = (100 − 3)2

= 1002 − 2 × 100 × 3 + 32
= 9409
Use this method to calculate the following.

2 2 2 2 2 2
a. 103 b. 62 c. 997 d. 1012 e. 53 f. 98
Problem solving
17. Use grouping ‘two and two’ and DOTS to factorise the following. Show your working.
a. x2 + 3x − y2 + 3y b. 7x + 7y + x2 − y2 c. 5p − 10pq + 1 − 4q2
18. The expansions for the sum and difference of two cubes are given below.
( )
a3 + b3 = (a + b) a2 − ab + b2
( )
a3 − b3 = (a − b) a2 + ab + b2
Using these expansions, simplify:
2a2 − 7a + 6 5a2 + 11a + 2 10a2 − 13a − 3

× ÷
a3 + 8 a3 − 8 a2 − 2a + 4
19. Factorise:
a. x2 + 12x + 40 − 4(x2 y2 + 1) b. 225x4 y2 − 169x2 y6

7.7 Review
7.7.1 Topic summary
Expanding using FOIL Factorising monic quadratics
• FOIL is a process that can be applied to • To factorise monic quadratics, x 2 + bx + c determine
expand brackets. factors of c that add to b.
It is an acronym that stands for: F • x 2 + bx + c = (x + m)(x + n) where m and n are the
First (x + a)(x – b) factors of c that add to b.
Outer e.g.
O
Inner x 2 – 2x – 15
Last (x + a)(x – b) The factors of –15 that add to –2 are –5 and 3.
e.g. I x 2 – 2x – 15 = (x – 5)(x + 3).
(x + 2)(x – 5) (x + a)(x – b)
= (x × x) + (x × –5) + (2 × x) + (2 × –5) L
= x 2 – 5x + 2x – 10 (x + a)(x – b)
= x 2 – 3x – 10 Factorising non-monic quadratics
• To factorise non-monic quadratics, ax 2 + bx + c,
determine factors of ac that add to b.
• Split the bx term into two terms based on the
factors of ac that add to b.
QUADRATIC • Pair the four terms so that the terms on the left
share a common factor and the terms on the right
EXPRESSIONS share a common factor.
• Take the common factors out of the pairs of terms.
• Take out the binomial factor.
e.g.
5x 2 + 8x + 3
The factors of 15 that add to 8 are 5 and 3.
Binomial expansion (perfect squares)
5x 2 + 8x + 3
• When a binomial expression is squared the = 5x 2 + 5x + 3x + 3
expansion can be determined using the = 5x(x + 1) + 3(x + 1)
following formulas. = (x + 1)(5x + 3)
• (a + b) 2 = a 2 + 2ab + b 2
• (a – b) 2 = a 2 – 2ab + b 2
e.g.
(3x – 5) 2
= (3x) 2 – 2 × 3x × 5 + (5)2 Completing the square
= 9x2 – 30x + 25 • Completing the square is a method to convert a
quadratic expression into turning point form.
b 2 b 2
• x 2 + bx + – = x + –
2 2
2
b
Difference of two squares (DOTS) • By adding – to the expression a perfect square
2
• a 2 – b 2 = (a + b)(a – b) is formed. This part of the expression can then
• This formula can be used to expand or factorise be factorised.
quadratic expressions. e.g.
6 2 6 2
e.g. x 2 + 6x = x2 + 6x + – – –
4x2 – 9 2 2
= (2x)2 – (3)2 = x 2 + 6x + 9 – 9
= (2x + 3)(2x – 3) = (x + 3)2 – 9
• Once the square has been completed the quadratic can
often be factorised further using DOTS.
e.g.
(x + 3)2 – 9 = (x + 3)2 – (3)2
= (x + 3 –3)(x + 3 + 3)
= x (x + 6)

7.2 I can expand binomial expressions using FOIL.
I can expand squares of binomial expressions.
I can expand binomial expressions using the difference of two squares

(DOTS).
7.3 I can recognise monic and non-monic quadratic expressions.
I can factorise monic quadratic trinomials.
I can factorise non-monic quadratic trinomials.
7.4 I can factorise expressions by taking out the HCF.
I can recognise and factorise expressions that can be written as DOTS.
I can factorise expressions with four terms by grouping.
7.5 I can complete the square for a given quadratic expression.
I can factorise a quadratic expression by completing the square.
7.6 I can factorise by grouping.
I can factorise by completing the square.
I can factorise using DOTS.

7.7.3 Project
Celebrity squares and doubles
In small groups or as a class, use the process of elimination to find your ‘square and double pair’ by playing
‘Celebrity squares and doubles’ as outlined below.
Equipment: roll of calculator paper, scissors, sticky tape, marker pen

1. Set-up
• Make a class set of headbands. Each headband will be part of a matching pair made by a number
being squared and that same original number being doubled (16 and 8 would be a pair, because
42 = 16 and 4 × 2 = 8). Your teacher will direct the class as to what number should be written on each
headband.
• Place the headbands randomly on a table.
2. Beginning the game
• There is to be no communication between players at this time.
• Your teacher will randomly allocate a headband to each player by placing a headband on their head
without the player seeing the number on their headband.
3. Playing the game
The object of the game
• The object of the game is to use the process of elimination for you to find your pair. A possible train of
thought is illustrated at right.
Starting the game
• Once all headbands have been allocated, stand in a circle or walk around freely.
• Without speaking, determine who is a match; then, by a process of elimination, determine who might
be your match.
Making a match
• When you think you have found your match, approach that person and say ‘I think I am your match.’
• The other player should now check to see if you have a match elsewhere and can reply by saying one
of two things: ‘Yes, I think I am your match,’ or ‘I know your match is still out there.’
• If a match is agreed upon, the players should sit out for the remainder of the game. If a match is not
agreed upon, players should continue looking.
Ending the game
• The class should continue until everyone is in a pair, at which time the class can check their results.
• The class should now discuss the different trains of thought they used to find their pair and how this
relates to factorising quadratic trinomials.
Resources
Resourceseses

Fluency
1. MC When expanded, −3x (x + 4) (5 − x) becomes:
A. −3x3 − 3x2 − 27x B. −3x3 + 3x − 27x C. 3x3 + 3x2 − 60x
3 2
D. −3x + 3x − 60x E. 3x3 − 3x2 − 60x
2. MC When expanded, (3x + 7)2 becomes:

A. 9x2 + 49 B. 3x2 + 49 C. 3x2 + 21x + 49
2
D. 9x + 42x + 49 E. 9x2 + 21x + 49
3. MC The factorised form of −3d2 − 9d + 30 is:

A. −3(d − 5)(d − 2) B. −3(d + 5)(d − 6) C. −(3d + 5)(d − 2)
D. −(3d + 5)(d − 6) E. −3(d + 5)(d − 2)
4. MC If the factorised expression is (2x − 5) (2x + 5), then the original expression must have been:
A. 2x2 − 5 B. 4x2 − 5 C. 4x2 − 25
2 2
D. 4x − 20x + 25 E. 2x + 25
5. MC To factorise −5x2 − 45x + 100, the first step is to:

A. determine factors of 5 and 100 that sum to −45.
B. take out 5 as a common factor.
C. take out −5 as a common factor.
D. determine factors of 5 and −45 that will add to make 100.
E. take out −5x as a common factor.
6. MC To complete the square, the term which should be added to x2 − 12x is:
A. 36 B. −12 C. −12x D. −6 E. −6x
7. MC Identify which of the following is equivalent to 5x2 − 20x − 5.

2 2 2
A. 5(x − 2) B. 5(x − 2) − 3 C. 5(x − 2) − 15
2 2
D. 5(x − 2) − 20 E. 5(x − 2) − 25
8. MC In the expanded form of (x − 3) (x + 5), determine which of the following is incorrect.

A. The value of the constant is −15.
B. The coefficient of the x term is 2.
C. The coefficient of the x term is −8.
D. The coefficient of the x2 term is 1.
E. The expansion shows this to be a trinomial expression.
For questions 9 and 10, expand each of the following and simplify where necessary.
9. a. 3x(x − 4) b. −7x(3x + 1) c. (x − 7) (x + 1)
d. (2x − 5) (x − 3) e. (4x − 1) (3x − 5)
10. a. 3(x − 4)(2x + 7) b. (2x − 5) (x + 3) (x + 7)

c. (x + 5) (x + 7) + (2x − 5) (x − 6) d. (x + 3) (5x − 1) − 2x

For questions 11–13, expand and simplify each of the following.
2 2 2
11. a. (x − 7) b. (2 − x) c. (3x + 1)
2 2 2
12. a. −2(3x − 2) b. −7(2x + 5) c. −10(4x − 5)
13. a. (x + 9) (x − 9) b. (3x − 1) (3x + 1) c. (5 + 2x) (5 − 2x)
For questions 14–17, factorise each of the following.

14. a. 2x2 − 8x b. −4x2 + 12x c. 3ax − 2ax2
2 2
15. a. (x + 1) + (x + 1) b. 3 (2x − 5) − (2x − 5) c. (x − 4) (x + 2) − (x − 4)
16. a. x2 − 16 b. x2 − 25 c. 2x2 − 72
2
17. a. 3x2 − 27y2 b. 4ax2 − 16ay2 c. (x − 4) − 9
For questions 18–21, factorise each of the following by grouping.

18. a. ax − ay + bx − by b. 7x + ay + ax + 7y c. xy + 2y + 5x + 10
19. a. mn − q − 2q2 + 2mnq b. pq − 5r2 − r + 5pqr c. uv − u + 9v − 9
20. a. a2 − b2 + 5a − 5b b. d2 − 4c2 − 3d + 6c c. 2 + 2m + 1 − m2
21. a. 4x2 + 12x + 9 − y2 b. 49a2 − 28a + 4 − 4b2 c. 64s2 − 16s + 1 − 3t
For questions 22–24, factorise each of the following.

22. a. x2 + 10x + 9 b. x2 − 11x + 18 c. x2 − 4x − 21
2
d. x + 3x − 28 e. −x2 + 6x − 9
23. a. 3x2 + 33x − 78 b. −2x2 + 8x + 10 c. −3x2 + 24x − 36

d. 8x2 + 2x − 1 e. 6x2 + x − 1
24. a. 8x2 + 4x − 12 b. 105x2 − 10x − 15 c. −12x2 + 62x − 70

d. −45x2 − 3x + 6 e. −60x2 − 270x − 270
For questions 25 and 26, factorise each of the following by completing the square.
25. a. x2 + 6x + 1 b. x2 − 10x − 3 c. x2 + 4x − 2
26. a. x2 − 5x + 2 b. x2 + 7x − 1 c. 2x2 + 18x − 2
For questions 27 and 28, factorise each of the following using the most appropriate method.
27. a. 3x2 − 12x b. x2 + 6x + 2 c. 4x2 − 25
28. a. 2x2 + 9x + 10 b. 2ax + 4x + 3a + 6 c. −3x2 − 3x + 18
29. First factorise then simplify each of the following.

x+4 2x − 12 3x + 6 7x − 42 x2 − 4 x2 + 4x − 5
a. × b. × c. ×
5x − 30 x+1 4x − 24 6x + 12 x2 + 5x x2 − 2x − 8

Problem solving
30. A large storage box has a square base with sides measuring (x + 2) cm and is 32 cm high.
a. Write an expression for the area of the base of the box.
b. Write an expression for the volume of the box (V = area of base × height).
c. Simplify the expression by expanding the brackets.
d. If x = 30 cm, calculate the volume of the box in cm3 .
31. A section of garden is to have a circular pond of

radius 2r with a 2 m path around its edge.
a. State the diameter of the pond.
b. State the radius of the pond and path.
c. Calculate the area of the pond.
d. Calculate the area of the pond and path.
e. Write an expression to determine the area of
the path only and write it in factorised form.
f. If the radius of the pond is 3 metres, calculate
the area of the path.
32. In order to make the most of the space available for headlines and stories, the front page of a newspaper
is given an area of (x2 − 5x − 14) cm2 .
a. If the length is (x + 2) cm, calculate the width.
b. Write down the length of the shorter side in terms of x.
c. If the shorter side of the front page is 28 cm, determine the value of x.
d. Evaluate the area of this particular paper.
33. Here is a well-known puzzle. Let a = b = 1.
Step 1: Write a = b. a=b

Step 2: Multiply both sides by a. a2 = ab
Step 3: Subtract b2 from both sides. a2 − b2 = ab − b2
Step 4: Factorise. (a + b) (a − b) = b (a − b)
Step 5: Simplify by dividing by (a − b). (a + b) = b
Step 6: Substitute a = b = 1. 1+1=1
Explain where the error is. Show your thinking.

eWorkbook 7.5 Individual pathway interactivity: Factorising by

completing the square (int-4599) ⃞
Download the workbook for this topic, which includes Completing the square (int-2559) ⃞
worksheets, a code puzzle and a project (ewbk-2033) ⃞ 7.6 Individual pathway interactivity: Mixed factorisation
(int-4600) ⃞
Solutions 7.7 Crossword (int-2845) ⃞
Download a copy of the fully worked solutions to every Sudoku puzzle (int-3594) ⃞
Teacher resources
Digital documents
7.2 SkillSHEET Expanding brackets (doc-5244) ⃞ online.
SkillSHEET Expanding a pair of brackets (doc-5245) ⃞
7.3 SkillSHEET Finding a factor pair that adds to a given
number (doc-5250) ⃞
7.4 SkillSHEET Factorising by taking out the highest
common factor (doc-5246) ⃞
SkillSHEET Factorising by taking out a common
binomial factor (doc-5247) ⃞
7.6 SkillSHEET Simplifying algebraic fractions (doc-5248) ⃞
SkillSHEET Simplifying surds (doc-5249) ⃞
SkillSHEET Factorising by grouping three and one
(doc-5252) ⃞
Video eLessons
7.2 Binomial expansion (eles-4825) ⃞
The square of a binomial expression (eles-4827) ⃞
The difference of two squares (eles-4828) ⃞
Expansion of binomial expressions (eles-1908) ⃞
7.3 Factorising monic quadratic trinomials (eles-4829) ⃞
Factorising non-monic quadratic trinomials (eles-4830) ⃞
Factorisation of trinomials (eles-1921) ⃞
7.4 Factorising expressions with two terms (eles-4831)
Factorising expressions with four terms (eles-4832) ⃞
7.5 Completing the square (eles-4833) ⃞
Factorising by completing the square (eles-4834) ⃞
Factorising by completing the square (int-1939) ⃞
7.6 Mixed factorisation (eles-4835) ⃞
Interactivities
7.2 Individual pathway interactivity: Expanding algebraic
expressions (int-4596) ⃞
Expanding binomial factors (int-6033) ⃞
Difference of two squares (int-6036) ⃞
7.3 Individual pathway interactivity: Factorising expressions
with three terms (int-4597) ⃞
Factorising monic quadratic trinomials (int-6143) ⃞
Factorising trinomials by grouping (int-6144) ⃞
7.4 Individual pathway interactivity: Factorising expressions
with two or four terms (int-4598)
Factorising expressions with four terms (int-6145) ⃞

Answers 16.
17. a.
B
x2 − 2x + 1 b. x2 + 4x + 4
Topic 7 Quadratic expressions c. x2 + 10x + 25 d. 16 + 8x + x2
18. a. 49 − 14x + x2 b. 144 − 24x + x2
Exercise 7.1 Pre-test 2 2
c. 9x − 6x + 1 d. 144x − 72x + 9
1. −2x − 6
19. a. 25x2 + 20x + 4 b. 4 − 12x + 9x2
2. 4m(1 − 5m) 2 2
c. 25 − 40x + 16x d. 1 − 10x + 25x
3. a(a + c)(4 + b)
4. (x + 5) (x − 2) 20. a. 2x2 − 12x + 18 b. 4x2 − 56x + 196
2
c. 3x + 6x + 3
5. −9x2 − 6x − 1
6. A 21. a. −4x2 − 12x − 9 b. −49x2 + 14x − 1
2
c. 8x − 24x + 18
7. E
8. C 22. a. −12 + 108x − 243x2 b. −45 + 330x − 605x2
( √ )( √ ) 2
c. −16x − 16x − 4
9. x + 2 − 10 x + 2 + 10
3 23. a. x2 − 49 b. x2 − 81 c. x2 − 25
10. 2x( + x2 − 7x − 6 ) (
√ √ )
3 29 3 29 24. a. x2 − 1 b. 4x2 − 9 c. 9x2 − 1
11. 2 x− − x− +
2 2 2 2 25. a. 49 − x2 b. 64 − x2 c. 9 − 4x2
2
12. D 26. a. (x + 1) (x − 3) b. x − 2x − 3
13. 2 c. 6 cm, 2 cm, 12 cm2
14. (4x + 23) (x + 9) 27. a. b.
15. B
(x + 1) m
Exercise 7.2 Expanding algebraic expressions
1. a. 2x + 6 b. 4x − 20 xm (x + 2) m
c. 21 − 3x d. −x − 3 c. (x + 1) (x + 2) d. x2 + 3x + 2
2 2
e. 4 m , 12 m
2. a. x2 + 2x b. 2x2 − 8x
2 2 28. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions in
c. 15x − 6x d. 10x − 15x
2 3 2 the online resources. Examples are shown.
3. a. 8x + 2x b. 4x − 6x 2
a. (x + 4) (x + 3) = x + 7x + 12
c. 6x3 − 3x2 d. 15x3 + 20x2 2 2
b. (x + 4) = x + 8x + 16
4. a. x2 − x − 12 b. x2 − 2x − 3 2
c. (x + 4) (x − 4) = x − 16
2 2
c. x − 5x − 14 d. x − 6x + 5 2 2
d. (x + 4) = x + 8x + 16
5. a. −x2 − x + 6 b. x2 − 6x + 8 29. a. Student C
2 2
c. 2x − 17x + 21 d. 3x − x − 2
b. Student B
6. a. 6x2 − 17x + 5 b. 21 − 17x + 2x2 (3x + 4) (2x + 5)
2 2
c. 15 + 14x − 8x d. 110 + 47x − 21x = 3x × 2x + 3x × 5 + 4 × 2x + 4 × 5
7. a. 2x2 − 4x − 6 b. 8x2 − 28x − 16 = 6x2 + 23x + 20
2 Student A
c. −2x + 12x + 14
3 3 3 (3x + 4) (2x + 5)
8. a. 2x − 2x b. 3x − 75x c. 6x − 54x
= 3x × 2x + 3x × 5 + 4 × 2x + 4 × 5
9. a. 2x3 − 12x2 + 18x b. 5x3 − 30x2 + 40x
3 2 = 6x2 + 15x + 8x + 20
c. −6x − 6x + 120x
= 6x2 + 23x + 20
10. a. x3 + 2x2 − x − 2 b. x3 − 2x2 − 5x + 6
3 2
c. x − 5x − x + 5 30. (a − b) (a + b) = a2 − b2
LHS
11. a. x3 − 6x2 + 11x − 6 b. 2x3 − 7x2 − 5x + 4 (5 − 3) (5 + 3)
3 2
c. 6x − 7x + 1 =2×8
12. a. x2 − x − 2 b. −2x2 + 4x + 10 = 16
2
c. 5x − 6x − 5 d. 19x − 23 RHS ∶
13. a. −5x − 1 52 − 32
b. −2x + 6 = 25 − 9
√
2
c. x − 2x − 3 + 3x
= 16
√ √ √ √ LHS = RHS ⇒ True
d. 6 + 2 2x − 3 3x − 6x2 − 5x
14. A
15. C

31. (a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2 15. a. (5x + 3) (2x − 3) b. (4x − 1) (5x + 2)
LHS ∶ c. (3x + 2) (4x − 1) d. (3x − 1) (5x + 2)
(5 + 3)2 16. a. 2(x − 1)(2x + 3) b. 3(3x + 1)(x − 7)

c. 12(2x + 1)(3x − 1) d. −3(3x + 1)(2x − 1)
= 82
= 64 17. a. −30(2x + 1)(x − 3) b. 3a(4x − 7)(2x + 5)
RHS ∶ c. −2(4x − 3)(x − 2) d. −(2x − 7)(5x + 2)
52 + 2 × 5 × 3 + 32 18. a. −(8x − 1)(3x − 4)

= 25 + 30 + 9 b. −2(3x − y)(2x + y)
= 64 c. −5(2x − 7y)(3x + 2y)
LHS = RHS ⇒ True d. −12(5x + 3y)(10x + 7y)
32. (a + b) (c + d) = (c + d) (a + b) 19. a. w2 + 5w − 6 b. (w + 6) (w − 1)
LHS ∶ c. (x + 5) (x − 2)
(a + b) (c + d) = ac + ad + bc + bd 20. a. x (x + 5)
RHS ∶ x (x + 5)
b.
(c + d) (a + b) = ca + cb + da + db 2
c. (x − 1)
LHS = RHS ⇒ True
21. a. (x + 9) (x + 5) b. (x − 15) (x − 6)
33. The square of a binomial is a trinomial; the difference of
c. (x − 10) (x − 3)
two squares has two terms.
34. V = 6x3 − 29x2 + 46x − 24 22. a. Yellow = 3 cm × 3 cm
35. TSA = 12x2 + 20x + 3 Black = 3 cm × 6 cm
2 2 2 White = 6 cm × 6 cm
36. a. 4x + 12xy − 20xz + 9y − 30yz + 25z 2
b. Yellow = 0.36 m
1 1
b. + − 4x + 4x2 − 1 Black = 0.72 m2
x 4x2 White = 0.36 m2
c.
Exercise 7.3 Factorising expressions with
three terms
1. a. (x + 2) (x + 1) b. (x + 3) (x + 1)
c. (x + 8) (x + 2) d. (x + 4)2
23. a. x2 − 7x + 12 = (x − 3) (x − 4)
e. (x − 3) (x + 1) 2
b. x + 7x − 12 = (x − 3) (x − 4)
2. a. (x − 4) (x + 1) b. (x − 12) (x + 1) 2
c. x − x − 2 = (x − 2) (x + 1)
c. (x − 6) (x + 2) d. (x + 4) (x − 1) 2
d. x − 4x − 21 = (x + 3) (x − 7)
e. (x + 5) (x − 1)
24. a. x2 + 4x − 21 = (x − 3) (x + 7)
3. a. (x + 7) (x − 1) b. (x + 5) (x − 2) 2
b. x − x − 30 = (x + 5) (x − 6)
c. (x − 3) (x − 1) d. (x − 4) (x − 5) 2
c. x + 7x − 8 = (x − 1) (x + 8)
e. (x + 14) (x − 5) 2
d. x − 11x + 30 = (x − 5) (x − 6)
4. a. −2(x + 9)(x + 1) b. −3(x + 2)(x + 1) 25. a. SA = 3x2 + 16x
c. −(x + 2)(x + 1) d. −(x + 10)(x + 1) b. Total area = 3x2 + 16x + 16
5. a. −(x + 2)(x + 5) b. −(x + 12)(x + 1) c. (3x + 4) (x + 4)
c. −(x + 3)(x + 4) d. −(x + 2)(x + 6) d. l = 21 m; w = 7 m; d = 2 m
6. a. 2(x + 2)(x + 5) b. 3(x + 1)(x + 10) e. 275 m2
c. 5(x + 20)(x + 1) d. 5(x + 4)(x + 5) f. 294 m3
26. (x − 0.5) (x + 1.5)
7. a. (a − 7) (a + 1) b. (t − 4) (t − 2)
c. (b + 4) (b + 1) d. (m + 5) (m − 3) 27. a. (2x + 3) (3x + 1) b. P = 10x + 8
( )( ) c. x = 8 metres
8. a. p − 16 p + 3 b. (c + 16) (c − 3)
28. a. (9a − 2) (6a(− 7) ) (
c. (k + 19) (k + 3) d. (s − 19) (s + 3) ( 2 ) √ √ )
( )( ) b. 3m + 2 m − 7 m+ 7
9. a. g+8 g−9 b. (v − 25) (v − 3)
c. (x + 16) (x − 2) d. (x − 15) (x − 4) c. (2 sin (x) − 1) (sin (x) − 1)
10. C 29. a. (x − 5) (x + 1)
11. B b. (x − 5) cm
12. C c. x = 15 m
2
13. a. (2x + 1) (x + 2) b. (2x − 1) (x − 1) d. 160 cm
c. (4x + 3) (x − 5) d. (2x − 1) (2x + 3) 2
e. 3000(x − 5) (x + 1) cm or
14. a. (x − 7) (2x + 5) b. (3x + 1) (x + 3) (3000x − 12000x − 15000) cm2
2
c. (3x − 7) (2x − 1) d. (4x − 7) (3x + 2)

Exercise 7.4 Factorising expressions with two 26. a. (s + 3) (s − 4t) b. (b + d) (a2 − c)
( )
or four terms c. (1 + 5z) xy − z
( )( )
1. a. x(x + 3) b. x(x − 4) c. 3x(x − 2) 27. a. (a − b) (a + b + 4) b. p−q p+q−3
2. a. 4x(x + 4) b. 3x(3x − 1) c. 8x(1 − x) c. (m + n) (m − n + l)
( )( )
3. a. 3x(4 − x) b. 4x(2 − 3x) c. x(8x − 11) 28. a. x+y 7+x−y
( )( )
4. a. (x − 2) (3x + 2) b. (x + 3) (5 − 2x) b. 1 − 2q 5p + 1 + 2q
c. (x − 1) (x + 5) ( )( )
c. 7g + 6h 7g − 6h − 4
5. a. (x + 1) (x − 1) b. (x + 4) (x − 2) c. (x − 3) (4 − x) ( )( )
29. a. x+7+y x+7−y
6. a. (x + 1) (x − 1) b. (x + 3) (x − 3) c. (x + 5) (x − 5) ( )( )
( )( ) b. x + 10 + y x + 10 − y
7. a. ((x + 10) (x
) (− 10) ) b. y + k y − k c. (a − 11 + b) (a − 11 − b)
c. 2x + 3y 2x − 3y
( )( ) 30. a. (3a + 2 + b) (3a + 2 − b)
8. a. (4a + 7) (4a − 7) b. 5p + 6q 5p − 6q ( )( )
b. 5p − 4 + 3t 5p − 4 − 3t
c. (1 + 10d) (1 − 10d) ( √ ) ( √ )
9. a. 4(x + 1)(x − 1) b. 5(x + 4)(x − 4) c. 6t − 1 + 5v 6t − 1 − 5v
c. a(x + 3)(x − 3) 31. E
10. a. 2(b + 2d)(b − 2d) b. 100(x + 4)(x − 4) 32. A
c. 3a(x + 7)(x − 7) 33. D
11. a. 4p(x + 8)(x − 8) b. 4(3x + 2)(3x − 2) 34. B
c. 3(6 + x)(6 − x) 35. a. Jill
12. C The factors have to add to the −3 and multiple to 2.
b.
13. B Jack’s pair added to 2 and multiplied to −3, the wrong
14. B way around.
15. C ( 36. When splitting the middle term, the order is not important.
√ )( √ )
16. a. x + 11 x − 11 The order will change the first binomial factor but gives the
same answer.
( √ )( √ ) ( )( )
b. x + 7 x− 7 37. a. x − 2y − a + 3b x − 2y + a − 3b
( b. 3(2x − 5y − 3)(2x + 5y − 3)
√ )( √ )
c. x + 15 x − 15 38. a. (x − 5) (x + 5) b. (x − 5) cm, (x + 5) cm
( √ )( √ ) c. 2 cm, 12 cm d. 24 cm
2
17. a. 2x + 13 2x − 13 e.
2
120 cm or 6 times bigger
( √ )( √ ) 39. a. A1 = 𝜋r2 m2
b. 3x + 19 3x − 19 2 2
b. A2 = 𝜋(r + 1) m
( √ )( √ ) 2 2 2
c. A = 𝜋(r + 1) − 𝜋r = 𝜋(2r + 1) m
c. 3 x + 22 x − 22 2
d. 34.56 m
( √ )( √ )
18. a. 5 x + 3 x− 3 40. a. Annie = (x + 3) (x + 2) m2 Bronwyn = 5(x + 2) m2
( √ )( √ ) b. (x + 3) (x + 2) − 5 (x + 2)
b. 2 x + 2 x− 2 2
c. (x + 2) (x − 2) = x − 4
( √ )( √ ) d. Width = 5 m
c. 12 x + 3 x− 3 2 2
e. Annie has 30 m and Bronwyn has 25 m .
19. a. (x − 3) (x + 1) b. (x − 4) (x + 6) c. (x − 5) (x + 1)
Exercise 7.5 Factorising by completing the
20. a. (x − 1) (x + 7) b. (6 − x) (x + 8) c. (10 − x) (x + 2) square
21. a. 8(x − 3) b. (7 − x) (5x + 1) 1. a. 25 b. 9 c. 4 d. 64 e. 100
c. (x − 22) (9x + 2)
( ) ( ) 2. a. 16 b. 49 c. 625
22. a. (x − 2y) (1 + a) b. (x + y) (2 + a)
c. x − y (a + b) d. x + y (4 + z) 49 1
( ) d. e.
23. a. f − 2 (e + 3) b. (n − 7) (m + 1) 4 4
( √ )( √ )
c. 3 (2r − s) (t + u) d. 7 (m − 3) (n + 5) 3. a. x − 2 + 11 x − 2 − 11
( ) (
24. a. 2 8 − j (4 + k) b. a (3 − b) (a + c) √ )( √ )
( ) b. x + 1 + 3 x+1− 3
c. x 5 + y (x + 2) d. m (m + n) (2 − n)
( ) ( √ )( √ )
25. a. y + 7 (x − 2) b. (m + 2) (n − 3) c. x − 5 + 13 x − 5 − 13
( )( )
c. q+5 p−3

( √ )( √ ) ( √ )( √ )
d. x + 3 + 19 x + 3 − 19 d. 6 x + 3 + 14 x + 3 − 14
( √ )( √ ) ( √ )( √ )
e. x + 8 + 65 x + 8 − 65 e. 4 x − 1 − 5 x−1+ 5
( √ )( √ )
4. a. x−7+ 6 x−7− 6 9. i. d ii. b iii. c iv. a
( v. c vi. d vii. d viii. e
√ )( √ )
b. x+4+ 7 x+4− 7 10. B
( √ )( √ ) 11. E
c. x − 2 + 17 x − 2 − 17 12. E
( √ )( √ ) 13. This expression cannot be factorised as there is no
d. x − 6 + 11 x − 6 − 11 difference of two squares after completing the square.
( √ )( √ ) 14. a = 0.55; b = 5.45
e. x−3− 5 x−3+ 5
( √ )( √ ) 15. This expression cannot be factorised as it does not become
DOTS. (
5. a. x− +
1 5 1
x− −
5 √ )( √ )
2 2 2 2 16. Annabelle: x − 2 − 13 x − 2 + 13
( √ )( √ ) ( )( )
17. x−p x−p+2
3 21 3 21 ( √ )( √ )
b. x− + x− − 14 14
2 2 2 2 18. a. 2 x + 2 − x+2+
( √ )( √ ) 2 2
1 21 1 21
c. x+ + x+ − b. This expression cannot be factorised as there is no
2 2 2 2 difference of two squares.
( √ )( √ )
3 13 3 13 Exercise 7.6 Mixed factorisation
d. x+ + x+ −
2 2 2 2
( √ )( √ )
1. a.
( + 3) ) (
3(x )
5 17 5 17 b. x + 2 + 3y x + 2 − 3y
e. x+ + x+ − c. (x + 6) (x − 6)
2 2 2 2 d. (x + 7) (x − 7)
( √ )( √ )
5 33 5 33 e. (5x + 1) (x − 2)
6. a. x+ + x+ − 2. a. 5(3x − 4y)
2 2 2 2
( √ )( √ ) b. (c + e) (5 + d)
7 53 7 53 c. 5 (x + 4) (x − 4)
b. x− + x− − d. − (x + 5) (x + 1)
2 2 2 2
( √ )( √ ) e. (x + 4) (x − 3)
9 29 9 29
c. x− + x− − 3. a.
( +√
(m 1) (n)+
( 1) √ )
2 2 2 2 b. x+ 7 x− 7
( √ )( √ )
1 13 1 13 c. 4x(4x − 1)
d. x− + x− − d. 5(x + 10)(x + 2)
2 2 2 2
( e. 3(3 − y)(x + 2)
√ )( √ ) ( )( )
1 5 1 5 4. a. x−4+y x−4−y
e. x− − x− + 2
2 2 2 2 b.
( +)2)(
4(x )
( √ )( √ ) c.
(g + h√ )f +
(2 √ )
7. a. 2 x+1+ 3 x+1− 3
d. x+ 5 x− 5
( √ )( √ )
b. 4 x−1+ 6 x−1− 6 e. 5(n + 1)(2m − 1)
( √ )( √ ) 5. a. (x + 5) (x + 1)
c. 5 x+3+2 2 x+3−2 2 b. (x + 1) (x − 11)
( √ )( √ ) c. (x + 2) (x − 2)
3 x − 2 + 17 x − 2 − 17
( + b))(c − 5)
(a
d. d.
( √ )( √ ) e. y + 1 (x − 1)
e. 5 x−3+ 7 x−3− 7
6. a. (3x + 2) (x + 1)
( √ )( √ ) b. 7(x + 2)(x − 2)
8. a. 6 x+2+ 5 x+2− 5
c. −4(x +(6)(x +) 1)
( √ )( √ ) d. (2 + r) p − s
b. 3 x+5+2 3 x+5−2 3
e. 3(x + 3)(x − 3)
( √ )( √ )
c. 2 x − 2 + 11 x − 2 − 11

7. a.
( + v)
(u (t − 3) Project
√ )( √ )
b. x + 11 x − 11 Students will apply their skills of elimination to find
c. (4x − 1) (3x − 1) ‘square and double pair’ by playing the game with the given
d. (x + 1) (x − 3) instructions.
e. (x + 6) (x − 2)
8. a. 4(x − 1)(x + 4)
1. E
b. 3(x + 2)(x + 8)
c. (3 + x) (7 − x) 2. D
d. 4(3 − x + 2y)(3 − x − 2y) 3. E
e. 3(y + x)(y − x) 4. C
( )( )
9. a. 3x − 4y x − 2y 5. C
b. (x + 7) (x + 4) 6. A
c. (x + 2) (x − 5) 7. E
d. (2x + 3) (x + 3)
8. C
e. 4(x + 2)
9. a. 3x2 − 12x b. −21x2 − 7x
(x + 5) (x − 2) (x + 2) (x + 2) 2
c. x − 6x − 7
2
d. 2x − 11x + 15
10. a. ×
(x + 2) (x − 2) (x − 4) (x + 2) 2
e. 12x − 23x + 5
(x + 5)
(x + 2)
(x + 2)
(x + 2) 10. a. 6x2 − 3x − 84 b. 2x3 + 15x2 − 8x − 105
b. ×

(x
+ 2)
(x
− 2) (x − 4)
(x
+ 2) 2
c. 3x − 5x + 65
2
d. 5x + 12x − 3
x+5 11. a. x2 − 14x + 49 b. 4 − 4x + x2 c. 9x2 + 6x + 1
c.
x−4
12. a. −18x2 + 24x − 8
x−1 x+1 18
11. a. b. c. b. −28x2 − 140x − 175
x−6 2x + 3 x (x − 5) 2
c. −160x + 400x − 250
2x − 1 x+2 x−6
12. a. b. c. 13. a. x2 − 81 b. 9x2 − 1 c. 25 − 4x2
x+4 x+5 x+3
4(b + 2) 14. a. 2x(x − 4) b. −4x(x − 3) c. ax(3 − 2x)
13. a.
5 15. a. (x + 1) (x + 2)
b. 2(2x − 5)(4 − x)
p(p + 7)
b. ( )( ) c. (x − 4) (x + 1)
p+3 p−2
16. a. (x + 4) (x − 4)
5(m + 2 + n) b. (x + 5) (x − 5)
c.
2(2m − 5) c. 2(x + 6)(x − 6)
x2 9 17. a. 3(x + 3y)(x − 3y)
14. a. i. −
16 25 b. 4a(x + 2y)(x − 2y)
c. (x − 1) (x − 7)
x2 9 ( ) ( )
ii. − 18. a. x − y ((a + b)) b. x + y (7 + a)
16 25
( )2 ( )2 c. (x + 2) y + 5
−x x x2 ( )( ) ( )
b. = = 19. a. 1 + 2q mn − q b. (5r + 1) pq − r
4 4 16 (v − 1) (u + 9)
( )( ) c.
15. a. x − 9 − y x − 9 + y
( )( ) 20. a. (a − b) (a + b + 5) b. (d − 2c) (d + 2c − 3)
b. 2x + 3 − 4y 2x + 3 + 4y c. (1 + m) (3 − m)
( )( )
16. a. 10 609 b. 3844 c. 99 409 21. a. 2x + 3 + y 2x + 3 − y
d. 1 024 144 e. 2809 f. 9604 b. (7a − 2 + 2b) (7a − 2 − 2b)
( )( ) ( √ )( √ )
17. a. x + y x − y + 3 c. 8s − 1 + 3t 8s − 1 − 3t
( )( )
b. x + y 7 + x − y (x + 9) (x + 1) (x − 9) (x − 2)
( )( ) 22. a. b.
c. 1 − 2q 5p + 1 + 2q c. (x − 7) (x + 3) d. (x + 7) (x − 4)
2
1 e. −(x − 3)
18.
a2 +
( 2a +4 )( ) 23. a. 3(x + 13)(x − 2) b. −2 (x − 5) (x + 1)
19. a. x + 6 − 2xy x + 6 + 2xy c. −3 (x − 6) (x − 2) d. (4x − 1) (2x + 1)
e. (3x − 1) (2x + 1)
b. x2 y2 (15x − 13y2 )(15x + 13y2 ) or
x2 y2 (−15x − 13y2 )(−15x + 13y2 ) 24. a. 4(2x + 3)(x − 1) b. 5(7x − 3)(3x + 1)
c. −2(3x − 5)(2x − 7) d. −3(3x − 1)(5x + 2)
e. −30(2x + 3)(x + 3)

( √ )( √ )
25. a. x+3+2 2 x+3−2 2
( √ )( √ )
b. x−5+2 7 x−5−2 7
( √ )( √ )
c. x+2+ 6 x+2− 6
( √ )( √ )
5 17 5 17
26. a. x− + x− −
2 2 2 2
( √ )( √ )
7 53 7 53
b. x+ + x+ −
2 2 2 2
( √ )( √ )
9 85 9 85
c. 2 x+ + x+ −
2 2 2 2
( √ )( √ )
27. a. 3x(x − 4) b. x + 3 + 7 x+3− 7
c. (2x + 5) (2x − 5)
28. a. (2x + 5) (x + 2) b. (a + 2) (2x + 3)
c. −3 (x − 2) (x + 3)
2 (x + 4) 7
29. a. b.
5 (x + 1) 8
(x − 2) (x − 1)
c.
x (x − 4)
30. a. (x + 2)2 b. 32(x + 2)2
c. 32x2 + 128x + 128 d. 32768 cm3
31. a. 4r b. 2r + 2
c. 4𝜋r2 d. (4r2 + 8r + 4)𝜋
e. 4𝜋(2r + 1) f. 28𝜋 m2
32. a. (x − 7) b. x − 7 cm
c. 35 d. 1036 cm2
33. Dividing by zero in step 5

8 Quadratic equations
LEARNING SEQUENCE
8.1 Overview ................................................................................................................................................................. 470
8.2 Solving quadratic equations algebraically ................................................................................................. 472
8.3 The quadratic formula ........................................................................................................................................481
8.4 Solving quadratic equations graphically .....................................................................................................486
8.5 The discriminant ...................................................................................................................................................495
8.6 Review ..................................................................................................................................................................... 502
8.1 Overview
Why learn this?
Have you ever thought about the shape a ball makes as it flies
through the air? Or have you noticed the shape that the stream of
water from a drinking fountain makes? These are both examples
of quadratic equations in the real world. When you learn about
quadratic equations, you learn about the mathematics of these
real-world shapes, but quadratic equations are so much more than
interesting shapes.
Being able to use and understand quadratic equations lets you
unlock incredible problem-solving skills. It allows you to quickly
understand situations and solve complicated problems that would
be close to impossible without these skills. Many professionals
rely on their understanding of quadratic equations to make
important decisions, designs and discoveries. Some examples
include: sports people finding the perfect spot to intercept a
ball, architects designing complex buildings such as the Sydney
Opera House and scientists listening to sound waves coming from
the furthest regions of space using satellite dishes. All of these
professionals use the principles of quadratic equations.
By learning about quadratic equations you are also embarking on
your first step on the path to learning about non-linear equations.
When you learn about non-linear equations, a whole world of
different shaped curves and different problem-solving skills will
open up.
Where to get help

Fully worked
solutions
eLessons
to every
question
Digital
eWorkbook
documents

1. State whether the following statement is true or false.
The Null Factor Law states that if the product of two numbers is zero then one or both of the numbers
must equal zero.
2. Calculate the two solutions for the equation (2x − 1)(x + 5) = 0.
3. Solve 16x2 − 9 = 0 for x.
4. MC The solutions for x(x − 3)(x + 2) = 0 are:

A. x = 3 or x = −2 B. x = 3 or x = −2 C. x = 0 or x = −3 or x = 2
D. x = 0 or x = 3 or x = −2 E. x = 1 or x = 3 or x = −2
5. MC The solutions to the equation x2 + x − 6 = 0 are:

A. x = 3 or x = −2 B. x = −3 or x = 2 C. x = 3 or x = 2
D. x = −6 or x = 1 E. x = −1 or x = 6
6. MC Four times a number is subtracted from 3 times its square. If the result is 4, the possible
numbers are:
A. x = −4 B. x = 0 or x = −4 C. x = 0 or x = 4
2 3
D. x = − or x = 2 E. x = − or x = 2
3 2
7. MC An exact solution to the equation x2 − 3x − 1 = 0 is x =

√ √ √ √
3 ± 13 −3 ± 13 3±2 2 −3 ± 2 2
A. B. C. D. E. −3 or −1
2 2 2 2
8. Calculate the discriminant for 5x2 − 8x + 2 = 0.
9. Match the discriminant value to the number of solutions for a quadratic equation.
Discriminant value Number of solutions

a. Δ = 0 No real solutions
b. Δ < 0 Two solutions
c. Δ > 0 Only one solution
10. MC If Δ = 0, the graph of a quadratic:

A. does not cross or touch the x-axis
B. touches the x-axis
C. intersects the x-axis twice
D. intersects the x-axis three times
E. There is not enough information to know whether the graph touches the x-axis.
TOPIC 8 Quadratic equations 471

11. MC The equation 3x2 − 27 = 0 has:
A. two rational solutions B. two irrational solutions
C. one solution D. one rational and one irrational solution
E. no solutions.
12. A rectangle’s length is 4 cm more than its width. Determine the dimensions of the rectangle if its area is
(4x + 9) cm2 .
13. Calculate the value of m for which mx2 − 12x + 9 = 0 has one solution.
14. MC Identify for what values of a the straight line y = ax − 12 intersects once with the parabola
y = x2 − 2x − 8.
A. a = −6 or a = 2 B. a = 6 or a = −2 C. a = 4 or a = −2
D. a = −4 or a = 2 E. a = 3 or a = 4
x x+1
15. MC Solve for x, − = 1.
x−2 x+4
A. x = −1 or x = −4 B. x = 0 or x = 2 C. x = 0 or x = −1
D. x = 2 or x = −4 E. x = 5 or x = −2
8.2 Solving quadratic equations algebraically

LEARNING INTENTION
• use the Null Factor Law to solve quadratic equations
• use the completing the square technique to solve quadratic equations
• solve worded questions algebraically.
8.2.1 Quadratic equations

eles-4843
• Quadratic equations are equations in the form:
ax2 + bx + c = 0, where a, b and c are numbers.
2
• For example, the equation 3x + 5x − 7 = 0 has a = 3, b = 5 and c = −7.
The Null Factor Law

• We know that any number multiplied by zero will equal zero.
Null Factor Law

• If the product of two numbers is zero, then one or both numbers must be zero.
a number × another number = 0

• In the above equation, we know that a number = 0 and/or another number = 0.
• To apply the Null Factor Law, quadratic equations must be in a factorised form.
• To review factorising quadratic expressions, see topic 7.

WORKED EXAMPLE 1 Applying the Null Factor Law to solve quadratic equations
Solve the equation (x − 7)(x + 11) = 0.
THINK WRITE
1. Write the equation and check that the right-hand side equals zero. (x − 7)(x + 11) = 0
(The product of the two numbers is zero.)
2. The left-hand side is factorised, so apply the Null Factor Law. x − 7 = 0 or x + 11 = 0
3. Solve for x. x = 7 or x = −11
WORKED EXAMPLE 2 Factorising then applying the Null Factor Law
Solve each of the following equations.

a. x2 − 3x = 0 b. 3x2 − 27 = 0
c. x2 − 13x + 42 = 0 d. 36x2 − 21x = 2
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Write the equation. Check that the right-hand a. x2 − 3x = 0

side equals zero.
2. Factorise by taking out the common factor of x(x − 3) = 0
2
x and 3x, which is x.
3. Apply the Null Factor Law. x = 0 or x−3=0
4. Solve for x. x = 0 or x=3
b. 1. Write the equation. Check that the right-hand b. 3x2 − 27 = 0
side equals zero.
2. Factorise by taking out the common factor of 3(x2 − 9) = 0
2
3x and 27, which is 3.
3. Factorise using the difference of two 3(x2 − 32 ) = 0
squares rule. 3(x + 3)(x − 3) = 0
4. Apply the Null Factor Law. x + 3 = 0 or x − 3 = 0
5. Solve for x. x = −3 or x = 3
(Alternatively, x = ±3.)
c. 1. Write the equation. Check that the right-hand c. x2 − 13x + 42 = 0

side equals zero.
2. Factorise by identifying a factor pair of 42 that adds
to −13.
−6 and − 7 −13
3. Use the Null Factor Law to write two
linear equations. (x − 6)(x − 7) = 0
x − 6 = 0 or x − 7 = 0
4. Solve for x. x = 6 or x = 7

d. 1. Write the equation. Check that the right-hand d. 36x2 − 21x = 2
side equals zero. (It does not.)
2. Rearrange the equation so the right-hand side of 36x2 − 21x − 2 = 0
the equation equals zero as a quadratic trinomial
in the form ax2 + bx + c = 0.
3. Recognise that the expression to factorise is a
Factors of −72 Sum of factors
quadratic trinomial.
Calculate ac = 36 × −2 = −72. 3 and − 24 −21
Factorise by identifying a factor pair of −72 that
adds to −21. 36x2 − 24x + 3x − 2 = 0
4. Factorise the expression. 12x (3x − 2) + (3x − 2) = 0

(3x − 2) (12x + 1) = 0
5. Use the Null Factor Law to write two 3x − 2 = 0 or 12x + 1 = 0
linear equations. 3x = 2 or 12x = −1
2 1
6. Solve for x. x= or x = −
3 12
8.2.2 Solving quadratic equations by completing the square

eles-4844
• Completing the square is another technique that can be used for factorising quadratics.
• Use completing the square when other techniques will not work.
• To complete the square, the value of a must be 1. If a is not 1, divide everything by the coefficient of x2
so that a = 1.
• The completing the square technique was introduced in topic 9.
Steps to complete the square
Factorise x2 + 6x + 2 = 0.
Step 1: ax2 + bx + c = 0. Since a = 1 in this example, we can complete the square.
( )2
1
Step 2: Add and subtract b . In this example, b = 6.
2
( )2 ( )2
1 1
x2 + 6x + ×6 +2− ×6 =0
2 2
x2 + 6x + 9 + 2 − 9 = 0
Step 3: Factorise the first three terms.
x2 + 6x + 9 − 7 = 0
(x + 3)2 − 7 = 0
Step 4: Factorise the quadratic by using difference of two squares
(√ )2 (√ )2
(x + 3)2 − 7 = 0 because 7 =7
( √ )( √ )
x+3+ 7 x+3− 7 =0
When a ≠ 1:
• factorise the expression if possible before completing the square
• if a is not a factor of each term, divide each term by a to ensure the coefficient of x2 is 1.

WORKED EXAMPLE 3 Solving quadratic equations by completing the square
Solve the equation x2 + 2x − 4 = 0 by completing the square. Give exact answers.
THINK WRITE
1. Write the equation. x2 + 2x − 4 = 0

( )2
1
2. Identify the coefficient of x, halve it and ×2
square the result. 2
( )2 ( )2
2 1 1
3. Add the result of step 2 to the equation, x + 2x + ×2 − 4− ×2 = 0
placing it after the x-term. To balance the 2 2
x2 + 2x + (1)2 − 4 − (1)2 = 0
equation, we need to subtract the same
amount as we have added. x2 + 2x + 1 − 4 − 1 = 0
4. Insert brackets around the first three terms to (x2 + 2x + 1) − 5 = 0

group them and then simplify the remaining
terms.
5. Factorise the first three terms to produce a (x + 1)2 − 5 = 0

perfect square.
(√ )2
6. Express as the difference of two squares and (x + 1)2 − 5 =0
( √ )( √ )
then factorise.
x+1+ 5 x+1− 5 = 0
√ √
7. Apply the Null Factor Law to identify linear x+1+ 5=0 or x+1− 5=0
equations.
√ √
8. Solve for x. Keep the answer in surd form to x = −1 − 5 or x = −1 √ + 5
provide an exact answer. (Alternatively, x = −1 ± 5.)
In a new document, on a On the Main screen in

Calculator page, press: standard, tap:
• Menu • Action
• 3: Algebra • Advanced
• 1: Solve • solve
Complete the entry line as: Then press EXE.
solve (x2 + 2x − 4 = 0, x)
Then press ENTER.
x2 + 2x − 4 =√0 √
⇒ x = −1 + 5 or −1− 5
x2 + 2x − 4 =√0 √
⇒ x = −1 + 5 or −1− 5

8.2.3 Solving worded questions
eles-4845
• For worded questions:
• start by identifying the unknowns
• then write the equation and solve it
• give answers in a full sentence and include units if required.
WORKED EXAMPLE 4 Solving worded questions
When two consecutive numbers are multiplied together, the result is 20. Determine the numbers.
THINK WRITE
1. Define the unknowns. First number = x, Let the two numbers be x and (x + 1).
second number = x + 1.
2. Write an equation using the information x(x + 1) = 20
given in the question.
3. Transpose the equation so that the x(x + 1) − 20 = 0
right-hand side equals zero.
4. Expand to remove the brackets. x2 + x − 20 = 0
5. Factorise. (x + 5)(x − 4) = 0
6. Apply the Null Factor Law to solve for x. x + 5 = 0 or x − 4 = 0
x = −5 or x = 4
7. Use the answer to determine the If x = −5, x + 1 = −4.
second number. If x = 4, x + 1 = 5.
8. Check the solutions. Check:
4 × 5 = 20 (−5) × (−4) = 20
9. Write the answer in a sentence. The numbers are 4 and 5 or −5 and −4.
WORKED EXAMPLE 5 Solving worded application questions
The height of a football after being kicked is determined

by the formula h = −0.1d2 + 3d, where d is the horizontal
distance from the player in metres.
a. Calculate how far the ball is from the player when it hits
the ground.
b. Calculate the horizontal distance the ball has travelled
when it first reaches a height of 20 m.
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Write the formula. a. h = −0.1d2 + 3d
2. The ball hits the ground when h = 0. −0.1d2 + 3d = 0
Substitute h = 0 into the formula.
3. Factorise. −0.1d2 + 3d = 0
d(−0.1d + 3) = 0

4. Apply the Null Factor Law and simplify. d = 0 or − 0.1d + 3 = 0
−0.1d = −3
−3
d=
−0.1
= 30
5. Interpret the solutions. d = 0 is the origin of the kick.
d = 30 is the distance from the origin that the
ball has travelled when it lands.
6. Write the answer in a sentence. The ball is 30 m from the player when it hits
the ground.
b. 1. The height of the ball is 20 m, so, substitute b. h = −0.1d2 + 3d
h = 20 into the formula. 20 = −0.1d2 + 3d
2. Transpose the equation so that zero is on the 0.1d2 − 3d + 20 = 0
right-hand side.
3. Multiply both sides of the equation by 10 to d2 − 30d + 200 = 0
remove the decimal from the coefficient.
4. Factorise. (d − 20)(d − 10) = 0
5. Apply the Null Factor Law. d − 20 = 0 or d − 10 = 0
6. Solve. d = 20 or d = 10
7. Interpret the solution. The ball reaches a The ball first reaches a height of 20 m after it
height of 20 m on the way up and on the way has travelled a distance of 10 m.
down. The first time the ball reaches a height
of 20 m is the smaller value of d. Write the
answer in a sentence.
DISCUSSION
What does the Null Factor Law mean?
Resources
Resourceseses
Digital documents SkillSHEET Factorising by taking out the highest common factor (doc-5256)
SkillSHEET Finding a factor pair that adds to a given number (doc-5257)
SkillSHEET Simplifying surds (doc-5258)
SkillSHEET Substituting into quadratic equations (doc-5259)
SkillSHEET Equation of a vertical line (doc-5260)
Video eLesson The Null Factor Law (eles-2312)

Interactivities Individual pathway interactivity: Solving quadratic equations algebraically (int-4601)
The Null Factor Law (int-6095)

Exercise 8.2 Solving quadratic equations algebraically
Individual pathways
1, 4, 7, 10, 13, 16, 17, 18, 21, 27, 2, 5, 8, 11, 14, 19, 22, 24, 25, 28, 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 20, 23, 26, 29, 34,
30, 31, 35, 39, 44 32, 33, 36, 40, 41, 45 37, 38, 42, 43, 46
Fluency
WE1 For questions 1–6 solve each of the following equations.
1. a. (x + 7)(x − 9) = 0 b. (x − 3)(x + 2) = 0
c. (x − 2)(x − 3) = 0 d. x(x − 3) = 0
2. a. x(x − 1) = 0 b. x(x + 5) = 0
c. 2x(x − 3) = 0 d. 9x(x + 2) = 0
( )( )
1 1
3. a. x − x+ =0 b. −(x + 1.2)(x + 0.5) = 0
2 2 ( √ )( √ )
c. 2(x − 0.1)(2x − 1.5) = 0 d. x+ 2 x− 3 =0
4. a. (2x − 1)(x − 1) = 0 b. (3x + 2)(x + 2) = 0 c. (4x − 1)(x − 7) = 0
5. a. (7x + 6)(2x − 3) = 0 b. (5x − 3)(3x − 2) = 0 c. (8x + 5)(3x − 2) = 0
6. a. x(x − 3)(2x − 1) = 0 b. x(2x − 1)(5x + 2) = 0 c. x (x + 3) (5x − 2) = 0
WE2a For questions 7–9 solve each of the following equations.

7. a. x2 − 2x = 0 b. x2 + 5x = 0 c. x2 = 7x
8. a. 3x2 = −2x b. 4x2 − 6x = 0 c. 6x2 − 2x = 0

√ √
9. a. 4x2 − 2 7x = 0 b. 3x2 + 3x = 0 c. 15x − 12x2 = 0
WE2b For questions 10–12 solve each of the following equations.

10. a. x2 − 4 = 0 b. x2 − 25 = 0
c. 3x2 − 12 = 0 d. 4x2 − 196 = 0
11. a. 9x2 − 16 = 0 b. 4x2 − 25 = 0

c. 9x2 = 4 d. 36x2 = 9
1 1 2 4
12. a. x2 − =0 b. x − =0
25 36 9
c. x2 − 5 = 0 2
d. 9x − 11 = 0
WE2c For questions 13–15 solve each of the following equations.

13. a. x2 − x − 6 = 0 b. x2 + 6x + 8 = 0
c. x2 − 6x − 7 = 0 d. x2 − 8x + 15 = 0

14. a. x2 − 3x − 4 = 0 b. x2 − 10x + 25 = 0 c. x2 − 3x − 10 = 0
d. x2 − 8x + 12 = 0 e. x2 − 4x − 21 = 0
15. a. x2 − x − 30 = 0 b. x2 − 7x + 12 = 0 c. x2 − 8x + 16 = 0
d. x2 + 10x + 25 = 0 e. x2 − 20x + 100 = 0
16. MC The solutions to the equation x2 + 9x − 10 = 0 are:

A. x = 1 and x = 10 B. x = 1 and x = −10 C. x = −1 and x = 10
D. x = −1 and x = −10 E. x = 1 and x = 9
17. MC The solutions to the equation x2 − 100 = 0 are:

D. x = 0 and x = 100 E. x = −100 and x = 100
WE2d For questions 18–20 solve each of the following equations.

18. a. 2x2 − 5x = 3 b. 3x2 + x − 2 = 0
c. 5x2 + 9x = 2 d. 6x2 − 11x + 3 = 0
19. a. 14x2 − 11x = 3 b. 12x2 − 7x + 1 = 0

c. 6x2 − 7x = 20 d. 12x2 + 37x + 28 = 0
20. a. 10x2 − x = 2 b. 6x2 − 25x + 24 = 0

c. 30x2 + 7x − 2 = 0 d. 3x2 − 21x = −36
WE3 For questions 21–26 solve the following equations by completing the square. Give exact answers.
21. a. x2 − 4x + 2 = 0 b. x2 + 2x − 2 = 0 c. x2 + 6x − 1 = 0
22. a. x2 − 8x + 4 = 0 b. x2 − 10x + 1 = 0 c. x2 − 2x − 2 = 0
23. a. x2 + 2x − 5 = 0 b. x2 + 4x − 6 = 0 c. x2 + 4x − 11 = 0
24. a. x2 − 3x + 1 = 0 b. x2 + 5x − 1 = 0 c. x2 − 7x + 4 = 0
25. a. x2 − 5 = x b. x2 − 11x + 1 = 0 c. x2 + x = 1
26. a. x2 + 3x − 7 = 0 b. x2 − 3 = 5x c. x2 − 9x + 4 = 0
For questions 27–29 solve each of the following equations, rounding answers to 2 decimal places.
27. a. 2x2 + 4x − 6 = 0 b. 3x2 + 12x − 3 = 0 c. 5x2 − 10x − 15 = 0
28. a. 4x2 − 8x − 8 = 0 b. 2x2 − 6x + 2 = 0 c. 3x2 − 9x − 3 = 0
29. a. 5x2 − 15x − 25 = 0 b. 7x2 + 7x − 21 = 0 c. 4x2 + 8x − 2 = 0
Understanding
30. WE4 When two consecutive numbers are multiplied, the result is 72. Determine the numbers.
31. When two consecutive even numbers are multiplied, the result is 48. Determine the numbers.
32. When a number is added to its square the result is 90. Determine the number.
33. Twice a number is added to three times its square. If the result is 16, determine the number.
34. Five times a number is added to two times its square. If the result is 168, determine the number.

35. WE5 A soccer ball is kicked. The height, h, in metres, of the soccer ball t seconds
after it is kicked can be represented by the equation h = −t(t − 6). Calculate how
long it takes for the soccer ball to hit the ground again.
36. The length of an Australian flag is twice its width and the diagonal length is 45 cm.
a. If x cm is the width of the flag, express its length in terms of x.
b. Draw a diagram of the flag marking in the diagonal. Label the length and the
width in terms of x.
c. Use Pythagoras’ theorem to write an equation relating the lengths of the sides to the length of
the diagonal.
d. Solve the equation to calculate the dimensions of the Australian flag. Round your answer to the
nearest cm.
37. If the length of a paddock is 2 m more than its width and the area is 48 m2 , calculate the length and width of
the paddock.
38. Solve for x.
6 24 1
a. x + 5 = b. x = c. x =
x x−5 x
Reasoning
n (n + 1)
39. The sum of the first n numbers 1, 2, 3, 4 … n is given by the formula S = .
2
a. Use the formula to calculate the sum of the first 6 counting numbers.
b. Determine how many numbers are added to give a sum of 153.
2x + 4 x+5
40. If these two rectangles have the same area, determine the value of x.
x+3
41. Henrietta is a pet rabbit who lives in an enclosure that is 2 m wide 3x – 6
and 4 m long. Her human family has decided to purchase some more
rabbits to keep her company and so the size of the enclosure must be
increased.
a. Draw a diagram of Henrietta’s enclosure, clearly marking the lengths of
the sides.
b. If the length and width of the enclosure are increased by x m, express the new
dimensions in terms of x.
c. If the new area is to be 24 m2 , write an equation relating the sides and the area
of the enclosure (area = length × width).
d. Use the equation to calculate the value of x and, hence, the length of the sides
of the new enclosure. Justify your answer.
42. The cost per hour, C, in thousands of dollars of running two cruise ships, Annabel and Betty, travelling at a
speed of s knots is given by the following relationships.
CAnnabel = 0.3s2 + 4.2s + 12 and CBetty = 0.4s2 + 3.6s + 8
a. Determine the cost per hour for each ship if they are both travelling at 28 knots.
b. Calculate the speed in knots at which both ships must travel for them to have the same cost.
c. Explain why only one of the solutions obtained in your working for part b is valid.

43. Explain why the equation x2 + 4x + 10 = 0 has no real solutions.
Problem solving
2
44. Solve (x2 − x) − 32(x2 − x) + 240 = 0 for x.
3z2 − 35
45. Solve − z = 0 for z.
16
46. A garden measuring 12 metres by 16 metres is to have a pedestrian pathway installed all around it, increasing
the total area to 285 square metres. Determine the width of the pathway.
16 m
x 12 m x
8.3 The quadratic formula

LEARNING INTENTION
• use the quadratic formula to solve equations
• use the quadratic formula to solve worded questions.
8.3.1 Using the quadratic formula

eles-4846
• The quadratic formula can be used to solve any equations in the form:
ax2 + bx + c = 0, where a, b and c are numbers.
• To use the quadratic formula:
•identify the values for a, b and c
•substitute the values into the quadratic formula.
• Note that the derivation of this formula is beyond the scope of this course.
The quadratic formula

The quadratic formula is:
√
−b ± b2 − 4ac
x=
2a
Note that the ± symbol is called the plus–minus sign. To use it, identify the first solution by treating it as a
plus, then identify the second solution by treating it as a minus.
• There will be no real solutions if the value in the square root is negative; that is, there will be no solutions
if b2 − 4ac < 0.

WORKED EXAMPLE 6 Using the quadratic formula to solve equations
Use the quadratic formula to solve each of the following equations.

a. 3x2 + 4x + 1 = 0 (exact answer)
b. −3x2 − 6x − 1 = 0 (round to 2 decimal places)
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Write the equation. a. 3x2 + 4x + 1 = 0

√
−b ± b2 − 4ac
2. Write the quadratic formula. x=
2a
3. State the values for a, b and c. where a = 3, b = 4, c = 1
√
−4 ± 42 − 4 × 3 × 1
4. Substitute the values into the formula. x=
2×3
√
−4 ± 4
5. Simplify and solve for x. =
6
−4 ± 2
=
6
−4 + 2 −4 − 2
x= or x =
6 6
1
6. Write the two solutions. x=− or x = −1
3
b. 1. Write the equation. b. −3x2 − 6x − 1 = 0
√
−b ± b2 − 4ac
2. Write the quadratic formula. x=
2a
3. State the values for a, b and c. where a = −3, b = −6, c = −1
√
−(−6) ± (−6)2 − 4 × (−3) × (−1)
4. Substitute the values into the formula. x=
2 × −3
√
6 ± 24
5. Simplify the fraction. =
−6
√
6±2 6
=
−6
√
3± 6
=
−3
√ √
3+ 6 3− 6
x= or
−3 −3
6. Write the two solutions correct to 2 decimal x ≈ −1.82 or x ≈ −0.18

places.
Note: When asked to give an answer in exact form, you should simplify any surds as necessary.

a-b. a-b. a-b. a-b.
In a new problem, on a On the Main screen in
Calculator page, complete standard, complete the
the entry lines as: entry lines as:
solve (3x2 + 4x + 1 = 0) solve (3x2 + 4x + 1 = 0)
solve (−3x2 − 6x − 1 = 0) solve (−3x2 − 6x − 1 = 0)
Then press ENTER after Press EXE after each
each entry. entry.
Press CTRL ENTER to get To change the final
a decimal approximation answer to a decimal,
for b. 3x2 + 4x + 1 = 0 change from standard to
1 decimal mode and press
⇒ x = −1 or −
3 EXE again.
−3x2 − 6x − 1 = 0
(√ )
√ 3x2 + 4x + 1 = 0
− 6+3 6−3
⇒x= or 1
3 3 ⇒ x = −1 or −
3
x = –1.82 or –0.18 rounding to −3x2 − 6x − 1 = 0
(√ )
2 decimal places. √
− 6+3 6−3
⇒x= or
3 3
x = –1.82 or –0.18 rounding to
2 decimal places.
DISCUSSION
What kind of answer will you get if the value inside the square root sign in the quadratic formula is zero?
Resources
Resourceseses
Digital document SkillSHEET Substituting into the quadratic formula (doc-5262)
Video eLesson The quadratic formula (eles-2314)

Interactivities Individual pathway interactivity: The quadratic formula (int-4602)
The quadratic formula (int-2561)
Exercise 8.3 The quadratic formula

Individual pathways
1, 3, 6, 9, 13, 18, 19, 22 2, 4, 7, 10, 11, 14, 17, 20, 23, 24 5, 8, 12, 15, 16, 21, 25
Fluency
1. State the values for a, b and c in each of the following equations of the form ax2 + bx + c = 0.
a. 3x2 − 4x + 1 = 0 b. 7x2 − 12x + 2 = 0
c. 8x2 − x − 3 = 0 d. x2 − 5x + 7 = 0

2. State the values for a, b and c in each of the following equations of the form ax2 + bx + c = 0.
a. 5x2 − 5x − 1 = 0 b. 4x2 − 9x − 3 = 0
c. 12x2 − 29x + 103 = 0 d. 43x2 − 81x − 24 = 0
WE6a For questions 3–5 use the quadratic formula to solve each of the following equations. Give exact answers.
3. a. x2 + 5x + 1 = 0 b. x2 + 3x − 1 = 0
c. x2 − 5x + 2 = 0 d. x2 − 4x − 9 = 0
4. a. x2 + 2x − 11 = 0 b. x2 − 7x + 1 = 0
c. x2 − 9x + 2 = 0 d. x2 − 6x − 3 = 0
5. a. x2 + 8x − 15 = 0 b. −x2 + x + 5 = 0
c. −x2 + 5x + 2 = 0 d. −x2 − 2x + 7 = 0
WE6b For questions 6–8 use the quadratic formula to solve each of the following equations. Give approximate
answers rounded to 2 decimal places.
6. a. 3x2 − 4x − 3 = 0 b. 4x2 − x − 7 = 0 c. 2x2 + 7x − 5 = 0
d. 7x2 + x − 2 = 0 e. 5x2 − 8x + 1 = 0
7. a. 2x2 − 13x + 2 = 0 b. −3x2 + 2x + 7 = 0 c. −7x2 + x + 8 = 0

d. −12x2 + x + 9 = 0 e. −6x2 + 4x + 5 = 0
8. a. −11x2 − x + 1 = 0 b. −4x2 − x + 7 = 0
c. −2x2 + 12x − 1 = 0 d. −5x2 + x + 3 = 0
9. MC The solutions of the equation 3x2 − 7x − 2 = 0 are:

A. 1, 2 B. 1, −2 C. −0.257, 2.59 D. −0.772, 7.772 E. −1.544, 15.544
10. MC In the expansion of (6x − 5) (3x + 4), the coefficient of x is:

A. 18 B. −15 C. 9 D. 6 E. −2
11. MC In the expanded form of (x − 2) (x + 4), identify which of the following statements is incorrect.
A. The value of the constant is −8.
B. The coefficient of the x term is −6.
C. The coefficient of the x term is 2.
D. The coefficient of the x2 term is 1.
E. The expansion shows this to be a trinomial expression.
12. MC Identify an exact solution to the equation x2 + 2x – 5 = 0.
√ √
A. −3.449 B. −1 + 24 C. −1 + 6
√ √
2 + −16 2 + 24
D. E.
2 2
Understanding
For questions 13–15 use each of the following equations using any suitable method. Round to 3 decimal places
where appropriate.
13. a. 2x2 − 7x + 3 = 0 b. x2 − 5x = 0 c. x2 − 2x − 3 = 0 d. x2 − 3x + 1 = 0
14. a. x2 − 6x + 8 = 0 b. x2 − 5x + 8 = 0 c. x2 − 7x − 8 = 0 d. x2 + 2x − 9 = 0
15. a. 2x2 + 11x − 21 = 0 b. 7x2 − 2x + 1 = 0 c. −x2 + 9x − 14 = 0 d. −6x2 − x + 1 = 0

16. The surface area of a closed cylinder is given by the formula SA = 2𝜋r (r + h), where r cm is the radius of
the can and h cm is the height.
The height of a can of wood finish is 7 cm and its surface area is 231 cm2 .
a. Substitute values into the formula to form a quadratic equation using the pronumeral, r.
b. Use the quadratic formula to solve the equation and, hence, determine the radius of the can correct
to 1 decimal place.
c. Calculate the area of the curved surface of the can, correct to the nearest square centimetre.
x
17. To satisfy lighting requirements, the window shown must have an area of 1500 cm2 .
a. Write an expression for the area of the window in terms of x.
30 cm
b. Write an equation so that the window satisfies the lighting requirements.
c. Use the quadratic formula to solve the equation and calculate x to the nearest mm.
18. When using the quadratic formula, you are required to calculate b2 (inside the square x
2 2 2 2
root sign). When b = −3, Breanne says that b = −(3) but Kelly says that b = (−3) .
a. What answer did Breanne calculate for b2 ?
b. What answer did Kelly calculate for b2 ?
c. Identify who is correct and explain why.
Reasoning
19. There is one solution to the quadratic equation if b2 − 4ac = 0. The following have one solution only.
Determine the missing value.
a. a = 1 and b = 4, c = ?
b. a = 2 and c = 8, b = ?
c. 2x2 + 12x + c = 0, c = ?
20. Two competitive neighbours build rectangular pools that cover the same area but are different shapes. Pool A
has a width of (x + 3) m and a length that is 3 m longer than its width. Pool B has a length that is double the
width of Pool A. The width of Pool B is 4 m shorter than its length.
a. Determine the exact dimensions of each pool if their areas are the same.
b. Verify that the areas are the same.
21. A block of land is in the shape of a right-angled triangle with a perimeter of 150 m and a hypotenuse of
65 m. Determine the lengths of the other two sides. Show your working.
Problem solving
( )2 ( )
1 1
22. Solve x + − 14 x + = 72 for x.
x x
1 2 7
23. Gunoor’s tennis serve can be modelled using y = − x + x + 2. The
16 8
landing position of his serve will be one of the solutions to this equation
when y = 0.
1 7
a. For − x2 + x + 2 = 0, determine the values of a, b and c in
16 8
ax2 + bx + c = 0.
b. Using a calculator, calculate the solutions to this equation.
c. Gunoor’s serve will be ‘in’ if one solution is between 12 and 18, and
a ‘fault’ if no solutions are between those values. Interpret whether
Gunoor’s serve was ‘in’ or if it was a ‘fault’.

24. Triangle MNP is an isosceles triangle with sides MN = MP = 3 cm. M
Angle MPN is equal to 72°. The line NQ bisects the angle MNP.
a. Prove that triangles MNP and NPQ are similar.
b. If NP = m cm and PQ = 3 – m cm, show that m2 + 3m − 9 = 0.
c. Solve the equation m2 + 3m − 9 = 0 and determine the side length of NP,
giving your answer correct to 2 decimal places.
3 cm
25. The equation ax4 + bx2 + c = 0 can be solved by applying substitution and the
rules used to solve quadratics. Q
For example, x4 − 5x2 + 4 = 0 is solved for x as follows.
2
Notice that x4 − 5x2 + 4 = (x2 ) − 5(x)2 + 4. Now let x2 = u and substitute.
72°
2 N P
(x2 ) − 5(x)2 + 4 = u2 − 5u + 4
Solve for u. That is,
u2 − 5u + 4 = 0
(u − 4)(u − 1) = 0
u − 4 = 0 or u − 1 = 0
u = 4 or u = 1
Since x2 = u, that implies that

x2 = 4 or x2 = 1
x = ±2 or x = ±1
Using this or another method, solve the following for x.
a. x4 − 13x2 + 36 = 0 b. 4x4 − 17x2 = −4
8.4 Solving quadratic equations graphically

LEARNING INTENTION
• identify the solutions to ax2 + bx + c = 0 by inspecting the graph of y = ax2 + bx + c
• recognise whether ax2 + bx + c = 0 has two, one or no solutions by looking at the graph.
8.4.1 Solving quadratic equations graphically

eles-4847
• To solve quadratic equations, look at the graph of y = ax2 + bx + c.
y
The solutions to ax2 + bx + c = 0 are the x-axis intercepts, where
•
the graph ‘cuts’ the x-axis. y = ax2 + bx + c
• The number of x-axis intercepts will indicate the number of
solutions.
(0, c)
0 x
Solutions
to ax2 + bx + c = 0

Number of solutions
Two solutions One solution No real solutions

The graph ‘cuts’ the The graph ‘touches’ the x-axis. The graph does not reach the
x-axis twice. For example: x-axis.
For example: For example:
y y y
2 10 10
0 x
–4 –2 2
–2 5 5
y = x2 – 4x + 4
–4
y= x2 + 2x – 3
y = 3x2 – 4x + 4
–6 x x
0 2 4 –2 0 2
WORKED EXAMPLE 7 Determining solutions from the graph
Determine the solutions of each of the following quadratic equations by inspecting their
corresponding graphs. Give answers to 1 decimal place where appropriate.
a. x2 + x − 2 = 0 b. 2x2 + 4x − 5 = 0
y y
3 6
2 4
1 2
0 x 0 x
–3 –2 –1 1 2 3 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3
–1 –2
y = x2 + x – 2
–2 –4
–3 –6
–8

THINK WRITE/DRAW
2
a. 1. Examine the graph of y = x + x − 2 and a. y
locate the points where y = 0, that is, where 3
the graph intersects the x-axis.
2
0 x
–3 –2 –1 1 2 3
–1
y = x2 + x – 2
–2
–3
2. The graph cuts the x-axis (y = 0) at x = 1 and From the graph, the solutions are x = 1 and x = −2.
x = −2. Write the solutions.
b. 1. The graph of y = 2x2 − 4x − 5 is equal to zero b. y
when y = 0. Look at the graph to see where 6
y = 0, that is, where it intersects the x-axis.
By sight, we can only give estimates of the 4
solutions.
2
0 x
–3 –2 –1 1 2 3
–2
–4
–6
–8
2. The graph cuts the x-axis at approximately From the graph, the solutions are x ≈ −0.9 and
x = −0.9 and approximately x = 2.9. Write the x ≈ 2.9.
solutions.

a. a. a. a.
In a new problem, on a Graphs On the Graph & Table screen,
page, complete the function complete the function entry line
entry line as: as:
f1(x) = x2 + x − 2 y1 = x2 + x − 2
Then press ENTER. The graph Press EXE.
will be displayed. Then tap the graphing icon.
To locate the x-intercepts, The graph will be displayed. To
press: locate the x-intercepts, tap the
• MENU Y = 0 icon.
• 6: Analyze Graph x2 + x − 2 = 0 To locate the second root, tap the
• 1: Zero ⇒ x = 1 or − 2 right arrow.
Move the cursor to the left of
the zero, press ENTER, then x2 + x − 2 = 0
move the cursor to the right of ⇒ x = 1 or − 2
the zero and press ENTER. The
coordinates of the x-intercept
are displayed. Repeat for the
other x-intercept.
b. b. b. b.
On a Graphs page, complete On the Graph & Table screen,
the function entry line as: complete the function entry line
f1(x) = 2x2 − 4x − 5 as:
Then press ENTER. The graph y1 = 2x2 − 4x − 5
will be displayed. Press EXE.
To locate the x-intercepts, Then tap the graphing icon.
press: The graph will be displayed. To
• MENU locate the x-intercepts, tap the
• 6: Analyze Graph Y = 0 icon.
• 1: Zero 2x2 − 4x − 5 = 0 To locate the second root, tap the
Move the cursor to the left of ⇒ x ≈ −0.9 or 2.91 right arrow.
the zero, press ENTER, then correct to 1 decimal place.
move the cursor to the right of 2x2 − 4x − 5 = 0
the zero and press ENTER. The ⇒ x ≈ −0.9 or 2.9
coordinates of the x-intercept correct to 1 decimal place.
are displayed. Repeat for the
other x-intercept.
8.4.2 Confirming solutions of quadratic equations

eles-4848
• To confirm a solution is correct:
• substitute one solution for x into the quadratic equation
• the solution is confirmed if the left-hand side (LHS) equals the right-hand side (RHS)
• repeat for the second solution if applicable.
WORKED EXAMPLE 8 Confirming solutions by substitution
Confirm, by substitution, the solutions obtained in Worked example 7a:

x2 + x − 2 = 0; solutions: x = 1 and x = −2.
THINK WRITE
1. Write the left-hand side of the equation and When x = 1,
substitute x = 1 into the expression. LHS: x2 + x − 2 = 12 + 1 − 2
=0

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2. Write the right-hand side. RHS = 0

3. Confirm the solution. LHS = RHS ⇒ Solution is confirmed.
4. Write the left-hand side and substitute x = −2. When x = −2,
LHS: x2 + x − 2 = (−2)2 + −2 − 2
=4−2− 2
=0
5. Write the right-hand side. RHS = 0

6. Confirm the solution. LHS = RHS ⇒ Solution is confirmed
WORKED EXAMPLE 9 Solving application questions using a graph
A golf ball hit along a fairway follows the path shown in the
following graph. The height, h metres after it has travelled
1 ( 2 )
x metres horizontally, follows the rule h = x − 180x .
270
Use the graph to identify how far the ball landed from
the golfer.
y
30
1
Height, h (m)
h = – ––– (x2 – 180x)

20 270
10
0 x
90 180
Distance, x (m)
THINK WRITE
On the graph, the ground is represented by the The golf ball lands 180 m from the golfer.
x-axis since this is where h = 0. The golf ball
lands when the graph intersects the x-axis.
DISCUSSION
What does ‘the solution of a graph’ mean?

Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivities Individual pathway interactivity: Solving quadratic equations graphically (int-4603)
Solving quadratic equations graphically (int-6148)
Exercise 8.4 Solving quadratic equations graphically

Individual pathways
1, 4, 7, 10 2, 5, 8, 11 3, 6, 9, 12
Fluency
1. a. WE7 Determine the solutions of each of the following quadratic equations by inspecting the
corresponding graphs.
i. x2 − x − 6 = 0 ii. x2 − 11x + 10 = 0
y y
12 16
8 8
4
0 x
–2 2 4 6 8 10 12
x –8
–6 –4 –2 0 2 4 6
–4 –16
y = x2 – x – 6
y = x2 – 11x + 10
–8 –24
iii. −x2 + 25 = 0
30
y = –x2 + 25
20
10
0 x
–6 –4 –2 2 4 6
–10
b. WE8 Confirm, by substitution, the solutions obtained in part a.

2. a. Determine the solutions of each of the following quadratic equations by inspecting the corresponding
graphs. Give answers correct to 1 decimal place where appropriate.
i. 2x2 − 8x + 8 = 0 ii. x2 − 3x − 4 = 0
y y
25 15
20 10
y = x2 – 3x – 4
10 5
y = 2x2 – 8x + 8
0 x 0 x
–1 1 2 3 4 5 6 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 6
–10 –5
–20 –10
iii. x2 − 3x − 6 = 0
y
15
10
y = x2 – 3x – 6
5
0 x
–1 1 2 3 4 5 6
–5
–10
b. Confirm, by substitution, the solutions obtained in part a.
3. a. Determine the solutions of each of the following quadratic equations by inspecting the
corresponding graphs.
i. x2 + 15x − 250 = 0 ii. −x2 = 0
y y
300 5
y = –x2
100 x
–5 0 5
x
–30 –20 –10 0 10 –5
–100
–300 –10
y = x2 + 15x – 250
–500 –15

iii. x2 + x − 3 = 0 iv. 2x2 + x − 3 = 0
y y
5 5
0 x 0 x
–4 –2 2 4 –2 –1 1 2
y = x2 + x – 3 y = 2x2 + x – 3
–5 –5
b. Confirm, by substitution, the solutions obtained in part a.
Understanding
4. WE9 A golf ball hit along a fairway follows the path shown in the graph.
1 2
The height, h metres after it has travelled x metres horizontally, follows the rule h = − (x − 150x). Use the
200
graph to identify how far the ball lands from the golfer.
h 1
28 h = – ––– (x2 – 150x)
200
Height, h (m)
0 x
75 150
Distance, x (m)
5. MC Use the graph to determine how many solutions the equation y

x2 + 3 = 0 has. 5
A. No real solutions
B. One solution 4
C. Two solutions y = x2 + 3
3
D. Three solutions
E. Four solutions
2
6. MC For the equation x2 + c = 0, what values of c will give two solutions, one
solution and no real solutions? 1
A. Two solutions c > 0; one solution c = 0; no solutions c < 0

B. Two solutions c = 2; one solution c = 0; no solutions c = −2 0 x
–2 –1 1 2
C. Two solutions c < 0; one solution c = 0; no solutions c > 0
D. Two solutions c = 2; one solution c = 1; no solutions c = 0
E. Two solutions c < 0; one solution c = 0; one solutions c = 1

Reasoning
7. Two graphs are shown. y
2
a. What are the solutions to both graphs? y = x2 – 1
b. Look at the shapes of the graphs. Explain the similarities and differences. 1
c. Look at the equations of the graphs. Explain the similarities and
differences.
0 x
–2 –1 1 2
8. a. The x-intercepts of a particular equation are x = 2 and x = 5. Suggest a
–1
possible equation.
y = –(x2 – 1)
b. If the y-intercept in part a is (0, 4), give the exact equation. –2
9. a. The x-intercepts of a particular equation are x = p and x = q. Suggest a
possible equation.
b. If the y-intercept in part a is (0, r), give the exact equation.
Problem solving
10. A ball is thrown upwards from a building and follows the path shown in
h
the graph until it lands on the ground. 25
The ball is h metres above the ground when it is a horizontal distance of h = –x2 + 4x + 21
x metres from the building. 21
The path of the ball follows the rule h = −x2 + 4x + 21.
a. Use the graph to identify how far from the building the ball lands.
b. Use the graph to determine the height the ball was thrown from.
0 x
2 7
11. A platform diver follows a path determined by the equation

h = −0.5d2 + 2d + 6, where h represents the height of the diver
above the water and d represents the distance from the diving
board. Both pronumerals are measured in metres.
h h = –0.5d 2 + 2d + 6
8
0 2 4 6 d
Use the graph to determine:
a. how far the diver landed from the edge of the diving board
b. how high the diving board is above the water
c. the maximum height reached by the diver when they are in the air.

12. Determine the equation of the given parabola. Give your answer in the form y = ax2 + bx + c.
y
20
10
0 x
–1 1 2 3 4 5 6
–10
–20
–30
–40
8.5 The discriminant

LEARNING INTENTION
• calculate the value of the discriminant
• use the value of the discriminant to determine the number of solutions and type of solutions
• calculate the discriminant for simultaneous equations to determine whether two graphs intersect.
8.5.1 Using the discriminant

eles-4849
• The discriminant is the value inside the square root sign in the quadratic formula.
• The discriminant can be found for equations in the form ax2 + bx + c = 0.
The discriminant
Δ = b2 − 4ac
• The symbol Δ represents the discriminant. This symbol is the Greek capital letter delta.
• The discriminant is found from:
√
−b ± b2 − 4ac
x=
2a
√
−b ± Δ
x=
2a
• The value of the discriminant indicates the number of solutions for a quadratic equation.
• Δ < 0: if the discriminant is negative there are no real solutions.
• Δ = 0: if the discriminant is zero there is one solution.
• Δ > 0: if the discriminant is positive there are two solutions.
• A positive discriminant that is a perfect square (e.g. 16, 25, 144) gives two rational solutions.
• A positive discriminant that is not a perfect square (e.g. 7, 11, 15) gives two irrational
(surd) solutions.

WORKED EXAMPLE 10 Using the discriminant to determine the number of solutions
Calculate the value of the discriminant for each of the following and use it to determine how many
solutions the equation will have.
a. 2x2 + 9x − 5 = 0 b. x2 + 10 = 0
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Write the expression and determine the values a. 2x2 + 9x − 5 = 0

2
of a, b and c given ax + bx + c = 0. 2x2 + 9x + −5 = 0
a = 2, b = 9, c = −5
2. Write the formula for the discriminant and Δ = b2 − 4ac

substitute values of a, b and c. = 92 − 4 × 2 × −5
3. Simplify the equation and solve. = 81 − (−40)

= 121
4. State the number of solutions. In this case Δ > 0, so there will be two solutions to the
Δ > 0, which means there are two solutions. equation 2x2 + 9x − 5 = 0.
b. 1. Write the expression and determine the values b. x2 + 10 = 0

of a, b and c given ax2 + bx + c = 0. 1x2 + 0x + 10 = 0
a = 1, b = 0, c = 10
2. Write the formula for the discriminant and Δ = b2 − 4ac

substitute the values of a, b and c. = 02 − 4 × 1 × 10
= 0 − 40
= −40
3. State the number of solutions. In this case Δ < 0, so there will be no solutions to the
Δ < 0, which means there are no solutions. equation x2 + 10 = 0.
8.5.2 Using the discriminant to determine if graphs intersect

eles-4850
• The table below summarises the number of points of intersection by the graph, indicated by
the discriminant.
Δ > 0 (positive)
Δ < 0 (negative) Δ = 0 (zero) Perfect square Not a perfect square
Number of No real solutions 1 rational solution 2 rational 2 irrational (surd)
solutions solutions solutions
Description Graph does not cross Graph touches the x-axis Graph intersects the x-axis twice
or touch the x-axis
Graph y y y
a
x
x x
–a b

WORKED EXAMPLE 11 Using the discriminant to determine the number and type
of solutions
By using the discriminant, determine whether the following equations have:
i. two rational solutions ii. two irrational solutions
iii. one solution iv. no real solutions.
a. x2 − 9x − 10 = 0 b. x2 − 2x − 14 = 0
c. x2 − 2x + 14 = 0 d. x2 − 14x = −49
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Write the equation. a. x2 − 9x − 10 = 0

2. Identify the coefficients a, b and c. a = 1, b = −9, c = −10
3. Calculate the discriminant. Δ = b2 − 4ac
= (−9)2 − 4 × 1 × (−10)
= 121
4. Identify the number and type of solutions The equation has two rational solutions.
when Δ > 0 and is a perfect square.
b. 1. Write the equation. b. x2 − 2x − 14 = 0
2. Identify the coefficients a, b and c. a = 1, b = −2, c = −14
= (−2)2 − 4 × 1 × (−14)
= 60
4. Identify the number and type of solutions The equation has two irrational solutions.
when Δ > 0 but not a perfect square.
c. 1. Write the equation. c. x2 − 2x + 14 = 0
2. Identify the coefficients a, b and c. a = 1, b = −2, c = 14
= (−2)2 − 4 × 1 × 14
= −52
4. Identify the number and type of solutions The equation has no real solutions.
when Δ < 0.
d. 1. Write the equation, then rewrite it so the d. x2 + 14x = −49
right side equals zero. x2 + 14x + 49 = 0
2. Identify the coefficients a, b and c. a = 1, b = 14, c = 49

= 142 − 4 × 1 × 49
=0
4. Identify the number and types of solutions The equation has one solution.
when Δ = 0.

“c08QuadraticEquations_PrintPDF” — 2021/12/11 — 12:34 — page 498 — #30

a-d. a-d. a-d. a-d.
the entry lines as: the entry lines as:
b2 − 4ac | a = 1 and b = −9 b2 − 4ac | a = 1 | b = −9 |
and c = −10 c = −10
b2 − 4ac | a = 1 and b = −2 b2 − 4ac | a = 1 | b = −2 |
and c = −14 c = −14
b2 − 4ac | a = 1 and b = −2 b2 − 4ac | a = 1 | b = −2 |
and c = 14 c = 14
If ∆ = 121, the equation has two
b2 − 4ac | a = 1 and b = 14 b2 − 4ac | a = 1 | b = 14 | c = 49
rational solutions.
and c = 49
If ∆ = 60, the equation has two Press EXE after each entry.
Press ENTER after each entry. irrational solutions.
If ∆ = −52,the equation has no
If ∆ = 121, the equation has
real solutions.
two rational solutions.
If ∆ = 0, the equation has one
solution.
two irrational solutions.
If ∆ = −52,the equation has
no real solutions.
one solution.
• In topic 4 we saw that simultaneous equations can be solved graphically, where the intersection of the two
graphs is the solution.
• The discriminant can be used to determine whether a solution exists for two equations and, hence, whether
the graphs intersect.
WORKED EXAMPLE 12 Using the discriminant to determine if graphs intersect
Determine whether the parabola y = x2 − 2 and the line y = x − 3 intersect.
THINK WRITE
1. If the parabola and the line intersect, y1 = x2 − 2
there will be at least one solution to the y2 = x − 3
simultaneous equations: let y1 = y2 .
y1 = y2
x2 − 2 = x − 3
2. Collect all terms on one side and simplify. x2 − 2 − x + 3 = x − 3 − x + 3

x2 − 2 − x + 3 = 0
x2 − x + 1 = 0
3. Use the discriminant to check if any Δ = b2 − 4ac

solutions exist. a = 1, b = −1, c = 1
If Δ < 0, then no solutions exist. Δ = (−1)2 − 4 × 1 × 1
= 1−4
= −3
Δ < 0, ∴ no solutions exist
4. Write the answer in a sentence. The parabola and the line do not intersect.

DISCUSSION
What does the discriminant tell us?
Resources
Resourceseses
Video eLesson The discriminant (eles-1946)

Interactivities Individual pathway interactivity: The discriminant (int-4604)
The discriminant (int-2560)
Exercise 8.5 The discriminant

Individual pathways
1, 4, 9, 11, 15, 19, 22 2, 5, 7, 12, 14, 18, 20, 23 3, 6, 8, 10, 13, 16, 17, 21, 24
Fluency
WE10 For questions 1–3 calculate the value of the discriminant for each of the following and use it to determine
how many solutions the equation will have.
1. a. 6x2 + 13x − 5 = 0 b. x2 + 9x − 90 = 0 c. x2 + 4x − 2 = 0
d. 36x2 − 1 = 0 e. x2 + 2x + 8 = 0
2. a. x2 − 5x − 14 = 0 b. 36x2 + 24x + 4 = 0 c. x2 − 19x + 88 = 0

d. x2 − 10x + 17 = 0 e. 30x2 + 17x − 21 = 0
3. a. x2 + 16x + 62 = 0 b. 9x2 − 36x + 36 = 0 c. 2x2 − 16x = 0 d. x2 − 64 = 0
4. WE11 By using the discriminant, determine whether the equations below have:
a. x2 − 3x + 5 b. 4x2 − 20x + 25 = 0
c. x2 + 9x − 22 = 0 d. 9x2 + 12x + 4
5. By using the discriminant, determine whether the equations below have:

a. x2 + 3x − 7 = 0 b. 25x2 − 10x + 1 = 0
c. 3x2 − 2x − 4 = 0 d. 2x2 − 5x + 4 = 0
6. By using the discriminant, determine whether the equations below have:

a. x2 − 10x + 26 = 0 b. 3x2 + 5x − 7 = 0
c. 2x2 + 7x − 10 = 0 d. x2 − 11x + 30 = 0

7. WE12 Determine whether the following graphs intersect.
a. y = −x2 + 3x + 4 and y = x − 4 b. y = −x2 + 3x + 4 and y = 2x + 5
2 2
c. y = −(x + 1) + 3 and y = −4x − 1 d. y = (x − 1) + 5 and y = −4x − 1
8. Consider the equation 3x2 + 2x + 7 = 0.

a. Identify the values of a, b and c.
b. Calculate the value of b2 − 4ac.
c. State how many real solutions, and hence x-intercepts, are there for this equation.
9. Consider the equation −6x2 + x + 3 = 0.

a. Identify the values of a, b and c.
b. Calculate the value of b2 − 4ac.
c. State how many real solutions, and hence x-intercepts, there are for this equation.
10. Consider the equation −6x2 + x + 3 = 0. With the information gained from the discriminant, use the most
efficient method to solve the equation. Give an exact answer.
11. MC Identify the discriminant of the equation x2 − 4x − 5 = 0.
A. 36 B. 11 C. 4 D. 0 E. −4
12. MC Identify which of the following quadratic equations has two irrational solutions.
2
A. x − 8x + 16 = 0 B. 2x2 − 7x = 0 C. x2 + 8x + 9 = 0
D. x2 − 4 = 0 E. x2 − 6x + 15 = 0
13. MC The equation x2 = 2x − 3 has:

A. two rational solutions B. exactly one solution
C. no solutions D. two irrational solutions
E. one rational and one irrational solution
Understanding
14. Determine the value of k if x2 − 2x − k = 0 has one solution.
15. Determine the value of m for which mx2 − 6x + 5 = 0 has one solution.
16. Determine the values of n when x2 − 3x − n = 0 has two solutions.
17. The path of a dolphin as it leaps out of the water can be modelled by the equation h = −0.4d2 + d, where h is
the dolphin’s height above water and d is the horizontal distance from its starting point. Both h and d are in
metres.
a. Calculate how high above the water the dolphin is when it
has travelled 2 m horizontally from its starting point.
b. Determine the horizontal distance the dolphin has covered
when it first reaches a height of 25 cm.
c. Determine the horizontal distance the dolphin has covered
when it next reaches a height of 25 cm. Explain your answer.
d. Determine the horizontal distance the dolphin covers in one
leap. (Hint: What is the value of h when the dolphin has
completed its leap?)
e. During a leap, determine whether this dolphin reaches a
height of:
i. 0.5 m ii. 1 m.
Explain how you can determine this without actually solving
the equation.
f. Determine the greatest height the dolphin reaches during a leap.

18. a. Determine how many times the parabolas y = x2 − 4 and y = 4 − x2 intersect.
b. Determine the coordinates of their points of intersection.
Reasoning
19. Show that 3x2 + px − 2 = 0 will have real solutions for all values of p.

a. Determine the values of a for which the straight line y = ax + 1 will have one intersection with the
parabola y = −x2 − x − 8.
b. Determine the values of b for which the straight line y = 2x + b will not intersect with the parabola
y = x2 + 3x − 5.
2
a. Identify how many points of intersection exist between the parabola y = −2(x + 1) − 5,
where y = f (x) , x ∈ R, and the straight line y = mx − 7, where y = f (x) , x ∈ R.
b. Determine the value of m (where m < 0) such that y = mx − 7 has one intersection point with
y = −m(x + 1)2 − 5.
Problem solving
a. If Δ = 9, a = 1 and b = 5, use the quadratic formula to determine the two solutions of x.
b. If Δ = 9, a = 1 and b = 5, calculate the value of c.
23. The parabola with the general equation y = ax2 + bx + 9 where 0 < a < 0 and 0 < b < 20 touches the x-axis at
one point only. The graph passes through the point (1, 25). Determine the values of a and b.
24. The line with equation kx + y = 3 is a tangent to the curve with equation y = kx2 + kx − 1. Determine the
value of k.

8.6 Review
8.6.1 Topic summary
Standard quadratic equation Solving quadratic The discriminant

equations graphically
• Quadratic equations are in the form: • The discriminant indicates the
ax2 + bx + c = 0 • Inspect the graph of y = ax2 + bx + c. number and type of solutions.
where a, b and c are numbers. • The solutions to ax2 + bx + c = 0 are Δ = b2 – 4ac
e.g. In the equation –5x2 + 2 x – 4 = 0, the x-axis intercepts. • Δ < 0: no real solutions
a = –5, b = 2 and c = –4. • Δ = 0: one solution
y
• Δ > 0: two solutions (if perfect
y = ax2 + bx + c square then two rational solutions,
if not a perfect square then two
irrational solutions)
• A positive discriminant that is a
(0, c)
perfect square (e.g. 16, 25, 144)
gives two rational solutions.
• A positive discriminant that is not a
0 x
perfect square (e.g. 7, 11, 15) gives
two irrational (surd) solutions.
Solutions
to ax2 + bx + c = 0
QUADRATIC EQUATIONS
Solving quadratic equations algebraically

• Use algebra to determine the x-value solutions to ax2 + bc + c = 0.
• There will be two, one or no solutions.
Factorising Quadratic formula

Factorise using: To use the quadratic formula:
• common factor • identify the values for a, b
• difference of two squares and c
• factor pairs • substitute the values into the
• completing the square. quadratic formula.
–b ± b2 – 4ac
x= –
2a
Note: The ± symbol is called the
Null Factor Law plus–minus sign.
• Once an equation is factorised, then
apply the Null Factor Law.
• Set the products equal to zero.
• Solve for x.
• If the product of two numbers is
zero, then one or both numbers
must be zero.

8.2 I can use the Null Factor Law to solve quadratic equations.
I can use the completing the square technique to solve quadratic

equations.
I can solve worded questions algebraically.
8.3 I can use the quadratic formula to solve equations.
I can use the quadratic formula to solve worded questions.
8.4 I can identify the solutions to ax2 + bx + c = 0 by inspecting the graph of

y = ax2 + bx + c.
I can recognise whether ax2 + bx + c = 0 has two, one or no solutions by
looking at the graph.
8.5 I can calculate the value of the discriminant.
I can use the value of the discriminant to determine the number of

solutions and type of solutions.
I can calculate the discriminant for simultaneous equations to determine
whether two graphs intersect.
8.6.3 Project
Weaving
Many articles of clothing are sewn from materials that show designs and
patterns made by weaving together threads of different colours. Intricate
and complex designs can result. Let’s investigate some very simple
repetitive patterns. Knowledge of quadratic equations and the quadratic
formula is helpful in creating these designs.
We need to understand the process of weaving. Weaving machines
have parts called warps. Each warp is divided into a number of blocks.
Consider a pattern that is made up of a series of blocks, where the first
block is all one colour except for the last thread, which is a different
colour.
Let’s say our pattern is red and blue. The first block contains all red threads, except for the last one, which
is blue. The next block has all red threads, except for the last two threads, which are blue. The pattern
continues in this manner. The last block has the first thread as red and the remainder as blue. The warp
consists of a particular number of threads, let’s say 42 threads.
How many blocks and threads per block would be necessary to create a pattern of this type?

To produce this pattern, we need to divide the warp into equally
Block 1
sized blocks, if possible. What size block and how many
threads per block would give us the 42-thread warp? We will
need to look for a mathematical pattern. Look at the table Block 2
(below), where we consider the smallest block consisting of
2 threads through to a block consisting of 7 threads. Block n
Pattern Number of threads per block Number of blocks Total threads in warp
RB 2 1 2
RRB RBB 3 2 6
RRRB RRBB 4
RBBB
5
6
7
1. Complete the entries in the table.

2. Consider a block consisting of n threads.
a. How many blocks would be needed?
b. What would be the total number of threads in the warp?
The 42-thread warp was chosen as a simple example to show the procedure
involved in determining the number of blocks required and the number of
threads per block. In this particular case, 6 blocks of 7 threads per block
would give us our design for a 42-thread warp. In practice, you would not
approach the problem by drawing up a table to determine the number of
blocks and the size of each block.
3. Take your expression in question 2b and let it equal 42. This should form a quadratic equation. Solve
this equation to verify that you would need 6 blocks with 7 threads per block to fulfil the size of a
42-thread warp.
4. In reality, the size of each block is not always clearly defined. Also, the thread warp sizes are generally
much larger, about 250. Let’s determine the number of threads per block and the number of blocks
required for a 250-thread warp.
a. Form your quadratic equation with the thread warp size equal to 250.
b. A solution to this equation can be found using the quadratic formula. Use the quadratic formula to
determine a solution.
c. The number of threads per block is represented by n and this obviously must be a whole number.
Round your solution down to the nearest whole number.
d. How many whole blocks are needed?
e. Use your solutions to c and d to determine the total number of threads used for the pattern.
f. How many more threads do you need to make the warp size equal to 250 threads?
g. Distribute these threads by including them at the beginning of the first block and the end of the last
block. Describe your overall pattern.
5. Investigate the number of blocks required and threads per block required for a 400-thread warp.
6. Investigate changing the pattern. Let the first block be all red. In the next block, change the colour of the
first and last threads to blue. With each progressive block, change the colour of an extra thread at the top
and bottom to blue until the last block is all blue. On a separate sheet of paper, draw a table to determine
the thread warp size for a block size of n threads. Draw the pattern and describe the result for a particular
warp size.

Resources
Resourceseses

Fluency
1. MC Identify the solutions to the equation x2 + 10x − 11 = 0.
D. x = −1 and x = −11 E. x = 1 and x = 10
2. MC Identify the solutions to the equation −5x2 + x + 3 = 0.

3
A. x = 1 and x = B. x = −0.68 and x = 0.88 C. x = 3 and x = −5
5
3
D. x = 0.68 and x = −0.88 E. x = 1 and x = −
5
3. MC Identify the discriminant of the equation x2 − 11x + 30 = 0.

A. 1 B. 241 C. 91 D. 19 E. −11
4. MC Choose from the following equations which has two irrational solutions.
2
A. x − 6x + 9 = 0 B. 4x2 − 11x = 0 C. x2 − 25 = 0
2 2
D. x + 8x + 2 = 0 E. x − 4x + 10 = 0
5. The area of a pool is (6x2 + 11x + 4) m2 . Determine the length of the rectangular pool if its width
is (2x + 1) m.

6. Determine the solutions of the following equations, by first factorising the left-hand side.
a. x2 + 8x + 15 = 0 b. x2 + 7x + 6 = 0 c. x2 + 11x + 24 = 0
d. x2 + 4x − 12 = 0 e. x2 − 3x − 10 = 0
a. x2 + 3x − 28 = 0 b. x2 − 4x + 3 = 0
c. x2 − 11x + 30 = 0 d. x2 − 2x − 35 = 0
a. 2x2 + 16x + 24 = 0 b. 3x2 + 9x + 6 = 0 c. 4x2 + 10x − 6 = 0
d. 5x2 + 25x − 70 = 0 e. 2x2 − 7x − 4 = 0
a. 6x2 − 8x − 8 = 0 b. 2x2 − 6x + 4 = 0
c. 6x2 − 25x + 25 = 0 d. 2x2 + 13x − 7 = 0
10. Determine the solutions to the following equations by completing the square.
a. x2 + 8x − 1 = 0 b. 3x2 + 6x − 15 = 0 c. −4x2 − 3x + 1 = 0
11. Ten times an integer is added to seven times its square. If the result is 152, calculate the
original number.
12. By using the quadratic formula, determine the solutions to the following equations. Give your answers
a. 4x2 − 2x − 3 = 0 b. 7x2 + 4x − 1 = 0 c. −8x2 − x + 2 = 0
13. By using the quadratic formula, determine the solutions to the following equations. Give your answers
a. 18x2 − 2x − 7 = 0 b. 29x2 − 105x − 24 = 0 c. −5x2 + 2 = 0
14. The graph of y = x2 − 4x − 21 is shown.
0 x
–4 –2 2 4 6
–5
–10
y = x2 – 4x – 21
–15
–20
–25 (2, –25)
Use the graph to identify the solutions to the quadratic equation x2 − 4x − 21 = 0.

15. Determine the solutions to the equation −2x2 − 4x + 6 = 0.
y
10
5
y = –2x2 – 4x + 6
0 x
–6 –4 –2 2 4 6
–5
–10
16. By using the discriminant, determine the number and nature of the solutions for the
following equations.
a. x2 + 11x + 9 = 0 b. 3x2 + 2x − 5 = 0 c. x2 − 3x + 4 = 0
17. What are the solutions to the pair of simultaneous equations shown below?
y = x2 + 4x − 10
y = 6 − 2x
18. Solve the following pair of simultaneous equations to determine the point(s) of intersection.
y = x2 − 7x + 20
y = 3x − 5
19. Determine the solutions to the pair of simultaneous equations shown to determine the point(s)
of intersection.
y = x2 + 7x + 11
y=x
20. For each of the following pairs of equations:

i. solve simultaneously to determine the points of intersection
ii. illustrate the solution (or lack of solution) by sketching a graph.
a. y = x2 + 6x + 5 and y = 11x − 1
b. y = x2 + 5x − 6 and y = 8x − 8
c. y = x2 + 9x + 14 and y = 3x + 5
21. For each of the following pairs of equations:

i. solve simultaneously to determine the points of intersection
ii. illustrate the solution (or lack of solution) by sketching a graph.
a. y = x2 − 7x + 10 and y = −11x + 6
b. y = −x2 + 14x − 48 and y = 13x − 54
c. y = −x2 + 4x + 12 and y = 9x + 16

Problem solving
22. When a number is added to its square, the result is 56. Determine the number.
23. Leroy measures his bedroom and finds that its length is 3 metres more than its width. If the area of the
bedroom is 18 m2 , calculate the length and width of the room.
24. The surface area of a cylinder is given by the formula SA = 2𝜋r (r + h), where r cm is the radius of the
cylinder and h cm is the height.
The height of a can of soft drink is 10 cm and its surface area is 245 cm2 .
a. Substitute values into the formula to form a quadratic equation using the pronumeral r.
b. Use the quadratic formula to solve the equation and, hence, determine the radius of the can. Round
your answer to 1 decimal place.
c. Calculate the area of the label on the can. The label covers the entire curved surface. Round the
answer to the nearest square centimetre.
25. Determine the value of d when 2x2 − 5x − d = 0 has one solution.
26. Determine the values of k where (k − 1) x2 − (k − 1) x + 2 = 0 has two distinct solutions.

√
27. Let m and n be the solutions to the quadratic equation x2 − 2 5x − 2 = 0. Determine the value of
m2 + n2 .
28. Although it requires a minimum of two points to determine the graph of a line, it requires a minimum
of three points to determine the shape of a parabola. The general equation of a parabola is
y = ax2 + bx + c, where a, b and c are the constants to be determined.
a. Determine the equation of the parabola that has a y-intercept of (0, −2), and passes though the points
(1, −5) and (−2, 16).
b. Determine the equation of a parabola that goes through the points (0, 0), (2, 2) and (5, 5). Show full
working to justify your answer.
29. When the radius of a circle increases by 6 cm, its area increases by 25%. Use the quadratic formula to
calculate the exact radius of the original circle.

30. A football player received a hand pass and ran directly towards goal. Right on the 50-metre line he
kicked the ball and scored a goal. The graph shown represents the path of the ball. Using the graph,
answer the following questions.
a. State the height of the ball from the ground when it was kicked.
b. Identify the greatest height the ball reached.
c. Identify the length of the kick.
d. If there were defenders in the goal square, explain if it would have been possible for one of them to
mark the ball right on the goal line to prevent a goal. (Hint: What was the height of the ball when it
crossed the goal line?)
e. As the footballer kicked the ball, a defender rushed at him to try to smother the kick. If the defender
can reach a height of 3 m when he jumps, determine how close to the player kicking the ball he must
be to just touch the football as it passes over his outstretched hands.
5
Height (m)
0 x
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Distance (m)
√
−b ±b2 − 4ac
31. The quadratic formula is x =
2a
2c
An alternative form of the quadratic formula is x = √ .
−b ± b2 − 4ac
Choose a quadratic equation and show that the two formulas give the same answers.

eWorkbook Teacher resources

Download the workbook for this topic, which includes There are many resources available exclusively for teachers
worksheets, a code puzzle and a project (ewbk-2034) ⃞ online.
Solutions
Digital documents
8.2 SkillSHEET: Factorising by taking out the highest
common factor (doc-5256) ⃞
SkillSHEET: Finding a factor pair that adds to a given
number (doc-5257) ⃞
SkillSHEET: Simplifying surds (doc-5258) ⃞
SkillSHEET: Substituting into quadratic equations
(doc-5259) ⃞
SkillSHEET: Equation of a vertical line (doc-5260) ⃞
8.3 SkillSHEET Substituting into the quadratic formula
(doc-5262) ⃞
Video eLessons
8.2 Quadratic equations (eles-4843) ⃞
Solving quadratic equations by completing the square
(eles-4844) ⃞
Solving worded questions (eles-4845) ⃞
The Null Factor Law (eles-2312) ⃞
8.3 Using the quadratic formula (eles-4846) ⃞
The quadratic formula (eles-2314) ⃞
8.4 Solving quadratic equations graphically (eles-4847) ⃞
Confirming solutions of quadratic equations (eles-4848) ⃞
8.5 Using the discriminant (eles-4849) ⃞
Using the discriminant to determine if graphs
intersect (eles-4850) ⃞
The discriminant (eles-1946) ⃞
Interactivities
8.2 Individual pathway interactivity: Solving quadratic
equations algebraically (int-4601) ⃞
The Null Factor Law (int-6095) ⃞
8.3 Individual pathway interactivity: The quadratic formula
(int-4602) ⃞
The quadratic formula (int-2561) ⃞
8.4 Individual pathway interactivity: Solving quadratic
equations graphically (int-4603) ⃞
Solving quadratic equations graphically (int-6148) ⃞
8.5 Individual pathway interactivity: The discriminant
(int-4604) ⃞
The discriminant (int-2560) ⃞

Answers 13. a.
c.
−2, 3
−1, 7
b.
d.
−4, −2
3, 5
Topic 8 Quadratic equations 14. a. −1, 4 b. 5 c. −2, 5
d. 2, 6 e. −3, 7
15. a. −5, 6 b. 3, 4 c. 4
1. True
1 d. −5 e. 10
2. x = −5 or x = 16. B
2
3 17. C
3. x=± 1 2
4 18. a. − ,3 b. , −1
4. D 2 3
5. B 1 1 1
c. −2, d. ,1
6. D 5 3 2
7. A 3 1 1
19. a. − ,1 b. ,
8. 24 14 4 3
9. a. Only one solution 1 1 3 1
c. −1 , 2 d. −1 , −1
b. No real solutions 3 2 4 3
c. Two solutions
2 1 1 2
20. a. − , b. 1 , 2
10. B 5 2 2 3
11. A 2 1
c. − , d. 3, 4
Width = 3 cm, length = 7 cm 5 6
12. √ √
13. m=4 21. a. 2+ √ 2, 2 − 2 √
14. A b. −1 + √3, −1 − √3
15. E c. −3 + 10, −3 − 10
√ √
22. a. 4 + 2√3, 4 − 2√3
Exercise 8.2 Solving quadratic equations
b. 5 + 2√ 6, 5 −√2 6
algebraically
c. 1 + 3, 1 − 3
1. a. −7, 9 b. −2, 3 √ √
c. 2, 3 d. 0, 3 23. a. −1 + √6, −1 − √6
2. a. 0, 1 b. −5, 0 b. −2 + √10, −2 − √10
c. 0, 3 d. −2, 0 c. −2 + 15, −2 − 15
1 1 √ √
3. a. − , b. −1.2, −0.5 2 5 3 5
2 2 √ √ 24. a. + , −
3 2√ 2 2 √
c. 0.1, 0.75 d. − 2, 3
5 29 5 29
1 2 1 b. − + ,− −
4. a. ,1 b. −2, − c. ,7 2 √ 2 2√ 2
2 3 4 7 33 7 33
6 1 3 2 5 2 c. + , −
5. a. − , 1 b. , c. − , 2 2 2 2
7 2 5 3 8 3 √ √
1 21 1 21
1 1 2 2 25. a. + , −
6. a. 0, , 3 b. 0, , − c. 0, −3, 2 √2 2 2 √
2 2 5 5
11 117 11 117
7. a. 0, 2 b. −5, 0 c. 0, 7 b. + , −
2 √ 2 2 √2
2 1 1 1 5 1 5
8. a. − ,0 b. 0, 1 c. 0, c. − + ,− −
3 2 3 2 2 2 2
√ √ √ √
7 3 1 3 37 3 37
9. a. 0, b. − ,0 c. 0, 1 26. a. + ,− −
2 3 4 2 √2 2 √ 2
10. a. −2, 2 b. −5, 5 5 37 5 37
c. −2, 2 d. −7, 7 b. + , −
2 √2 2 √2
1 1 1 1 9 65 9 65
11. a. −1 , 1 b. −2 , 2 c. + , −
3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2
2 2 1 1
c. − , d. − , 27. a. −3, 1 b. −4.24, 0.24 c. −1, 3
3 3 2 2
1 1 28. a. −0.73, 2.73 b. 0.38, 2.62 c. −0.30, 3.30
12. a. − , b. −4, 4
5 5 √ √ 29. a. −1.19, 4.19 b. −2.30, 1.30 c. −2.22, 0.22
√ √ 11 11 30. 8 and 9 or −8 and −9
c. − 5, 5 d. − ,
3 3 31. 6 and 8, −6 and −8

32. 9 or −10 6. a. −0.54, 1.87 b. −1.20, 1.45
2 c. −4.11, 0.61 d. −0.61, 0.47
33. 2 or −2
3 e. 0.14, 1.46
1
34. 8 or −10 7. a. 0.16, 6.34 b. −1.23, 1.90 c. −1.00, 1.14
2 d. −0.83, 0.91 e. −0.64, 1.31
35. 6 seconds
36. a. l = 2x
8. a. −0.35, 0.26 b. −1.45, 1.20 c. 0.08, 5.92
d. −0.68, 0.88
b.
cm 9. C
45 x cm
10. C
2x cm
11. B
c. x2 + (2x)2 = 452 , 5x2 = 2025
12. C
d. Length 40 cm, width 20 cm
13. a. 0.5, 3 b. 0, 5
37. 8 m, 6 m
c. −1, 3 d. 0.382, 2.618
38. a. −6, 1 b. 8, −3 c. x = ±1
14. a. 2, 4 b. No real solution
39. a. 21 b. 17 c. −1, 8 d. −4.162, 2.162
40. a. 7 15. a. −7, 1.5 No real solution
b.
41. a. b. (2 + x) m, (4 + x) m 1 1
c. 2, 7 d. − ,
2m 2 3
16. a. 2𝜋r2 + 14𝜋r − 231 = 0
4m b. 3.5 cm
c. (2 + x) (4 + x) = 24 d. x = 2, 4 m wide, 6 m long c. 154 cm2
42. a. CAnnabel (28) = $364 800, CBetty (28) = $422 400
17. a. x (x + 30)
b. 10 knots b. x (x + 30) = 1500
c. Speed can only be a positive quantity, so the negative c. 265 mm
solution is not valid.
18. a. −9 b. 9 c. Kelly
43. No real solutions — when we complete the square we get
the sum of two squares, not the difference of two squares 19. a. 4 b. 8 c. 18
and we cannot factorise the expression. 2 2 1 1
20. a. Pool A: 3 m by 6 m; Pool B: 3 m by 7 m
44. x = 5, −4, 4, −3 3 3 3 3
4 2
5 b. The area of each is 24 m .
45. z=− ,7 9
3
46. The width of the pathway is 1.5 m. 21. 25 m, 60 m
1 7
22. a. a = − b= c=2
Exercise 8.3 The quadratic formula 16 8
b. x = −2 and x = 16
1. a. a = 3, b = −4, c = 1
b. a = 7, b = −12, c = 2 c. One solution is between 12 and 18 (x = 16), which
c. a = 8, b = −1, c = −3 means his serve was ‘in’.
d. a = 1, b = −5, c = 7 23. −2 ± 3, 9 ± 45
2. a. a = 5, b = −5, c = −1 24. a. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions
b. a = 4, b = −9, c = −3 in the online resources.
c. a = 12, b = −29, c = 103 b. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions
d. a = 43, b = −81, c = −24 in the online resources.
√ √ c. m = 1.85 so NP is 1.85 cm.
−5 ± 21 −3 ± 13
3. a. b. 25. a. x = ±2 or x = ±3
√
2 2 1
5 ± 17 √ b. x = ± or x = ±2
c. d. 2 ± 13 2
2
√
√ 7±3 5 Exercise 8.4 Solving quadratic equations
4. a. −1 ± 2 3 b. graphically
√ 2
9 ± 73 √ 1. a. i. x = −2, x = 3 ii. x = 1, x = 10
c. d. 3 ± 2 3 iii. x = −5, x = 5
2
√ Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions
b.
√ 1 ± 21
5. a. −4 ± 31 b. in the online resources.
√ 2 2. a. i. x = 2 ii. x = −1, x = 4
5 ± 33 √
c. d. −1 ± 2 2 iii. x ≈ −1.4, x ≈ 4.4
2 b. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions

3. a. i. x = −25, x = 10 ii. x=0 9. a. a = −6, b = 1, c = 3 b. 73
iii. x ≈ −2.3, x ≈ 1.3 iv. x ≈ −1.5, x = 1 c. 2 real solutions
b. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions √
1 ± 73
in the online resources. 10.
12
4. 150 m 11. A
5. A 12. C
6. C 13. C
7. a. x = −1 and x = 1 14. k = −1
b. Similarity: shapes; Difference: one is inverted 15. m = 1.8
2 9
c. Similarity: both have x − 1; Difference: one has a
16. n > −
negative and brackets 4
8. a. y = a (x − 2) (x − 5) 17. a. 0.4 m
2 b. 0.28 m
b. y= (x − 2) (x − 5) c. 2.22 m
5
( )( ) d. 2.5 m
9. a. y = a x − p x − q
r ( )( ) e. i. Yes
b. y = x−p x−q ii. No
pq
Identify the halfway point between the beginning and
10. a. 7m b. 21m the end of the leap, and substitute this value into the
11. a. 6m b. 6m c. 8m equation to determine the maximum height.
12.
2
y = −4x + 26x − 30 f. 0.625 m
18. a. Two times b. (−2, 0), (2, 0)
Exercise 8.5 The discriminant 19. p2 can only give a positive number, which, when added to
1. a. ∆ = 289, 2 solutions b. ∆ = 441, 2 solutions 24, is always a positive solution.
c. ∆ = 24, 2 solutions d. ∆ = 144, 2 solutions 20. a. a = −7 or 5 will give one intersection point.
e. ∆ = −28, 0 solutions 21
b. For values of < − , there will be no intersection
2. a. ∆ = 81, 2 solutions b. ∆ = 0, 1 solution 4
c. ∆ = 9, 2 solutions d. ∆ = 32, 2 solutions points.
e. ∆ = 2809, 2 solutions 21. a. The straight line crosses the parabola at (0, −7), so no
3. a. ∆ = 8, 2 solutions b. ∆ = 0, 1 solution matter what value m takes, there will be at least one
c. ∆ = 256, 2 solutions d. ∆ = 256, 2 solutions intersection point and a maximum of two.
8
4. a. No real solutions b. 1 solution b. m = −
5
c. 2 rational solutions d. 1 solution
22. a. x = −4 and x = −1
5. a. 2 irrational solutions b. 1 solution b. 4
c. 2 irrational solutions d. No real solutions
23. a = 4, b = 12
6. a. No real solutions b. 2 irrational solutions 24. k = −4
c. 2 irrational solutions d. 2 rational solutions
7. a. Yes b. No c. Yes d. No Project
8. a. a = 3, b = 2, c = 7 b. −80 1. See table at the bottom of the page.*
c. No real solutions
*1.
Number of
threads per Number of
Pattern block blocks Total threads in warp
RB 2 1 2
RRB RRB 3 2 6
RRRB RRBB RBBB 4 3 12
RRRRB RRRBB RRBBB RBBBB 5 4 20
RRRRRB RRRRBB RRRBBB 6 5 30
RRBBBB RBBBBB
RRRRRRB RRRRRBB RRRRBBB 7 6 42
RRRBBBB RRBBBBB RBBBBBB

2. a. n−1 b. n2 − n 20. a. y
3. Answers will vary. Students should form a quadratic equation (3, 32)
and let it equal 42. Then solve this equation.
2
4. a. n − n = 250 (2, 21)
√
1001 + 1
b. n =
2
c. n = 16 5
d. 15 x
–5 –1 1
e. 240 –1 —
11
f. 10
b. y
g. Answers will vary. Students should show overall pattern.
8 (2, 8)
5. Answers will vary. Students should investigate the number
of blocks required and threads per block required for a
400-thread warp.
(1, 0)
6. Answers will vary. Students should investigate changing
0 x
the pattern. Students should draw a table to determine the –6 1
thread warp size for a block size of n threads and also draw
the pattern and describe the result for a particular warp size. –6
–8
1. B
2. B
c. y
3. A
4. D
5. (3x + 4) m 14
6. a. −5, −3 b. −6, −1 c. −8, −3 –2 5

d. 2, −6 e. 5, −2 –7 x
7. a. 4, −7 b. 3, 1 c. 5, 6 (–3, –4)
d. 7, −5
1 21. a. y
8. a. −2, −6 b. −2, −1 c. , −3
2
1
d. 2, −7 e. − ,4
2 (–2, 28)
2 5 5
9. a. − , 2 b. 2, 1 c. ,
3 3 2
1
d. −7,
2 10
√ √ 1 6 6
10. a. −4 ± 17 b. −1 ± 6 c. −1, —
11
4
2 5 x
11. 4
12. a. −0.651, 1.151 b. −0.760, 0.188 b. y
c. 0.441, −0.566
54
13. a. −0.571, 0.682 b. −0.216, 3.836 —
13
c. −0.632, 0.632 6 8 x
14. −3, 7 (3, –15)
15. −3, 1 –48
–54
16. a. 2 irrational solutions
b. 2 rational solutions (–2, –80)
c. No real solutions
17. a. (−8, 22) and (2, 2)
18. (5, 10)
19. No solution

c. y
16
(–1, 7)
–2
16 6 x
–—
9
(–4, –20)
22. −8 and 7
23. Length = 6 m, width = 3 m
24. a. 2𝜋r (r + 10) = 245
b. 3.0 cm
2
c. 188 cm
25
25. −
8
26. k > 9 and k < 1
27. 24
2
28. a. y = 2x − 5x − 2
b. No parabola is possible. The points are on the same
straight line.
(√ )
29. 12 5 + 2 cm
30. a. 0.5 m
b. 6.1 m
c. 76.5 m
d. No, the ball is 5.5 m off the ground and nobody can
reach it.
e. 9.5 m away

“c09NonlinearRelationships_PrintPDF” — 2021/9/7 — 6:30 — page 519 — #1
9 Non-linear relationships
LEARNING SEQUENCE
9.1 Overview ...............................................................................................................................................................520
9.2 Plotting parabolas from a table of values ................................................................................................ 524
9.3 Sketching parabolas using transformations ........................................................................................... 533
9.4 Sketching parabolas using turning point form ...................................................................................... 544
9.5 Sketching parabolas in expanded form ................................................................................................... 552
9.6 Exponential graphs .......................................................................................................................................... 559
9.7 Inverse proportion .............................................................................................................................................567
9.8 Sketching the hyperbola ................................................................................................................................ 572
9.9 Sketching the circle ..........................................................................................................................................578
9.10 Review ................................................................................................................................................................... 584
9.1 Overview
Why learn this?
So far, throughout high school, much of the focus of
algebraic sketching has been on linear graphs. A linear
graph is the graph of a straight line; therefore, a non-
linear graph is any graph of a curve that is not straight.
This means that non-linear graphing is a huge field of
mathematics, encompassing many topics and areas
of study.
If we think of the purpose of sketching graphs, to some
extent it is to model relationships between real-life
variables. Yet how often do we actually come up across
a linear relationship? Throwing a ball through the air,
the speed of a car as it accelerates from rest, the path of
a runner around a track, the temperature of coffee as it
cools — none of these relationships are linear. Even the
path of light from a star in the night sky may not be a
straight line through space to Earth, due to the curvature
of space itself based on gravity!
Non-linear graphs, whether they be parabolas, hyperbolas, exponentials or circles, are some of the more
common types of graphs that are used to model phenomena in everyday life. Thus, it is important to study these
relationships and their graphs so we can use them to help us model concepts such as exponential growth of a
colony of bacteria, or an inversely proportional relationship such as the decay of radioactive material over time.
Where to get help

Fully worked
solutions
eLessons
to every
question
Digital
eWorkbook
documents

1
1. Complete the table of values for the equation y = (x − 2)2 − 3.
2
x −3 −2 −1 0
y
2
2. For the graph of y = −3(x + 1) − 2, state the equation of the axis of symmetry.
3. MC For the graph of y = 2(x + 5)2 + 8, the turning point is:

A. (−5, −8) B. (−5, 8) C. (5, 8) D. (8, 5) E. (2, 8)
4. MC The graph of y = −(x − 1)2 − 3 has:

A. a maximum turning point B. a minimum turning point
C. no turning point D. two maximum turning points
E. two minimum turning points
5. MC The x-intercepts of y = 2(x − 2)2 − 8 are:

A. x = 2 or x = 8 B. x = 0 or x = 8
C. x = 10 or x = −6 D. x = 0 or x = 4
E. x = −8 or x = −4
6. Calculate the coordinates of the turning point for the graph of y = (x + 3) (x + 5).
Write your answer in the form (a, b).
7. The equation y = 2x2 + bx − 1200 has x-intercepts of (−30, 0) and (20, 0). Determine the value of b.
8. MC The radius r, of the circle 4x2 + 4y2 = 16 is:

A. r = 16 B. r = 8 C. r = 4 D. r = 2 E. r = 1
9. MC The center of the circle with equation x2 + 4x + y2 − 6y + 9 = 0 is:

A. (−4, −3) B. (4, −6) C. (−4, 6) D. (2, −3) E. (−2, 3)
10. Calculate the points of intersection between the parabola y = x2 and the circle x2 + y2 = 1, correct to
two decimal places.
11. MC The horizontal asymptote for y = 3−x + 1 is:

A. y = 0 B. y = 1 C. x = −1 D. x = 0 E. x = 1
2
12. MC For the equation of a hyperbola y = − 1, the vertical and horizontal asymptotes are:
x+3
2
A. x = and y = −1 B. x = 3 and y = −1 C. x = −3 and y = −1
3
D. x = −1 and y = −3 E. x = 1 and y = 3
TOPIC 9 Non-linear relationships 521

13. Match each graph with its correct equation.
Equation Graph
a. y = 2x 1. y
b. −2x 2. y
14. MC From the graph of the hyperbola, the equation is:

1 y
A. y = −1 5
x+2 4
−1 3
B. y = −1
x+2 2
2 1
C. y = −1
x+2 0 1 2 3 4 5 x
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1
–1
−2
D. y = −1 –2
(0, –2)
x+2 –3
−1 –4
E. y = −1
x−1 –5

1
15. MC The graph of the truncus with equation y = reflected in the x-axis looks like:
x2
A. y B. y
x 0 x
C. y D. y
0 x 0 x
E. y

9.2 Plotting parabolas from a table of values

LEARNING INTENTION
• create a table of values and use this to sketch the graph of a parabola
• identify the axis of symmetry, turning point and y-intercept of a parabola.
9.2.1 Plotting parabolas

eles-4864
• The graphs of all quadratic relationships are called parabolas.
y
• If the equation of the parabola is given, a table of values can be produced by
10
substituting x-values into the equation to obtain the corresponding y-values. 9
These x-and y-values provide the coordinates for points that can be plotted 8
and joined to form the shape of the graph. 7
• The graph of y = x2 shown has been produced by generating a table y = x2
6
of values. 5
4
x −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 3
y 9 4 1 0 1 4 9 2
1
• Parabolas are symmetrical; in other words, they have an axis of symmetry. x
–4 –3 –2 –1 0
–1 1 2 3 4
In the parabola shown the axis of symmetry is the y-axis, also called the
–2 (0, 0)
line x = 0.
• A parabola has a vertex or turning point. In this case the vertex is at the
origin and is called a ‘minimum turning point’.
• The y-intercept of a quadratic is the coordinate where the parabola cuts the y-axis. This can be found from
a table of value by looking for the point where x = 0.
• The x-intercept of a quadratic is the coordinate where the parabola cuts the x-axis. This can be found from
a table of value by looking for the point where y = 0.
• Consider the key features of the equation y = x2 + 2x + 8.
y
2
y-intercept (2, 0)
1
0 x
–4 –3 –2 –1
–1 1 2 3 4
x-intercept (–4, 0)
–2
–3
–4 y = x2 + 2x + 8
–5
–6
–7
–8 y-intercept (0, –8)
Turning point (–1, –9) –9
Axis of symmetry: x = −1

Shapes of parabolas
• Parabolas with the shape ∪ are said to be ‘concave up’ and have a minimum turning point.
• Parabolas with the shape ∩ are said to be ‘concave down’ and have a maximum turning point.
Negative quadratic with a

Positive quadratic with a maximum turning point
minimum turning point
Parabolas in the world around us

• Parabolas abound in the world around us. Here are some examples.
Satellite dishes Water droplets from a hose
Circle
Ellipse
Parabola
Hyperbola
The cables from a suspension bridge A cone when sliced parallel to its edge
reveals a parabola.

WORKED EXAMPLE 1 Plotting parabolas using a table of values
Plot the graph of each of the following equations. In each case, use the values of x shown as the values
in your table. State the equation of the axis of symmetry and the coordinates of the turning point.
1
a. y = 2x2 for −3 ≤ x ≤ 3 b. y = x2 for −3 ≤ x ≤ 3
2
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a. 1. Write the equation. a. y = 2x2
2. Produce a table of values using

x −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
x-values from −3 to 3.
y 18 8 2 0 2 8 18
3. Draw a set of clearly labelled y

axes, plot the points and join 20
19
them with a smooth curve. The
18
scale would be from −2 to 20
17
on the y-axis and −4 to 4 on
16
the x-axis. 15
4. Label the graph. 14
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
y = 2x2
6
5
4
3
2
1
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 x
–1
–2 (0, 0)
5. Write the equation of the axis The equation of the axis of symmetry is x = 0 .
of symmetry that divides the
parabola exactly in half.
6. Write the coordinates of the The turning point is (0, 0).
turning point.
1 2
b. 1. Write the equation. b. y = x
2
2. Produce a table of values using
x −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
x-values from −3 to 3.
y 4.5 2 0.5 0 0.5 2 4.5

3. Draw a set of clearly labelled

y
them with a smooth curve. The 6
scale would be from −2 to 6 on 5
the y-axis and −4 to 4 on the 4
x-axis. 3
4. Label the graph. 2 y = 1 x2
1 2
0 x
–4 –3 –2 –1
–1 1 2 3 4
–2
5. Write the equation of the The equation of the axis of symmetry is x = 0.

line that divides the parabola
exactly in half.
turning point.
WORKED EXAMPLE 2 Determining the key features of a quadratic equation
Plot the graph of each of the following equations. In each case, use the values of x shown as the values
in your table. State the equation of the axis of symmetry, the coordinates of the turning point and the
y-intercept for each one.
a. y = x2 + 2 for −3 ≤ x ≤ 3 b. y = (x + 3)2 for −6 ≤ x ≤ 0
2
c. y = −x for −3 ≤ x ≤ 3
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a. 1. Write the equation. a. y = x2 + 2
2. Produce a table of values.

x −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
y 11 6 3 2 3 6 11

12
axes, plot the points and join
11
them with a smooth curve. The
10
scale on the y-axis would be 9
from −2 to 12 and −4 to 4 on 8
the x-axis. 7
4. Label the graph. 6
5
y = x2 + 2
4
3
2
(0, 2)
1
0 x
–4 –3 –2 –1
–1 1 2 3 4
–2


exactly in half.
turning point.
7. Determine the y-coordinate The y-intercept is 2.
of the point where the graph
crosses the y-axis.
2
b. 1. Write the equation. b. y = (x + 3)

x −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0
y 9 4 1 0 1 4 9

them with a smooth curve. The 9 (0, 9)
scale on the y-axis would be 8
from −2 to 10 and −7 to 1 on 7
6
the x-axis.
5
4. Label the graph.
4
y = (x + 3)2
3
(–3, 0)
2
1
0 x
–7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1
–1 1
–2
5. Write the equation of the The equation of the axis of symmetry is x = −3.
exactly in half.
6. Write the coordinates of the The turning point is (−3, 0).
turning point.
crosses the y-axis.
c. 1. Write the equation. c. y = −x2

x −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
y −9 −4 −1 0 −1 −4 −9


them with a smooth curve. The x
scale on the y-axis would be –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4
–1
from −10 to 1 and from −4 to –2
4 on the x-axis. –3
–4
4. Label the graph. y = –x2
–5
–6
–7
–8
–9

exactly in half.
turning point.
crosses the y-axis.
DISCUSSION
What x-values can a parabola have? What y-values can a parabola have?
Resources
Resourceseses
Digital documents SkillSHEET Substitution into quadratic equations (doc-5266)
SkillSHEET Equation of a vertical line (doc-5267)
Interactivities Individual pathway interactivity: Plotting parabolas (int-4605)
Plotting quadratic graphs (int-6150)
Parabolas in the world around us (int-7539)

Exercise 9.2 Plotting parabolas from a table of values

Individual pathways
1, 3, 5, 11, 13, 15, 19, 22, 26, 29 2, 6, 8, 10, 16, 17, 20, 23, 27, 30 4, 7, 9, 12, 14, 18, 21, 24, 25,
28, 31
You may wish to use a graphing calculator for this exercise.
Fluency
1. WE1 Plot the graph of each of the following equations. In each case, use the values of x shown as the values
in your table. State the equation of the axis of symmetry and the coordinates of the turning point.
1
a. y = 3x2 for − 3 ≤ x ≤ 3 b. y = x2 for − 3 ≤ x ≤ 3
4
2. Compare the graphs drawn for question 1 with that of y = x2 . Explain how placing a number in front of x2
affects the graph obtained.
3. WE2a Plot the graph of each of the following for values of x between −3 and 3. State the equation of the
axis of symmetry, the coordinates of the turning point and the y-intercept for each one.
a. y = x2 + 1 b. y = x2 + 3 c. y = x2 − 3 d. y = x2 − 1
4. Compare the graphs drawn for question 3 with the graph of y = x2 . Explain how adding to or subtracting
from x2 affects the graph obtained.
WE2b For questions 5 to 8, plot the graph of each of the following equations. In each case, use the values of x
shown as the values in your table. State the equation of the axis of symmetry and the coordinates of the turning
point and the y-intercept for each one.
2
5. y = (x + 1) −5≤x≤3
2
6. y = (x − 2) −1≤x≤5
2
7. y = (x − 1) −2≤x≤4
2
8. y = (x + 2) −6≤x≤2
9. Compare the graphs drawn for questions 5 to 8 with that for y = x2 . Explain how adding to or subtracting
from x before squaring affects the graph obtained.
WE2c For questions 10 to 13, plot the graph of each of the following equations. In each case, use the values of x
shown as the values in your table. State the equation of the axis of symmetry, the coordinates of the turning point
and the y-intercept for each one.
10. y = −x2 + 1 −3≤x≤3
2
11. y = −(x + 2) −5≤x≤1
12. y = −x2 − 3 −3≤x≤3
2
13. y = −(x − 1) −2≤x≤4
14. Compare the graphs drawn for questions 10 to 13 with that for y = x2 . Explain how a negative sign in front of
x2 affects the graph obtained. Also compare the graphs obtained in questions 10 to 13 with those in questions
3 and 5 to 8. State which graphs have the same turning point. Describe how are they different.

Understanding
For questions 15 to 20:
a. plot the graph
b. state the equation of the axis of symmetry
c. state the coordinates of the turning point and whether it is a maximum or a minimum
d. state the y-intercept.
2
15. y = (x − 5) + 1 0≤x≤6
2
16. y = 2(x + 2) − 3 −5≤x≤1
2
17. y = −(x − 3) + 4 0≤x≤6
2
18. y = −3(x − 1) + 2 −2≤x≤4
19. y = x2 + 4x − 5 −6≤x≤2
20. y = −3x2 − 6x + 24 − 5 ≤ x ≤ 3
2
21. Use the equation y = a(x − b) + c to answer the following.
a. Explain how you can determine whether a parabola has a minimum or maximum turning point by
looking only at its equation.
b. Explain how you can determine the coordinates of the turning point of a parabola by looking only at
the equation.
c. Explain how you can obtain the equation of the axis of symmetry by looking only at the equation of
the parabola.
22. MC For the graph of y = (x − 2)2 + 5, the turning point is:
A. (5, 2) B. (2, −5) C. (2, 5) D. (−2, −5) E. (−2, 5)
23. MC For the graph of y = 3(x − 1)2 + 12, the turning point is:
A. (3, 12) B. (1, 12) C. (−1, 12) D. (−3, 12) E. (−1, −12)
24. MC For the graph of y = (x + 2)2 − 7, the y-intercept is:

A. −2 B. −7 C. −3 D. −11 E. 7
25. MC Select which of the following is true for the graph of y = −(x − 3)2 + 4.
A. Turning point (3, 4), y-intercept −5 B. Turning point (3, 4), y-intercept 5
C. Turning point (−3, 4), y-intercept −5 D. Turning point (−3, 4), y-intercept 5
E. Turning point (3, −4), y-intercept 13
Reasoning
26. A ball is thrown into the air. The height, h metres, of the ball at any
time, t seconds, can be found by using the equation h = −(t − 4)2 + 16.
a. Plot the graph for values of t between 0 and 8.
b. Use the graph to determine:
i. the maximum height of the ball
ii. how long it takes for the ball to fall back to the ground from the
moment it is thrown.

27. From a crouching position in a ditch, an archer wants to fire an arrow

over a horizontal tree branch, which is 15 metres above the ground.
The height, in metres (h), of the arrow t seconds after it has been fired
is given by the equation h = −8t(t − 3).
a. Plot the graph for t = 0, 1, 1.5, 2, 3.
b. From the graph, determine:
i. the maximum height the arrow reaches
ii. whether the arrow clears the branch and the distance by which it
clears or falls short of the branch
iii. the time it takes to reach maximum height
iv. how long it takes for the arrow to hit the ground after it has
been fired.
28. There are 0, 1, 2 and infinite possible points of intersection for two parabolas.
a. Illustrate these on separate graphs.
b. Explain why infinite points of intersection are possible. Give an example.
c. Determine how many points of intersection are possible for a parabola and a straight line. Illustrate these.
Problem solving
−8w
29. The area of a rectangle in cm2 is given by the equation A = (w − 6), where w is the width of the
5
rectangle in centimetres.
a. Complete a table of values for −1 ≤ w ≤ 7.
b. Explain which of the values for w from part a should be discarded and why.
c. Sketch the graph of A for suitable values of w.
d. Evaluate the maximum possible area of the rectangle. Show your working.
e. Determine the dimensions of the rectangle that produce the maximum area found in part d.
30. The path taken by a netball thrown by a rising Australian player is given by the quadratic equation
y = −x2 + 3.2x + 1.8, where y is the height of the ball and x is the horizontal distance from the player’s
upstretched hand.
a. Complete a table of values for −1 ≤ x ≤ 4.
b. Plot the graph.
c. Explain what values of x are ‘not reasonable’.
d. Evaluate the maximum height reached by the netball.
e. Assuming that nothing hits the netball, determine how far away from the player the netball will strike
the ground.
31. The values of a, b and c in the equation y = ax2 + bx + c can be calculated using three points that lie on the
parabola. This requires solving triple simultaneous equations by algebra. This can also be done using a CAS
calculator. If the points (0, 1), (1, 0) and (2, 3) all lie on one parabola, determine the equation of the parabola.

9.3 Sketching parabolas using transformations

LEARNING INTENTION
• be familiar with the key features of the basic graph of a quadratic, y = x2
• determine whether a dilation has made the graph of quadratic narrower or wider
• determine whether a translation has moved the graph of a quadratic function left/right or up/down
• sketch the graph of a quadratic equation that has undergone any of the following transformations:
dilations, a reflection, or translations.
9.3.1 Sketching parabolas

eles-4865
• A sketch graph of a parabola does not show a series of plotted points, but it does accurately locate
important features such as x- and y-intercepts and turning points.
• The basic quadratic graph has the equation y = x2 . Transformations or changes in the features of the graph
can be observed when the equation changes. These transformations include:
• dilation
• translation
• reflection.
Dilation y = 3x2
y
• A dilation stretches a graph away from an axis. A dilation of factor 3 12
(–2, 12) (2, 12)
from the x-axis triples the distance of each point from the x-axis. This 11
means the point (2, 4) would become (2, 12). 10
• Compare the graph of y = 2x2 with that of y = x2 . This graph is thinner 9
y = x2
8
or closer to the y-axis and has a dilation factor of 2 from the x-axis.
7
As the magnitude (or size) of the coefficient of x2 increases, the graph
6
becomes narrower and closer to the y-axis. 5
(2, 4)
y (–2, 4) 4
y = 2x2 3
(–1, 3) (1, 3)
2
y = x2 (–1, 1) 1 (1, 1)
0 x
(0, 0) x –4 –3 –2 –1
–1 1 2 3 4
–2
• The turning point has not changed under the transformation and is still (0, 0).
1 2
• Compare the graph y = x with that of y = x2 .
4
y y = x2
y = 14– x2
(0, 0) x
1
The graph is wider or closer to the x-axis and has a dilation factor of factor .
4
The turning point has not changed and is still (0, 0). As the coefficient of x2 decreases (but remains positive), the
graph becomes wider or closer to the x-axis.

WORKED EXAMPLE 3 Determining dilation and the turning point
State whether each of the following graphs is wider or narrower than the graph of y = x2 and state the
coordinates of the turning point of each one.
1
a. y = x2 b. y = 4x2
5
THINK WRITE
1 2
a. 1. Write the equation. a. y = x
5
1
2. Look at the coefficient of x2 and decide < 1, so the graph is wider than that of y = x2 .
whether it is greater than or less than 1. 5
3. The dilation doesn’t change the turning point. The turning point is (0, 0).
b. 1. Write the equation. b. y = 4x2
2. Look at the coefficient of x2 and decide 4 > 1, so the graph is narrower than that
whether it is greater than or less than 1. of y = x2 .
3. The dilation doesn’t change the turning point. The turning point is (0, 0).
eles-4866
9.3.2 Vertical translation
• Compare the graph of y = x2 + 2 with that of y = x2 .
The whole graph has been moved or translated 2 units upwards. The turning point has become (0, 2).
y
y = x2 + 2
y = x2
(0, 2)
x
• Compare the graph of y = x2 − 3 with that of y = x2 .

The whole graph has been moved or translated 3 units downwards. The turning point has become (0, −3).
y y = x2
y = x2 – 3
(0, –3)

WORKED EXAMPLE 4 Determining the vertical translation and the turning point
State the vertical translation and the coordinates of the turning point for the graphs of the following
equations when compared to the graph of y = x2 .
a. y = x2 + 5 b. y = x2 − 4
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Write the equation. a. y = x2 + 5
2. +5 means the graph is translated upwards Vertical translation of 5 units up.

5 units.
3. Translate the turning point of y = x2 which is The turning point becomes (0, 5).
(0, 0). The x-coordinate of the turning point
remains 0, and the y-coordinate has 5 added
to it.
b. 1. Write the equation. b. y = x2 − 4
2. −4 means the graph is translated downwards Vertical translation of 4 units down.

4 units.
3. Translate the turning point of y = x2 , which The turning point becomes (0, −4).
is (0, 0). The x-coordinate of the turning
point remains 0, and the y-coordinate has 4
subtracted from it.
eles-4867
9.3.3 Horizontal translation
• Compare the graph of y = (x − 2)2 with that of y = x2 .
The whole graph has been moved or translated 2 units to the right. The turning point has become (2, 0).
y
y = x2
y = (x – 2)2
(0, 4)
(2, 0) x
• Compare the graph of y = (x + 1)2 with that of y = x2 .

The whole graph has been moved or translated 1 unit left. The turning point has become (−1, 0).
y y = (x + 1)2
y = x2
(0, 1)
(–1, 0) x
• Note: Horizontal translations appear to cause the graph to move in the opposite direction to the sign inside
the brackets.

WORKED EXAMPLE 5 Determining the horizontal translation and the turning point
State the horizontal translation and the coordinates of the turning point for the graphs of the
following equations when compared to the graph of y = x2 .
a. y = (x − 3)2 b. y = (x + 2)2
THINK WRITE
2
a. 1. Write the equation. a. y = (x − 3)
2. −3 means the graph is translated to the right Horizontal translation of 3 units to the right
3 units.
3. Translate the turning point of y = x2 , which is The turning point becomes (3, 0).
(0, 0). The y-coordinate of the turning point
remains 0, and the x-coordinate has 3 added
to it.
2
b. 1. Write the equation. b. y = (x + 2)
2. +2 means the graph is translated to the left Horizontal translation of 2 units to the left
2 units.
3. Translate the turning point of y = x2 , which The turning point becomes (−2, 0).
is (0, 0). The y-coordinate of the turning
point remains 0, and the x-coordinate has 2
subtracted from it.
eles-4868
9.3.4 Reflection
• Compare the graph of y = −x2 with that of y = x2 .
y
y = x2
x
(0, 0)
y = –x2
In each case the axis of symmetry is the line x = 0 and the turning point is (0, 0). The only difference
between the equations is the negative sign in y = −x2 , and the difference between the graphs is that y = x2
‘sits’ on the x-axis and y = −x2 ‘hangs’ from the x-axis. (One is a reflection or mirror image of the other.)
The graph of y = x2 has a minimum turning point, and the graph of y = −x2 has a maximum turning point.
Shapes of quadratic graphs
Any quadratic graph where x2 is positive has a ∪ shape and is said to be upright. Conversely, if x2 is
negative the graph has a ∩ shape and is said to be inverted.

WORKED EXAMPLE 6 Identifying the coordinates of the turning point
For each of the following graphs, identify the coordinates of the turning point and state whether it is a
maximum or a minimum.
2
a. y = − (x − 7) b. y = 5 − x2
THINK WRITE
2
a. 1. Write the equation. a. y = −(x − 7)
2. It is a horizontal translation of 7 units to the The turning point is (7, 0).

right, so 7 units is added to the x-coordinate
of (0, 0).
3. The sign in front of the x2 term is negative, so Maximum turning point.
it is inverted.
b. 1. Write the equation. b. y = 5 − x2
2. Rewrite the equation so that the x2 term y = −x2 + 5

is first.
3. The vertical translation is 5 units up, so 5 The turning point is (0, 5).
units is added to the y-coordinate of (0, 0).
4. The sign in front of the x2 term is negative, so Maximum turning point.
the graph is inverted.

a. a. a. a.
In a new problem, on a On the Graph & Table screen,
Graphs page, complete the complete the function entry line
function entry line as: as:
f1(x) = −(x − 7)2 y1 = − (x − 7)2
Then press ENTER. Tap the graphing icon and the
To locate the turning point, graph will be displayed.
press: To locate the turning point, tap:
• 3: Maximum The turning point (7, 0) is a • Max
Drag the dotted line to the maximum. The turning point will be shown.
left of the turning point (the
lower bound), click ENTER The turning point (7, 0) is a
and then drag the dotted line maximum.
to the right of the turning
point (the upper bound) and
press ENTER.
The turning point will be
shown.

b. b. b. b.
In a new problem, on a new On the Graph & Table screen,
Graphs page, complete the complete the function entry line
function entry line as: as:
f1(x) = 5 − x2 y1 = 5 − x2
Then press ENTER. Tap the graphing icon and the
To locate the turning point, graph will be displayed.
press: To locate the turning point,
• MENU press:
• 6: Analyze Graph • Analysis
• 3: Maximum The turning point (0, 5) is a • G-Solve
Drag the dotted line to the maximum. • Max
left of the turning point (the The turning point will be shown.
lower bound), click ENTER The turning point (0, 5) is a
and then drag the dotted line maximum.
to the right of the turning
point (the upper bound) and
press ENTER.
shown.
9.3.5 Combining transformations

eles-4869
• Often, multiple transformations will be applied to the equation y = x2 to produce a new graph.
• We can determine the transformations applied by looking at the equation of the resulting quadratic.
Combining transformations
A quadratic of the form y = a(x − h)2 + k has been:

• dilated by a factor of |a| from the x-axis, where |a| is the magntiude (or size) of a.
• reflected in the x-axis if a < 0
• translated h units horizontally:
• if h > 0, the graph is translated to the right
• if h < 0, the graph is translated to the left
• translated k units vertically:
• if k > 0, the graph is translated upwards
• if k < 0, the graph is translated downwards.
WORKED EXAMPLE 7 Determining transformations
For each of the following quadratic equations:

i. state the appropriate dilation, reflection and translation of the graph of y = x2 needed to obtain
the graph
ii. state the coordinates of the turning point
iii. hence, sketch the graph.
a. y = (x + 3)2 b. y = −2x2
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a. 1. Write the quadratic equation. a. y = (x + 3)2

2. Identify the transformation i. Horizontal translation of 3 units to the left
needed — horizontal translation
only, no dilation or reflection.

3. State the turning point. ii. The turning point is (−3, 0).
2
4. Sketch the graph of y = (x + 3) . iii. y
y = (x + 3)2
You may find it helpful to lightly
y = x2
sketch the graph of y = x2 on the
same set of axes first.
(–3, 0) x
b. 1. Write the quadratic equation. b. y = −2x2

2. Identify the transformations i. This is a reflection, so the graph is inverted.
needed — dilation (2 in front of As 2 > 1, the graph is narrower than that of y = x2 .
x2 ) and reflection (negative in
front of x2 ), no translation.
3. The turning point remains the ii. The turning point is (0, 0).
same as there is no translation.
4. Sketch the graph of y = −2x2 . iii. y
You may find it helpful to lightly y = x2
sketch the graph of y = x2 on the
same set of axes first.
(0, 0) x
y = –2x2

a. a. a. a.
1. On a Graphs page, 1. On a Graph & Table screen,
complete the function complete the function entry
entry lines as: lines as:
f1(x) = x2 y1 = x2
f2(x) = (x + 3)2 y2 = (x + 3)2
The graphs will be Tap the graphing icon and the
displayed. graphs will be displayed.
2. To locate the turning 2. To locate the turning point,

point, press: press:
• 2: Minimum • Min
Drag the dotted line to the Select the graph you want
left of the turning point using the up and down arrow
(the lower bound), click keys and then press EXE.
ENTER and then drag The turning point will be
the dotted line to the right shown.
of the turning point (the
ENTER.
shown.

b. b. b. b.
entry lines as: lines as:
f1(x) = x2 y1 = x2
f2(x) = −2x2 y2 = −2x2
The graphs will be Tap the graphing icon and the
displayed. graphs will be displayed.
2. To locate the turning 2. To locate the point of

point, press: intersection, press:
• 2: Minimum • Max
Drag the dotted line to the Select the graph you want
left of the turning point using the up and down arrow
(the lower bound), click keys and then press EXE.
ENTER and then drag The turning point will be
the dotted line to the right shown.
of the turning point (the
ENTER.
shown.
DISCUSSION
Determine the turning points of the graphs y = x2 + k and y = (x − h)2 .
Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivities Individual pathway interactivity: Sketching parabolas (int-4606)
Horizontal translations of parabolas (int-6054)
Vertical translations of parabolas (int-6055)
Dilation of parabolas (int-6096)
Reflection of parabolas (int-6151)

Exercise 9.3 Sketching parabolas using transformations

Individual pathways
1, 4, 7, 10, 13, 16, 17, 22, 25 2, 5, 8, 11, 14, 18, 19, 23, 26 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 20, 21, 24, 27, 28
Fluency
WE3 For questions 1 to 3, state whether each of the following graphs is wider or narrower than the graph of
y = x2 and state the coordinates of the turning point of each one.
1
1. a. y = 5x2 b. y = x2
3
2 2
2. a. y = 7x2 b. y = 10x2 c. y = x
5
√
3. a. y = 0.25x2 b. y = 1.3x2 c. y = 3x2
WE4 For questions 4 to 6, state the vertical translation and the coordinates of the turning point for the graphs of
each of the following equations when compared to the graph of y = x2 .
4. a. y = x2 + 3 b. y = x2 − 1
1 1
5. a. y = x2 − 7 b. y = x2 + c. y = x2 −
4 2
√
6. a. y = x2 − 0.14 b. y = x2 + 2.37 c. y = x2 + 3
WE5 For questions 7 to 9, state the horizontal translation and the coordinates of the turning point for the graphs
of the following equations when compared to the graph of y = x2 .
2 2
7. a. y = (x − 1) b. y = (x − 2)
( )2
2 2 1
8. a. y = (x + 10) b. y = (x + 4) c. y = x−
2
( )2 √ 2
1 2
9. a. y = x + b. y = (x + 0.25) c. y = (x + 3)
5
WE6 For questions 10 to 12, for each of the following graphs identify the coordinates of the turning point and
state whether it is a maximum or a minimum.
10. a. y = −x2 + 1 b. y = x2 − 3
2
11. a. y = −(x + 2) b. y = 3x2 c. y = 4 − x2
2
12. a. y = −2x2 b. y = (x − 5) c. y = 1 + x2

For questions 13 to 15, in each of the following state whether the graph is wider or narrower than y = x2 and
whether it has a maximum or a minimum turning point.
13. a. y = 3x2 b. y = −3x2
1 2 1 4
14. a. y = x b. y = − x2 c. y = − x2
2 5 3
√
15. a. y = 0.25x2 b. y = 3x2 c. y = −0.16x2
Understanding
WE7 For questions 16 to 21:
i. state the appropriate dilation, reflection and translation of the graph of y = x2 needed to obtain the graph
ii. state the coordinates of the turning point
iii. hence, sketch the graph.
2
16. a. y = (x + 1) b. y = −3x2 c. y = x2 + 1
1 2
17. a. y = x b. y = x2 − 3
3
2 2
18. a. y = (x − 4) b. y = − x2 c. y = 5x2
5
2
19. a. y = −x2 + 2 b. y = −(x − 6)
2 1
20. a. y = −x2 − 4 b. y = 2(x + 1) − 4 c. y = (x − 3)2 + 2
2
1 2 1 7 2 3
21. a. y = − (x + 2) + b. y = − (x − 1) −
3 4 4 2
Reasoning
22. A vase 25 cm tall is positioned on a bench near a wall as shown. The shape of the y
vase follows the curve y = (x − 10)2 , where y cm is the height of the vase and x cm is
the distance of the vase from the wall.
Wall
a. Identify how far the base of the vase is from the wall.
b. Determine the shortest distance from the top of the vase to the wall.
c. If the vase is moved so that the top just touches the wall, determine the new
distance from the wall to the base.
x
d. Determine the new equation that follows the shape of the vase. Bench
23. Tom is standing at the start of a footpath at (0, 0) that leads to the base of a hill. The height of the hill is
1
modelled by the equation h = − (d − 25)2 + 40, where h is the height of the hill in metres and d is the
10
horizontal distance from the start of the path.
a. Calculate how tall the hill is.
b. Determine how far the base of the hill is from the beginning of the footpath.
c. If the footpath is to be extended so the lead in to the hill is 50 m, determine the new equation that models
the height of the hill.
d. The height of the hill has been incorrectly measured and should actually be 120 m. Adjust the equation
from part c to correct this error and state the transformation applied.

24. A ball is thrown vertically upwards. Its height in metres after

t seconds is given by h = 7t − t2 .
a. Sketch the graph of the height of the ball against time.
b. Evaluate the highest point reached by the ball. Show your
full working.
A second ball is thrown vertically upwards. Its height in metres
after t seconds is given by h = 10t − t2 .
c. On the same set of axes used for part a, sketch the graph of the
height of the second ball against time.
d. State the difference in the highest point reached by the two
balls.
Problem solving
25. Consider the quadratic equation y = x2 − 4x + 7.
a. Determine the equivalent inverted equation of the quadratic that just touches the one above at the
turning point.
b. Confirm your result graphically.
2
26. Consider the equation y = 3(x − 2) − 7.
a. State the coordinates of the turning point and y-intercept.
−3
b. State a sequence of transformations that when applied to the graph of y = (x − 2)2 − 7 will produce the
2
graph of y = x2 .
1 2
27. A parabola has the equation y = − (x − 3) + 4. A second parabola has an equation defined by
2
Y = 2(y − 1) − 3.
a. Determine the equation relating Y to x.
b. State the appropriate dilation, reflection and translation of the graph of Y = x2 required to obtain the graph
of Y = 2(y − 1) − 3.
c. State the coordinates of the turning point Y = 2(y − 1) − 3.
d. Sketch the graph of Y = 2(y − 1) − 3.
28. A ball shot at a certain angle to the horizontal follows a parabolic

path. It reaches a maximum height of 200 m when its horizontal
distance from its starting point is 10 m. When the ball’s horizontal
distance from the starting point was 1 m, the ball had reached a height
of 38 m.
Determine an equation to model the ball’s flight, clearly defining
your chosen pronumerals.

9.4 Sketching parabolas using turning point form

LEARNING INTENTION
• determine the axis of symmetry and turning point of a quadratic in turning point form
• calculate the y-intercept and any x-intercepts of a quadratic in turning point form.
9.4.1 Turning point form

eles-4870
• When a quadratic equation is expressed in the form y = a(x − h)2 + k:
the turning point is the point (h, k)
•
the axis of symmetry is x = h
• y = a(x _ h)2 + k
2
• the x-intercepts are calculated by solving a(x − h) + k = 0.
↗ ↑ ↖
Reflects Translates Translates
• Changing the values of a, h and k in the equation transforms the shape and
and left and up and
position of the parabola when compared with the parabola y = x2 . dilates right down
Turning point form
A quadratic of the form y = a(x − h)2 + k has:

• a turning point at the coordinate (h, k)
• the turning point will be a minimum if a > 0
• the turning point will be a maximum if a < 0
• an axis of symmetry of x = h
( )
• a y-intercept of 0, ah2 + k .
The number of x-intercepts depends on the values of a, h and k. Changing the value of a does not change the
position of the turning point, only h and k.
WORKED EXAMPLE 8 Determining the turning point from turning point form
For each of the following equations, state the coordinates of the turning point of the graph and
whether it is a maximum or a minimum.
2
a. y = (x − 6)2 − 4 b. y = −(x + 3) + 2
THINK WRITE
2
a. 1. Write the equation. a. y = (x − 6) − 4
2. Identify the transformations — horizontal translation of 6 units The turning point is (6, −4).
to the right and a vertical translation of 4 units down. State the
turning point.
3. As a is positive (a = 1), the graph is upright with a minimum Minimum turning point.
turning point.
2
b. 1. Write the equation b. y = −(x + 3) + 2
2. Identify the transformations — horizontal translation of 3 units The turning point is (−3, 2).
to the left and a vertical translation of 2 units up. State the
turning point.
3. As a is negative (a = −1), the graph is inverted with a maximum Maximum turning point.
turning point.

9.4.2 x- and y-intercepts of quadratic graphs

eles-4871
• Other key features such as the x- and y-intercepts can also be determined from the equation of a parabola.
• The point(s) where the graph cuts or touches the x-axis are called the x-intercept(s). At these points, y = 0.
• The point where the graph cuts the x-axis is called the y-intercept. At this point, x = 0.
WORKED EXAMPLE 9 Determining the axial intercepts from turning point form
For the parabolas with the following equations:

i. determine the y-intercept
ii. determine the x-intercepts (where they exist).
2
a. y = (x + 3)2 − 4 b. y = 2(x − 1)2 c. y = −(x + 2) − 1
THINK WRITE
2
a. 1. Write the equation. a. y = (x + 3) − 4
2. Calculate the y-intercept by substituting x = 0 y-intercept: when x = 0,

into the equation. y = (0 + 3)2 − 4
= 9−4
=5
The y-intercept is 5.
3. Calculate the x-intercepts by substituting y = 0 x-intercepts: when y = 0,

into the equation and solving for x. Add 4 to both (x + 3)2 − 4 = 0
sides of the equation. Take the square root of (x + 3)2 = 4
both sides of the equation. (x + 3) = +2 or − 2
Subtract 3 from both sides of the equation.
x = 2 − 3 or x = −2 − 3
Solve for x.
x = −1 x = −5
The x-intercepts are −5 and −1.
2
b. 1. Write the equation. b. y = 2(x − 1)

into the equation. y = 2(0 − 1)2
= 2×1
=2
3. Calculate the x-intercepts by substituting y = 0 x-intercepts: when, y = 0,

into the equation and solving for x. 2(x − 1)2 = 0
Note that there is only one solution for x and so (x − 1)2 = 0
there is only one x-intercept. (The graph touches x−1 = 0
the x-axis.) x = 0+1
x=1
The x-intercept is 1.
2
c. 1. Write the equation. c. y = − (x + 2) − 1

into the equation. y = −(0 + 2)2 − 1
= −4 − 1
= −5
The y-intercept is −5.

3. Calculate the x-intercepts by substituting x-intercepts: when y = 0,

y = 0 into the equation and solving for x. We −(x + 2)2 − 1 = 0
cannot take the square root of −1 to obtain real (x + 2)2 = −1
solutions; therefore, there are no x-intercepts. There are no real solutions, so there are no
x-intercepts.
WORKED EXAMPLE 10 Sketching a quadratic in turning point form
For each of the following:

i. write the coordinates of the turning point
ii. state whether the graph has a maximum or a minimum turning point
iii. state whether the graph is wider, narrower or the same width as the graph of y = x2
iv. calculate the y-intercept
v. calculate the x-intercepts
vi. sketch the graph.
a. y = (x − 2)2 + 3 b. y = −2(x + 1)2 + 6
THINK WRITE/DRAW
2
a. 1. Write the equation. a. y = (x − 2) + 3
2. State the coordinates of the turning The turning point is (2, 3).
point from the equation. Use (h, k) as the
equation is in the turning point form of
y = a(x − h)2 + k where a = 1, h = 2
and k = 3.
3. State the nature of the turning point by The graph has a minimum turning point as the
considering the sign of a. sign of a is positive.
4. Specify the width of the graph by The graph has the same width as y = x2
considering the magnitude of a. since a = 1.
5. Calculate the y-intercept by substituting y-intercept: when x = 0,
x = 0 into the equation. y = (0 − 2)2 + 3
= 4+3
=7
y-intercept is 7.
y = 0 into the equation and solving for x. (x − 2)2 + 3 = 0
As we have to take the square root of a (x − 2)2 = −3
negative number, we cannot solve for x. There are no real solutions, and hence no
x-intercepts.
y
7. Sketch the graph, clearly showing the
y = (x – 2)2 + 3
turning point and the y-intercept.
7
8. Label the graph.
3
(2, 3)
0 x
2

2
b. 1. Write the equation. b. y = −2(x + 1) + 6
2. State the coordinates of the turning The turning point is (−1, 6).
point from the equation. Use (h, k) as the
equation is in the turning point form of
y = a(x − h)2 + k where a = −2, h = −1
and k = 6.
3. State the nature of the turning point by The graph has a maximum turning point as the
considering the sign of a. sign of a is negative.
4. Specify the width of the graph by The graph is narrower than y = x2 since |a| > 1.
considering the magnitude of a.
5. Calculate the y-intercept by substituting y-intercept: when x = 0,
x = 0 into the equation. y = −2(0 + 1)2 + 6
= −2 × 1 + 6
=4
y = 0 into the equation and solving for x. −2(x + 1)2 + 6 = 0
2(x + 1)2 = 6
(x + 1)2 = 3
√ √
x + 1 = 3 or x + 1 = − 3
√ √
x = −1 + 3 or x = −1 − 3
√ √
The x-intercepts are −1 − 3 and −1 + 3 (or
approximately −2.73 and 0.73).
7. Sketch the graph, clearly showing the

y
turning point and the x- and y-intercepts. (–1, 6)
8. Label the graph.
4
0 –1 + 3 x
–1 – 3
y = –2(x + 1)2 + 6
Note: Unless otherwise stated, exact values for the intercepts should be shown on sketch graphs.
DISCUSSION
Does a in the equation y = a(x − h)2 + k have any impact on the turning point?

Resources
Resourceseses
Video eLessons Sketching quadratics in turning point form (eles-1926)
Solving quadratics in turning point form (eles-1941)
Interactivities Individual pathway interactivity: Sketching parabolas in turning point form (int-4607)
Quadratic functions (int-2562)
Exercise 9.4 Sketching parabolas using turning point form

Individual pathways
1, 4, 7, 9, 12, 14, 17, 20, 23, 27 2, 5, 8, 10, 13, 15, 18, 21, 24, 28 3, 6, 11, 16, 19, 22, 25, 26, 29
Fluency
WE8 For questions 1 to 3, for each of the following equations, state the coordinates of the turning point of the
graph and whether it is a maximum or a minimum.
2 2 2
1. a. y = (x − 1) + 2 b. y = (x + 2) − 1 c. y = (x + 1) + 1
2 2 2
2. a. y = −(x − 2) + 3 b. y = −(x − 5) + 3 c. y = (x + 2) − 6
( )2 ( )2
1 3 1 2 2
3. a. y = x − − b. y = x − + c. y = (x + 0.3) − 0.4
2 4 3 3
4. For each of the following, state:
i. the coordinates of the turning point
ii. whether the graph has a maximum or a minimum turning point
iii. whether the graph is wider, narrower or the same width as that of y = x2 .
2 2
a. y = 2(x + 3) − 5 b. y = −(x − 1) + 1

2 1
a. y = −5(x + 2) − 4 b. y = (x − 3)2 + 2
4
( )2
1 2 1 1
a. y = − (x + 1) + 7 b. y = 0.2 x − −
2 5 2

7. Select the equation that best suits each of the following graphs.
i. y ii. y iii. y
3
1
0 x 0 x
0 x –1
2
–3
2 2
a. y = (x + 1) − 3 b. y = −(x − 2) + 3 c. y = −x2 + 1
8. Select the equation that best suits each of the following graphs.
i. y ii. y iii. y
0 x
1
0 x 0 x
–2
–1
–3
2 2
a. y = (x − 1) − 3 b. y = −(x + 2) + 3 c. y = x2 − 1
)2 (
2 1 1
9. MCThe translations required to change y = x into y = x − + are:
2 3
1 1 1 1
A. right , up B. left , down
2 3 2 3
1 1 1 1
C. right , down D. left , up
2 3 2 3
1 1
E. right , up
3 2
( )2
1 1 1 1
10. MC For the graph x− + , the effect of the on the graph is:
4 2 3 4
A. no effect B. to make the graph narrower
C. to make the graph wider D. to invert the graph
1
E. to translate the graph up of a unit
4
11. MC Compared to the graph of y = x2 , y = −2(x + 1)2 − 4 is:
A. inverted and wider B. inverted and narrower
C. upright and wider D. upright and narrower
E. inverted and the same width
12. MC A graph that has a minimum turning point (1, 5) and that is narrower than the graph of y = x2 is:
2 1 2 2
A. y = (x − 1) + 5 B. y = (x + 1) + 5 C. y = 2(x − 1) + 5
2
2 1 2
D. y = 2(x + 1) + 5 E. y = (x − 1) + 5
2

13. MC Compared to the graph of y = x2 , the graph of y = −3(x − 1)2 − 2 has the following features.
A. Maximum TP at (−1, −2), narrower B. Maximum TP at (1, −2), narrower
C. Maximum TP at (1, 2), wider D. Minimum TP at (1, −2), narrower
E. Minimum TP at (−1, −2), wider
WE9 For questions 14 to 16, for the parabolas with the following equations:
i. determine the y-intercept
ii. determine the x-intercepts (where they exist).
2 2
14. a. y = (x + 1) − 4 b. y = 3(x − 2)
2 2
15. a. y = −(x + 4) − 2 b. y = (x − 2) − 9
2
16. a. y = 2x2 + 4 b. y = (x + 3) − 5
Understanding
17. WE10 For each of the following:
2 2 2
a. y = (x − 4) + 2 b. y = (x − 3) − 4 c. y = (x + 1) + 2
18. For each of the following:

2 2 2
a. y = (x + 5) − 3 b. y = −(x − 1) + 2 c. y = −(x + 2) − 3
19. For each of the following:

2 2 2
a. y = −(x + 3) − 2 b. y = 2(x − 1) + 3 c. y = −3(x + 2) + 1
20. Consider the equation 2x2 − 3x − 8 = 0.

a. Complete the square.
b. Use the result to determine the exact solutions to the original equation.
c. Determine the turning point of y = 2x2 − 3x − 8 and indicate its type.

a. Determine the equation of a quadratic that has a turning point of (−4, 6) and has an x-intercept at (−1, 0).
b. State the other x-intercept (if any).

22. Write the new equation for the parabola y = x2 that has been:
a. reflected in the x-axis
b. dilated by a factor of 7 away from the x-axis
c. translated 3 units in the negative direction of the x-axis
d. translated 6 units in the positive direction of the y-axis
1
e. dilated by a factor of from the x-axis, reflected in the x-axis, and translated 5 units in the positive
4
direction of the x-axis and 3 units in the negative direction of the y-axis.
Reasoning
23. The price of shares in fledgling company ‘Lollies’r’us’ plunged
dramatically one afternoon, following the breakout of a small fire on
the premises. However, Ms Sarah Sayva of Lollies Anonymous agreed
to back the company, and share prices began to rise.
Sarah noted at the close of trade that afternoon that the company’s share
price followed the curve:
P = 0.1(t − 3)2 + 1 where $P is the price of shares t hours after noon.
a. Sketch a graph of the relationship between time and share price to
represent the situation.
b. Determine the initial share price.
c. Determine the lowest price of shares that afternoon.
d. Evaluate the time when the price was at its lowest.
e. Determine the final price of ‘Lollies’r’us’ shares as trade closed at 5 pm.
24. Rocky is practising for a football kicking competition. After being kicked, the path that the ball follows can
be modelled by the quadratic relationship:
1
h=− (d − 15)2 + 8
30
where h is the vertical distance the ball reaches (in metres), and d is the horizontal distance (in metres).
a. Determine the initial vertical height of the ball.
b. Determine the exact maximum horizontal distance the ball travels.
c. Write down both the maximum height and the horizontal distance when the maximum height is reached.

a. If the turning point of a particular parabola is (2, 6), suggest a possible equation for the parabola.
b. If the y-intercept in part a is (0, 4), determine the exact equation for the parabola.

a. If the turning point of a particular parabola is (p, q), suggest a possible equation for the parabola.
b. If the y-intercept in part a is (0, r), determine the exact equation for the parabola.
Problem solving
27. Use the completing the square method to write each of the following in turning point form and sketch the
parabola for each part.
a. y = x2 − 8x + 1 b. y = x2 + 4x − 5 c. y = x2 + 3x + 2

28. Use the information given in the graph shown to answer the following questions.
y
5
4
3
2
1
0 x
–1 –1 1 2 3 4
–2
–3
–4
–5
–6
–7
–8
–9 Local minimum
–10 (2, –8)
a. Determine the equation of the parabola shown.

b. State the dilation and translation transformations that have been applied to y = x2 to achieve this parabola.
c. This graph is reflected in the x-axis. Determine the equation of the reflected graph.
d. Sketch the graph of the reflected parabola.
29. The graph of a quadratic equation has a turning point at (−3, 8) and passes through the point (−1, 6).
a. Determine the equation of this parabola.
b. State the transformations that have been applied to y = x2 to produce this parabola.
c. Calculate the x and y-intercepts of this parabola.
d. The graph is reflected in the x-axis, dilated by a factor of 2 from the x-axis, and then reflected in the
y-axis. Sketch the graph of this new parabola.
9.5 Sketching parabolas in expanded form

LEARNING INTENTION
• determine the x-intercept/s, y-intercept and turning point of a quadratic equation and sketch its graph by
first factorising the equation
• determine the x-intercept/s, y-intercept and turning point of a quadratic equation and sketch its graph
using the quadratic formula.
9.5.1 Parabolas of the form y = ax2 + bx + c

eles-4872
• The general form of a quadratic equation is y = ax2 + bx + c where a, b and c are constants.
• The x-intercepts can be found by letting y = 0, factorising and using the Null Factor Law to solve for x.
• The y-intercept can be found by letting x = 0 and solving for y.
• The x-coordinate of the turning point lies midway between the x-intercepts.
• Once the midpoint of the x-intercepts is found, this value can be substituted into the original equation to
find the y-coordinate of the turning point.
• Once these intercepts and turning point have been found, it is possible to sketch the parabola.
• If an equation is not written in turning point form, and cannot be readily factorised, then we will need to
use the quadratic formula to help find all key points.

Quadratic formula
A quadratic of the form y = ax2 + bx + c has:

• a y-intercept at the coordinate (0, c).
• x-intercepts that can be found using the quadratic formula; that is, when the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0
√
−b ± b2 − 4ac
x=
( ) 2a
b b2
• a turning point at the coordinate − , c − .
2a 4a
For example, given the equation y = x2 + 4x −6:

• In this example we have a = 1, b = 4 and c = −6.
• The y-intercept is (0, c) = (0, −6)
• The x-intercepts are given by:
√
√ √ √
−b ± b2 − 4ac − (4) ± (4)2 − 4 × (1) × (−6) −4 ± 40 −4 ± 2 10 √
x= = = = = −2 ± 10
2a 2 × (1) 2 2
() ( √ √ )
• Therefore, the x-intercepts are −2 + 10, 0 and −2 − 10, 0 .
( ) ( )
b b2 (4) (4)2
• The turning point is given by − , c − = − , −6 − = (−2, −10).
2a 4a 2 × (1) 4 × (1)
Note: Do not convert answer to decimals unless specified by the question. It is always best practice to leave
coordinates in exact form.
WORKED EXAMPLE 11 Sketching a factorised quadratic equation
Sketch the graph of y = (x − 3) (x + 2).
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1. The equation is in factorised form. To calculate the x-intercepts, y = (x − 3) (x + 2)
let y = 0 and use the Null Factor Law. 0 = (x − 3) (x + 2)
x − 3 = 0 or x + 2 = 0 (NFL)
x = 3 or x = −2
x-intercepts: (3, 0) (−2, 0)
3 + (−2)
2. The x-coordinate of the turning point is midway between xTP =
the x-intercepts. Calculate the average of the two x-intercepts to 2
= 0.5
determine the midpoint between them.
3. • To calculate the y-coordinate of the turning point, substitute y = (x − 3) (x + 2)
xTP into the equation. yTP = (0.5 − 3) (0.5 + 2)
= −6.25
• State the turning point.
Turning point: (0.5, −6.25)
4. • To calculate the y-intercept, let x = 0 and substitute. y = (0 − 3) (0 + 2)

= −6
• State the y-intercept. y-intercept: (0, −6)

5. • Sketch the graph, showing all the important features. y x = 0.5

• Label the graph. 2
1
(–2, 0) (3, 0)
0 x
–4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4
–2
–3
–4
y = (x – 3)(x + 2)
–5
–6
–7 (0.5, –6.25)
WORKED EXAMPLE 12 Sketching a quadratic in expanded form
Sketch the graph of y = 2x2 − 6x − 6.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1. The equation is not in factorised form, but there is y = 2x2 − 6x − 6

a common factor of 2. Take out the common factor = 2(x2 − 3x − 3)
of 2.
( ( )2 ( )2 )
2 3 3
2. The equation cannot be factorised (no factors of y = 2 x − 3x + − −3
−3 add to −3), so use completing the square to 2 2
([ ]2 ( )2 )
write the equation in turning point form. 3 3
• Halve and then square the coefficient of x. = 2 x− − −3
• Add this and then subtract it from the equation.
2 2
([ ]2 )
• Collect the terms for and write the perfect
3 9
square. = 2 x− − −3
2 4
• Simplify the brackets to write the equation in
([ ]2 )
turning point form. 3 21
• Identify the coordinates of the turning point = 2 x− −
2 4
(h, k). ( )2
3 21
= 2 x− −2×
2 4
( )2
3 21
= 2 x− −
2 ( 2 )
3 −21
Turning point ∶ ,
2 2
3. • To calculate the x-intercepts, let y = 0. No x-intercepts: let y = 0.

factors of −3 add to −3, so use the quadratic 0 = 2x2 − 6x − 6
formula to calculate the x-intercepts. √
−b ± b2 − 4ac
x=
2a
where a = 2, b = −6, c = −6

√
− (−6) ± (−6)2 − 4 × 2 × (−6)
x=
2 (2)
√
6± 36 + 48
=
4
√ √
6± 6 ± 2 21
84
= =
4 4
• State the x-intercepts. The x-intercepts are:
√ √
3 + 21 3 − 21
x= and x =
2 2
x ≈ 3.79 x ≈ − 0.79
4. • To calculate the y-intercepts, let x = 0 and y = 2x2 − 6x − 6

substitute. y = 2(0)2 − 6 (0) − 6
• State the y-intercept.
= −6
y-intercept: (0, −6)
5. • Sketch the graph, showing all the important y

8 x = –3
features. 2
• Label the graph and show the exact values of
y = 2x2 – 6x – 6
the x-intercepts. 6
( 3 – √21, 0
–
2 )
2
( 3 + √21, 0
–
2 )
x
–6 –4 –2 –60 2 4 6 8
–10
( )
3 –21
–,
2 2

entry line as: line as:
f1(x) = 2x2 − 6x − 6 y1 = 2x2 − 6x − 6
The graph will be Tap the graphing icon and the
displayed. graph will be displayed.

2. To locate the turning 2. To locate the turning point,

point, press: press:
• 2: Minimum • Min
Drag the dotted line to To locate the turning point,
the left of the turning press:
point (the lower bound), • Analysis
click ENTER and then • G-Solve
drag the dotted line to The graph is shown, along with • Root
the right of the turning the critical points. To locate the second root, tap the
point (the upper bound) right arrow.
and press ENTER. The points of interest will be
The turning point is
To locate the intercepts, shown.
(1.5, 10.5).
press: The x-intercepts
• MENU are (−0.791, 0) and
• 6: Analyze Graph (3.791, 0).
• 1: Zero
Locate the points as
described above.
The points of interest
will be shown.
DISCUSSION
What strategy can you use to remember all of the information necessary to sketch a parabola?
Resources
Resourceseses
Digital documents SkillSHEET Completing the square (doc-5268)
SkillSHEET Solving quadratic equations using the quadratic formula (doc-5269)
SkillSHEET Solving quadratic equations of the type ax2 + bx + c = 0 where a = 1 (doc-5270)
SkillSHEET Solving quadratic equations of the type ax2 + bx + c = 0 where a ≠ 1 (doc-5271)
Video eLessons Sketching quadratics in factorised form (eles-1927)

Sketching parabolas using the quadratic formula (eles-1945)
Interactivity Individual pathway interactivity: Sketching parabolas of the form y = ax2 + bx + c (int-4608)
Exercise 9.5 Sketching parabolas in expanded form

Individual pathways
1, 2, 5, 8, 11, 14 3, 6, 9, 12, 15 4, 7, 10, 13, 16
Fluency
1. What information is necessary to be able to sketch a parabola?
WE11 For questions 2 to 4, sketch the graph of each of the following.

2. a. y = (x − 5) (x − 2) b. y = (x + 4) (x − 7)

3. a. y = (x + 3) (x + 5) b. y = (2x + 3) (x + 5)
( )
x
4. a. y = (4 − x) (x + 2) b. y = +3 (5 − x)
2
WE12 For questions 5 to 7, sketch the graph of each of the following.
5. a. y = x2 + 4x + 2 b. y = x2 − 4x − 5 c. y = 2x2 − 4x − 3
6. a. y = −2x2 + 11x + 5 b. y = −2x2 + 12x c. y = 3x2 + 6x + 1
7. a. y = −3x2 − 5x + 2 b. y = 2x2 + 8x − 10 c. y = −3x2 + 7x + 3
Understanding
8. The path of a soccer ball kicked by the goal keeper can be modelled by the
1 2
equation y = − (x − 24x) where y is the height of the soccer ball and x is
144
the horizontal distance from the goalie, both in metres.
a. Sketch the graph.
b. Calculate how far away from the player does the ball first bounce.
c. Calculate the maximum height of the ball.
9. The monthly profit or loss, p, (in thousands of dollars) for a new brand
of chicken loaf is given by p = 3x2 − 15x − 18, where x is the number of
months after its introduction (when x = 0).
a. Sketch the graph.
b. Determine during which month a profit was first made.
c. Calculate the month in which the profit is $54 000.
10. The height, h metres, of a model rocket above the ground t seconds after launch is given by the
equation h = 4t(50 − t), where 0 ≤ t ≤ 50.
a. Sketch the graph of the rocket’s flight.
b. State the height of the rocket above the ground when it is launched.
c. Calculate the greatest height reached by the rocket.
d. Determine how long the rocket takes to reach its greatest height.
e. Determine how long the rocket is in the air.
Reasoning
11. The equation y = x2 + bx + 7500 has x-intercepts of (−150, 0) and (−50, 0). Determine the value
of b in the equation. Justify your answer.
12. The equation y = x2 + bx + c has x-intercepts of m and n. Determine the value of b in the equation.
Justify your answer.
13. A ball thrown from a cliff follows a parabolic path of the form y = ax2 + bx + c. The ball is
released at the point (0, 9), reaches a maximum height at (2, 11) and passes through the point
(6, 3) on its descent.
Determine the equation of the ball’s path. Show full working.

Problem solving
14. A ball is thrown upwards from a building and follows the path given by the formula h = −x2 + 4x + 21. The
ball is h metres above the ground when it is a horizontal distance of x metres from the building.
a. Sketch the graph of the path of the ball.
b. Determine the maximum height of the ball.
c. Determine how far the ball is from the wall when it reaches the maximum height.
d. Determine how far from the building the ball lands.
15. During an 8-hour period, an experiment is done in which the temperature of a room follows the relationship
T = h2 − 8h + 21, where T is the temperature in degrees Celsius h hours after starting the experiment.
a. Sketch the graph of this quadratic.

b. Identify the initial temperature.
c. Determine if the temperature is increasing or decreasing after 3 hours.
d. Determine if the temperature is increasing or decreasing after 5 hours.
e. Determine the minimum temperature and when it occurred.
f. Determine the temperature after 8 hours.
16. A ball is thrown out of a window, passing through the points (0, 7), (6, 18) and (18, 28). A rule for the height
of the ball in metres is given by h = ax2 + bx + c where x is the horizontal distance, in metres, covered by
the ball.
a. Determine the values of a, b and c in the rule for the height of the ball.
b. Calculate the height that the ball was thrown from.
c. Evaluate the maximum height reached by the ball.
d. Determine horizontal distance covered by the ball when it hits the ground.
e. Sketch the flight path of the ball, making sure you show all key points.

9.6 Exponential graphs

LEARNING INTENTION
• determine the asymptote of an exponential equation and sketch a graph of the equation
• sketch the graph of an exponential graph after it has undergone a number of transformations that may
include dilations, a reflection in the x- or y-axis, or translations.
9.6.1 Exponential functions

eles-4873
• Relationships of the form y = ax are called exponential functions with y
base a, where a is a real number not equal to 1, and x is the index power 16
15
or exponent.
14
• The term ‘exponential’ is used, as x is an exponent (or index).
13
For example, the graph of the exponential function y = 2x can be plotted by
12
completing a table of values. 11
1 10
Remember that 2−3 = 3
2 9
1 8
= , and so on. 7
8
6
x −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5
1 1 1 1 4
y 1 2 4 8 16
16 8 4 2 3
2
• The graph has many significant features. 1
• The y-intercept is 1. x
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4
• The value of y is always greater than zero. –1
• As x decreases, y gets closer to but never reaches zero. So the graph gets
closer to but never reaches the x-axis. The x-axis (or the line y = 0) is
called an asymptote.
• As x increases, y becomes very large.
Comparing exponential graphs

y
• The diagram at right shows the graphs of y = 2x and y = 3x . 12
• y = 3x
The graphs both pass through the point (0, 1). 11
• The graph of y = 3x climbs more steeply than the graph of y = 2x . 10
• y = 0 is an asymptote for both graphs. 9
8
y = 2x
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0 x
–4 –3 –2 –1
–1 1 2 3 4 5

Translation and reflection

Vertical translation Reflection about the x-axis Reflection about the y-axis
y y y
11 8 9
y = 2x + 3
10 7 8
y = 2x
9 6 7
y = 2x
8 5 6
7 4 5
6 3 units 3 4
y = –2x y = 2x
5 2 3
4 1 2
3 x 1
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5
3 units 2 –1 x
0 1 2 3 4 5
1 –2 –4 –3 –2 –1
–1
–3
0 x
–4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 –4
–1 • The diagram shows the graphs of
–5
–6
y = –2x y = 2x and y = 2−x .
• The diagram shows the graphs of • The graphs have identical shape.
–7
y = 2x and y = 2x + 3. –8 • The graph of y = 2−x is a
• The graphs have identical shape. reflection about the y-axis of the
• Although they appear to get graph of y = 2x .
• The diagram shows the graphs of
closer to each other, the graphs • Both graphs pass through the
are constantly 3 vertical units y = 2x and y = −2x . point (0, 1).
• The graphs have identical shape.
apart. • The x-axis (y = 0) is an
• As x becomes very small, the • The graph of y = −2x is a asymptote for both graphs.
graph of y = 2x + 3 approaches reflection about the x-axis of the • In general, the graph of y = a−x
but never reaches the line graph of y = 2x . is a reflection about the y-axis of
y = 3, so y = 3 is the horizontal • The x-axis (y = 0) is an the graph of y = ax .
asymptote. asymptote for both graphs.
• When the graph of y = 2x is • In general, the graph of y = −ax
translated 3 units upward, it is a reflection about the x-axis of
becomes the graph of y = 2x + 3. the graph of y = ax .
WORKED EXAMPLE 13 Sketching exponential graphs
Given the graph of y = 4x , sketch on the same axes the graphs of:
y
a. y = 4x − 2 6
b. y = −4x 5
c. y = 4−x . y = 4x
4
3
2
1
0 x
–4 –3 –2 –1
–1 1 2 3 4
–2

THINK DRAW
a. The graph of y = 4x has already been drawn. It has a y-intercept a. y
of 1 and a horizontal asymptote at y = 0. The graph of 7
y = 4x − 2 has the same shape as y = 4x but is translated 2 units 6
vertically down. It has a y-intercept of −1 and a horizontal 5
asymptote at y = −2. 4
3
2
y = 4x –2
y=4 x 1
0 x
–4 –3 –2 –1
–1 1 2 3
–2
y = –2
–3
b. y = −4x has the same shape as y = 4x but is reflected about the b. y

x-axis. It has a y-intercept of −1 and a horizontal asymptote 6
at y = 0. 5
4
3
2
y = 4x
1
0 x
–4 –3 –2 –1
–1 1 2 3
–2 y = –4x
–3
–4
–5
c. y = 4−x has the same shape as y = 4x but is reflected about the c. y

y-axis. The graphs have the same y-intercept and the same 8
horizontal asymptote (y = 0). 7
6
5
y = 4– x y = 4x
4
3
2
1
0 x
–4 –3 –2 –1
–1 1 2 3

9.6.2 Combining transformations of exponential graphs

eles-4874
• It is possible to combine translations, dilations and reflections in one graph.
WORKED EXAMPLE 14 Sketching exponentials with multiple transformations
By considering transformations to the graph of y = 2x , sketch the graph of y = −2x + 1.
THINK DRAW
x
1. Start by sketching y = 2 . y
It has a y-intercept of 1 and a horizontal asymptote at y = 0. 5
2. Sketch y = −2x by reflecting y = 2x about the x-axis. 4
It has a y-intercept of −1 and a horizontal asymptote at y = 0. 3
3. Sketch y = −2x + 1 by translating y = −2x upwards by 1 unit. 2 y = 2x
(–1, 0.5)
The graph has a y-intercept of 0 and a horizontal asymptote 1 (0, 1)
at y = 1. –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3
x
–1
(0, –1) –2
y = –2x +1
–3
–4
y = – 2x

1. In a new problem, Open the Graph & Table
on a Graphs page, screen and complete the
complete the function entry line as:
function entry y1 = 2x
line as: y2 = −2x
f 1(x) = 2x y3 = −2x + 1
Then press ENTER. Then tap the graphing
icon and the graphs will
be displayed.
2. Press TAB and

complete the From y1 to y2 the graph
function entry has undergone a reflection
line as: about the x-axis. From
f 2(x) = −f 1(x) y2 to y3 the graph has
Then press ENTER. undergone a translation
Press TAB and upwards by 1 unit.
complete the
function entry
line as:
f 3(x) = f 2(x) + 1 The graph of y = −2x is the
Then press ENTER. reflection of the graph of y = 2x
in the x-axis.
The graph of y = −2x + 1 is
the graph of y = −2x translated
upwards by 1 unit.
The graph of y = −2x + 1 passes
through the origin and has a
horizontal asymptote at y = 1.

DISCUSSION
Explain whether the graph of an exponential function will always have a horizontal asymptote.
Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivities Individual pathway interactivity: Exponential functions and graphs (int-4609)
Exponential functions (int-5959)
Exercise 9.6 Exponential graphs

Individual pathways
1, 6, 8, 10, 13, 15, 18 2, 4, 7, 11, 14, 16, 19 3, 5, 9, 12, 17, 20
Fluency
1. Complete the following table and use it to plot the graph of y = 3x , for −3 ≤ x ≤ 3.
x −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
y
2. If x = 1, calculate the value of y when:

a. y = 2x b. y = 3x c. y = 4x
3. If x = 1, calculate the value of y when:

x
a. y = 10 b. y = ax .
4. Using a calculator or graphing program, sketch the graphs of y = 2x , y = 3x and y = 4x on the same set
of axes.
a. Describe the common features among the graphs.
b. Describe how the value of the base (2, 3, 4) affects the graph.
c. Predict where the graph y = 8x would lie and sketch it in.
5. Using graphing technology, sketch the following graphs on one set of axes.
y = 3x , y = 3x + 2, y = 3x + 5 and y = 3x − 3
a. State what remains the same in all of these graphs.
b. State what is changed.
c. For the graph of y = 3x + 10, write down:
i. the y-intercept
ii. the equation of the horizontal asymptote.
6. Using graphing technology, sketch the graphs of:

a. y = 2x and y = −2x
b. y = 3x and y = −3x
c. y = 6x and y = −6x .
d. State the relationship between these pairs of graphs.
7. Using graphing technology, sketch the graphs of:

a. y = 2x and y = 2−x
b. y = 3x and y = 3−x
c. y = 6x and y = 6−x
d. State the relationship between these pairs of graphs. y
7
8. WE13 Given the graph of y = 2x , sketch on the same axes the graphs of: 6
5
a. y = 2x + 6
4
b. y = −2x
3
c. y = 2−x . y = 2x
2
1
0 x
–4 –3 –2 –1
–1 1 2 3 4
–2
–3
–4
–5
–6
–7
9. Given the graph of y = 3x , sketch on the same axes the graphs of: y
x 7
a. y = 3 + 2
6
b. y = −3x .
5
4
3
y = 3x
2
1
0 x
–4 –3 –2 –1
–1 1 2 3 4
–2
–3
–4
–5
–6
–7
10. Given the graph of y = 4x , sketch on the same axes the graphs of: y
7
a. y = 4x − 3
6
b. y = 4−x .
5
4
Understanding y = 4x
3
11. WE14 By considering transformations of the graph of y = 2x , sketch the 2
following graphs on the same set of axes. 1
a. y = 2−x + 2 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4
x
–1
b. y = −2x + 3 –2
12. By considering transformations of the graph of y = 5x , sketch the following
–3
–4
graphs on the same set of axes.
–5
a. y = −5x + 10 –6
b. y = 5−x + 10 –7

13. Match each equation with its correct graph.

A. y = 2x B. y = 3x C. y = −4x D. y = 5−x
a. y b. y
10 2
9 1
8 x
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4
7 –1
6 –2
5 –3
4 –4
3 –5
2 –6
1 –7
–8
0 x
–4 –3 –2 –1
–1 1 2 3 4 –9
–2 –10
c. y d. y
10 10
9 9
8 8
7 7
6 6
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
0 x 0 x
–4 –3 –2 –1
–1 1 2 3 4 –4 –3 –2 –1
–1 1 2 3 4
–2 –2
14. Match each equation with its correct graph. Explain your answer.
A. y = 2x + 1 B. y = 3x + 1 C. y = −2x + 1 D. y = 2−x + 1
a. y b. y
10 6
9 5
8 4
7 3
6 2
5 1
4 x
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
3 –1
2 –2
1
0 x
–3 –2 –1
–1 1 2 3 4
–2

c. y d. y
9 2
8 1
7 x
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4
6 –1
5 –2
4 –3
3 –4
2 –5
1 –6
–7
0 x
–3 –2 –1
–1 1 2 3 4 –8
–2 –9
Reasoning
15. By considering transformations of the graph of y = 3x , sketch the graph of y = −3−x − 3.
x x
16. The graph of f (x) = 16 can be used to solve for x in the exponential equation 16 = 32. Sketch a graph of
x x
f (x) = 16 and use it to solve 16 = 32.
√
17. The graph of f (x) = 6x−1 can be used to solve for x in the exponential equation 6x−1 = 36 6. Sketch a graph
√
of f (x) = 6x−1 and use it to solve 6x−1 = 36 6.
Problem solving
18. Sketch the graph of y = −2−x + 2.
19. The number of bacteria, N, in a certain culture is reduced by a third every

hour so
( )t
1
N = N0 ×
3
where t is the time in hours after 12 noon on a particular day. Initially there
are 10 000 bacteria present.
a. State the value of N0 .
b. Calculate the number of bacteria, correct to the nearest whole number,
in the culture when:
i. t=2 ii. t = 5 iii. t = 10.
20. a. The table shows the population of a city between 1850 and 1930. Explain if the population growth
is exponential.
Year 1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 1920 1930
Population 1.0 1.3 1.69 2.197 2.856 3.713 4.827 6.275 8.157
(million)
b. Determine the common ratio in part a.

c. Evaluate the percentage increase every ten years.
d. Estimate the population in 1895.
e. Estimate the population in 1980.

9.7 Inverse proportion

LEARNING INTENTION
• calculate the constant of proportionality, k, between two variables that are inversely proportional to
each other
• determine the rule between two inversely proportional variables and plot the graph of their relationship.
9.7.1 Inverse proportion

eles-4875
• If 24 sweets are shared between 4 children, then each child
will receive 6 sweets. If the sweets are shared by 3 children,
then each will receive 8 sweets.
• The relationship between the number of children (C) and the
number sweets for each child (n) can be given in a table.
C 1 2 3 4 6 8 12
n 24 12 8 6 4 3 2
• As the number of children (C) increases, the number of sweets C

for each child (n) decreases. This is an example of inverse 24
proportion or inverse variation.
• We say that ‘n is inversely proportional to C’ or ‘n varies 20
inversely as C’.
1 k 16
• This is written as C ∝ , or C = , where k is a constant (the
n n
12
constant of proportionality). This formula can be rearranged
to Cn = k. Note that multiplying any pair of values in the table
8
(3 × 8, 12 × 2) gives the same result.
• The relationship has some important characteristics:
4
• As C increases, n decreases, and vice versa.
• The graph of the relationship is a hyperbola.
0 n
4 8 12 16 20 24
WORKED EXAMPLE 15 Calculating the constant of proportionality
y is inversely proportional to x and y = 10 when x = 2.

a. Calculate the constant of proportionality, k, and hence the rule relating x and y.
b. Plot a graph of the relationship between x and y, for values of x from 2 to 10.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1
a. 1. Write the relationship between the variables. a. y ∝
x
k
2. Rewrite as an equation using k, the constant of y=
proportionality x
k k
3. Substitute y = 10, x = 2, into y = and solve for k 10 =
x 2
k = 20

k 20
4. Write the rule by substituting k = 20 into y = . y=
x x
20
b. 1. Use the rule y = to set up a table of values for x and b.
x x 2 4 6 8 10
y, taking values for x which are positive factors of k so y 10 5 3.3 2.5 2
that only whole number values of y are obtained.
20
For example, x = 4, y = = 5.
4
2. Plot the points on a clearly labelled set of axes and join y
the points with a smooth curve. Label the graph.
25
20
15
y = 20
x
10
0 x
2 4 6 8 10
WORKED EXAMPLE 16 Determining the rule for an inversly proportional relationship
When a wire is connected to a power source, the

amount of electrical current (I) passing through the
wire is inversely proportional to the resistance (R)
of the wire. If a current of 0.2 amperes flows through
a wire of resistance 60 ohms:
a. calculate the constant of proportionality
b. determine the rule relating R and I
c. calculate the resistance if the current equals 5 amperes
d. determine the current that will flow through a wire of
resistance 20 ohms.
THINK WRITE
Summarise the information in a table. R 60 20
1 I 0.2 5
I∝
R
k
Write the rule. I=
R
k k
a. 1. Substitute R = 60, I = 0.2, into I = . a. 0.2 =
R 60
0.2 × 60 = k
2. Solve for k. k = 12
12
b. Write the rule using k = 12. b. I =
R

12 12
c. 1. Substitute I = 5 into I = . c. 5=
R R
5R = 12
12
R=
5
2. Solve for R. = 2.4
3. Write the answer in a sentence. The resistance equals 2.4 ohms.
12 12
d. 1. Substitute R = 20 into I = . d. I =
R 20
= 0.6
2. Write the answer in a sentence. The current will be 0.6 amperes.
DISCUSSION
Explain what is meant by inverse proportion.
Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivities Individual pathway interactivity: Inverse proportion (int-4512)
Inverse proportion (int-6058)
Exercise 9.7 Inverse proportion

Individual pathways
1, 3, 6, 10, 13 2, 4, 7, 11, 14 5, 8, 9, 12, 15
Fluency
1. Decide whether inverse proportion exists between each pair of variables. If it does exist, write an equation to
describe the relationship.
a. The speed of a car (s) and the time (t) it takes to complete one lap of a race circuit.
b. The amount of money (D) that I have and the number (n) of cards that I can buy.
c. The time (t) that it takes to make a pair of jeans and the number of pairs (p) that can be made in one day.
d. The price (P) of petrol and the amount (L) that can be bought for $80.
e. The price (P) of petrol and the cost (C) of buying 80 L.
f. The number of questions (n) in a test and the amount of time (t) available to answer each one.
2. List three examples of inverse proportion.

3. WE15 y varies inversely as x and y = 100 when x = 10.

b. Plot a graph of the relationship between x and y, for values of x that are positive factors of k less than 21.
4. p is inversely proportional to q and p = 12 when q = 4.

a. Calculate the constant of proportionality, k, and hence the rule relating p and q.
b. Plot a graph of the relationship between q and p, for values of q that are positive factors of k less than 11.
5. y varies inversely as x and y = 42 when x = 1.

b. Plot a graph of the relationship between x and y, for values of x from 1 to 10.
Understanding
6. WE16 When a constant force is applied to an object, its acceleration is inversely proportional to its mass.
When the acceleration of an object is 40 m/s2 , the corresponding mass is 100 kg.
a. Calculate the constant of proportionality.
b. Determine the rule relating mass and acceleration.
c. Determine the acceleration of a 200 kg object.
d. Determine the acceleration of a 1000 kg object.
7. The number of colouring pencils sold is inversely proportional
to the price of each pencil.
Two thousand pencils are sold when the price is $0.25 each.
b. Determine the number of pencils that could be sold for
$0.20 each.
c. Determine the number of pencils that could be sold for
$0.50 each.
8. The time taken to complete a journey is inversely proportional to the speed travelled. A trip is completed in
4.5 hours travelling at 75 km per hour.
b. Determine how long, to the nearest minute, the trip would take if the speed was 85 km per hour.
c. Determine the speed required to complete the journey in 3.5 hours, correct to 1 decimal place.
d. Determine the distance travelled in each case.
9. The cost per person travelling in a charter plane is inversely
proportional to the number of people in the charter group. It
costs $350 per person when 50 people are travelling.
a. Calculate the constant of variation.
b. Determine the cost per person, to the nearest cent, if there
are 75 people travelling.
c. Determine how many people are required to reduce the
cost to $250 per person.
d. Determine the total cost of hiring the charter plane.

Reasoning
10. The electrical current in a wire is inversely proportional to the resistance of the wire to that current. There is
a current of 10 amperes when the resistance of the wire is 20 ohms.
b. Determine the current possible when the resistance is 200 ohms.
c. Determine the resistance of the wire when the current is 15 amperes.
d. Justify your answer to parts b and c using a graph.
11. The pressure of an ideal gas is inversely proportional to the volume taken up
by the gas. A balloon is filled with air so it takes up 3 L at a pressure of
5 atmospheres.
b. Determine the new volume of the balloon if the pressure was dropped to
0.75 atmospheres.
c. Determine the pressure if the same amount of air took up a volume of 6 L.
12. Two equations relating the time of a trip, T, and the speed at which they
travel, S, are given. For both cases the time is inversely proportional to the
5 7
speed: T1 = and T2 = . Explain what impact the different constants of
S1 S2
proportionality have on the time of the trip.
Problem solving
13. The time it takes to pick a field of strawberries is inversely proportional
to the number of pickers. It takes 2 people 5 hours to pick all of the
strawberries in a field.
b. Determine the rule relating time (T) and the number of pickers (P).
c. Determine the time spent if there are 6 pickers.
14. For a constant distance covered by a sprinter, the sprinter’s speed is inversely proportional to their time. If a
sprinter runs at a speed of 10.4 m/s, the corresponding time is 9.62 seconds.
a. Calculate the constant of variation.
b. Determine the rule relating speed (V) and time (T).
c. Determine the time, correct to 2 decimal places, if they ran at a speed of 10.44 m/s.
d. Determine the time, correct to 2 decimal places, if they ran at a speed of 6.67 m/s.
15. A holiday hostel is built to accommodate group
bookings of up to 45 people. It is known that it would
cost each of the individuals in a group of 20 people
$67.50 per night to rent this venue. The cost of the venue
will remain the same no matter how many people are
part of the group booking.
a. Write the rule for the cost per person (C) and the
number of people in a group booking (n).
b. If 6 people from the original group are no longer able
to attend, determine the new cost per person.
c. Calculate the cheapest possible cost per person.

9.8 Sketching the hyperbola

LEARNING INTENTION
• determine the equation of the vertical and horizontal asymptote of a hyperbola
• sketch the graph of a hyperbola, and understand the effect dilations and reflections have on the shape of
the graph.
9.8.1 Hyperbolas
eles-4876
k
• A hyperbola is a function of the form xy = k or y = .
x
WORKED EXAMPLE 17 Creating a table of values in order to graph a hyperbola
1
Complete the table of values below and use it to plot the graph of y = .
x
1 1
x –3 –2 −1 − 0 1 2 3
2 2
y
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1. Substitute each x-value into the 1 1
1 x –3 –2 −1 − 0 1 2 3
function y = to obtain the 2 2
x
corresponding y-value. 1 1 1 1
y − − −1 –2 Undef. 2 1
3 2 2 3
2. Draw a set of axes and plot the points y

from the table. Join them with a 3 y = 1x
smooth curve. 2
1
x
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3
–1
–2
• The graph in Worked example 17 has several important features.

1. There is no function value (y-value) when x = 0. At this point the hyperbola is undefined. When this
occurs, the line that the graph approaches (x = 0) is called a vertical asymptote.
2. As x becomes larger and larger, the graph gets very close to but will never touch the x-axis. The same is
true as x becomes smaller and smaller. The hyperbola also has a horizontal asymptote at y = 0.
3. The hyperbola has two separate branches. It cannot be drawn without lifting your pen from the page and
is an example of a discontinuous graph.
k 1
• Graphs of the form y = are the same basic shape as y = with y-values dilated by a factor of k.
x x

General form of a hyperbola
The general form of a hyperbola with multiple transformations is given by the equation
a
y= + k.
x−h
a
• This graph has a horizontal asymptote with equation y = k. This occurs because the fraction
x−h
cannot be made to equal 0, which means y can never be equal to k.
• The graph has a vertical asymptote with equation x = h. This is because the denominator of a fraction
cannot be equal to 0, so x can never be equal to h.
• The graph will be reflected in the x-axis if a < 0.
Note: Not all exponential graphs will have an x- or y-intercept. This will depend on the equation of
the asymptotes.
WORKED EXAMPLE 18 Identifying the asymptotes of a hyperbola
4
a. Plot the graph of y = for −2 ≤ x ≤ 2.
x
b. Write down the equation of each asymptote.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a. 1. Prepare a table of values taking a. 1 1
x-values from −2 to 2. Fill in the table x –2 −1 − 0 1 2
2 2
by substituting each x-value into the
y –2 −4 −8 Undef. 8 4 2
given equation to find the corresponding
y-value.
8 4
from the table. Join them with a smooth y=—
x
curve. 4
0 x
–3 –2 –1
–4 1 2 3
–8
b. Consider any lines that the curve b. Vertical asymptote is x = 0.

approaches but does not cross. Horizontal asymptote is y = 0.
WORKED EXAMPLE 19 Sketching a reflected hyperbola
−3
Plot the graph of y = for −3 ≤ x ≤ 3.
x
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1. Draw a table of values and substitute 1 1
each x-value into the given equation to x –3 –2 −1 − 0 1 2 3
2 2
find the corresponding y-value.
y 1 1.5 3 6 Undef. −6 −3 −1.5 −1


from the table. Join them with a
smooth curve. 6 3
y=–—
x
3
1 2 3 4
x
–4 –3 –2 –1 0
–3
–6

1. In a new problem, open 1. Open the Graph & Table
a Graphs page to sketch screen and complete the
the graph, complete the function entry line as:
entry line as: −3
−3 f1(x) =
f1(x) = x
x Then tap the graphing
Then press ENTER. icon and the graph will be
displayed.
2. To see the table of 2. To see the table of values

values (for x and y (for x and y values), tap on
values), press: the table of values icon.
• Menu The values displayed can
• 7: Table be changed by editing the
• 1: Split-screen Table Table Input.
(Ctrl+T)
Scroll up to see the
negative x-values.
WORKED EXAMPLE 20 Determining the equation of the asymptotes of a hyperbola
Write the equation of the asymptotes of the following hyperbolas:

3 1 5
a. y = b. y = − + 4 c. y = −1
x+2 x 10 − x
THINK WRITE
a. Consider what value of x would make the denominator a. Vertical asymptote is x = −2
equal to 0, as well as any value added to the fraction. Horizontal asymptote is y = 0
b. Consider what value of x would make the denominator b. Vertical asymptote is x = 0
equal to 0, as well as any value added to the fraction. Horizontal asymptote is y = 4
c. Consider what value of x would make the denominator c. Vertical asymptote is x = 10
equal to 0, as well as any value added to the fraction. Horizontal asymptote is y = −1

WORKED EXAMPLE 21 Sketching a transformed hyperbola
2
Plot the graph of y = − + 3.
x+1
THINK WRITE
1. Consider what value of x would make the Vertical asymptote is x = −1
denominator equal to 0, as well as any value Horizontal asymptote is y = 3
added to the fraction.
2
2. Calculate the y-intercept (when x = 0). y=− +3=1
0+1
y-intercept is (0, 1)
2
3. Calculate the x-intercept (when y = 0). 0=− +3
x+1
−3 (x + 1) = −2
−2
x+1 =
−3
2 1
x = −1=−
3 ( 3 )
1
The x-intercept is − , 0 x = −1
3
4. Sketch the graph with coordinates of both x = –1

intercepts and both asymptotes labelled. y
2 8
y = –– + 3
x+1
6
4
y=3
2
( )
1
–– , 0
3 (0, 1)
x
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4
–2
DISCUSSION
How could you summarise the effect of the transformations dealt with in this subtopic on the shape of the
1
basic hyperbola y = ?
x
Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivities Individual pathway interactivity: The hyperbola (int-4610)
Hyperbolas (int-6155)

Exercise 9.8 Sketching the hyperbola

Individual pathways
1, 4, 7, 10, 14, 17, 20 2, 5, 8, 11, 15, 18, 21 3, 6, 9, 12, 13, 16, 19, 22, 23
Fluency
10
1. WE17 Complete the table of values below and use it to plot the graph of y = .
x
x –5 –4 –3 –2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5
y
WE18 For questions 2 to 4, answer the following.

a. Plot the graph of each hyperbola.
b. Write down the equation of each asymptote.
5
2. y =
x
20
3. y =
x
100
4. y =
x
2 3 4
5. Draw the graphs of y = , y = and y = , on the same set of axes.
x x x
k
6. Describe the effect of increasing the value of k on the graph of y = .
x
WE19 Plot the graph of y =
−10
7. for −5 ≤ x ≤ 5.
x
6 −6
8. Draw the graphs of y = and y = , on the same set of axes.
x x
−k
9. Describe the effect of the negative in y = .
x
1
10. Complete the table of values below and use the points to plot y = . State the equation of the
x−1
vertical asymptote.
x –3 –2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
y
Understanding
11. Plot the graph of each hyperbola and label the vertical asymptote.
1 1
a. y = b. y =
x−2 x−3

1
12. Plot the graph of y = and label the vertical asymptote.
x+1
1
13. Describe the effect of a in y = .
x−a
For questions 14 to 16:
i. WE20 write the equations of the asymptotes of the following hyperbolas
ii. sketch the graphs of the following hyperbolas.
−4 2
14. a. y = b. y =
x+1 x−1
5 3
15. a. y = b. y = −2
x+2 x+2
4 7
16. a. y = − +1 b. y = +5
x+2 3−x
Reasoning
17. Give an example of the equation of a hyperbola that has a vertical asymptote of:
a. x = 3 b. x = −10.
18. Give an example of a hyperbola that has the following key features.
a. Asymptotes of x = 2 and y = 3
b. Asymptotes of x = −2 and y = 4 and a y-intercept of −3
1
19. The graph of y = is reflected in the x-axis, dilated by a factor of 2 parallel to the y-axis or from the x-axis
x
and translated 3 units to the left and down 1 unit. Determine the equation of the resulting hyperbola and give
the equations of any asymptotes.
Problem solving
1
20. a. Complete the following table in order to graph the hyperbola defined by y = .
x2
1 1
x −2 −1 − 1 2
2 2
y
b. This hyperbola is also known as a truncus. Give the equations of any asymptotes.
1
c. Determine the equation of the truncus which results when y = is reflected in the x-axis.
x2
1
d. Determine the equation of the truncus which results when y = is reflected in the y-axis.
x2
780
21. The temperature of a cup of coffee as it cools is modelled by the equation T = + 22, where T
t + 10
represents the temperature in °C and t is the time in minutes since the coffee was first made.
a. State the initial temperature of the cup of coffee.
b. Calculate the temperature, to 1 decimal place, of the coffee after it has been left to cool for an hour.
c. A coffee will be too hot to drink unless its temperature has dropped below 50 °C. Determine how long
someone would have to wait, to the nearest minute, before drinking the coffee.
d. Explain whether the coffee will ever cool to 0 °C. Justify your answer.

6
22. Consider the equation y = + 2.
x2 − 4
a. Calculate the x- and y-intercepts of the graph of the equation.
b. Use your knowledge of quadratics and hyperbolas to state the equation of any asymptotes of the
above equation.
c. Using a table of values, or otherwise, sketch the graph of the equation.
1
23. Consider the truncus defined by y = . This hyperbola is reflected in the x-axis, dilated by a factor of
x2
3 parallel to the y-axis or from the x-axis and translated 1 unit to the left and up 2 units. Determine the
equation of the resulting hyperbola and give the equations of any asymptotes.
9.9 Sketching the circle

LEARNING INTENTION
• identify the centre and radius of the graph of a circle from its equation and then sketch its graph
• use completing the square to turn an equation in expanded form into the form of an equation of a circle.
9.9.1 Circles
eles-5352
• A circle is the path traced out by a point at a constant distance (the radius) from a y
fixed point (the centre). P(x, y)
• Consider the circles shown. The first circle has its centre at the origin and radius r. r y
Let P(x, y) be a point on the circle. 0 x
x
By Pythagoras: x2 + y2 = r2 .
This relationship is true for all points, P, on the circle.
The equation of a circle, with centre (0, 0) and radius r is:
y
y P(x, y)
2 2 2
x +y =r (y – k)
k
• If the circle is translated h units to the right, parallel to the x-axis, and k units (x – h)
upwards, parallel to the y-axis, then the centre of the circle will become (h, k).
The radius will remain unchanged. 0 h x x
Equation of a circle
• The equation of a circle, with centre (0, 0) and radius r, is:
x2 + y2 = r2
• The equation of a circle, with centre (h, k) and radius r, is:
(x − h)2 + (y − k)2 = r2
Note: We can produce an ellipse by dilating a circle from one or both of the axes.

WORKED EXAMPLE 22 Identifying the centre and radius of a circle from its equation
Sketch the graph of 4x2 + 4y2 = 25, stating the centre and radius.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1. Express the equation in general form by x2 + y2 = r2

dividing both sides by 4. 4x2 + 4y2 = 25
25
x2 + y2 =
4
2. State the coordinates of the centre. Centre (0, 0)
25
3. Calculate the length of the radius by taking r2 =
the square root of both sides. (Ignore the 4
negative results.) 5
r=
2
Radius = 2.5 units
4. Sketch the graph. y

2.5
–2.5 2.5
0 x
–2.5
WORKED EXAMPLE 23 Sketching a circle from its equation
Sketch the graph of (x − 2)2 + (y + 3)2 = 16, clearly showing the centre and radius.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1. Express the equation in general form. (x − h)2 + (y − k)2 = r2

(x − 2)2 + (y + 3)2 = 16
2. State the coordinates of the centre. Centre (2, −3)

3. State the length of the radius. r2 = 16
r=4
Radius = 4 units
1
x
–2 0 2 6
–3 4
–7

WORKED EXAMPLE 24 Completing the square to determine the equation of a circle
Sketch the graph of the circle x2 + 2x + y2 − 6y + 6 = 0.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1. Express the equation in general form by (x − h)2 + (y − k)2 = r2

completing the square on the x terms and x2 + 2x + y2 − 6y + 6 = 0
again on the y terms. (x2 + 2x + 1) − 1 + (y2 − 6y + 9) − 9 + 6 = 0
(x + 1)2 + (y − 3)2 − 4 = 0
(x + 1)2 + (y − 3)2 = 4
2. State the coordinates of the centre. Centre (−1, 3)

r=2
Radius = 2 units
5
3
1
0 x
–3 –1 1
WORKED EXAMPLE 25 Sketching a circle including the intercepts
Sketch the graph of the circle (x + 3)2 + (y − 2)2 = 25. Make sure to show all axial intercepts.
THINK WRITE
1. State the coordinate of the centre. Centre (−3, 2)
r=5
Radius = 5 units
3. To determine the y-intercepts let x = 0. (0 + 3)2 + (y − 2)2 = 25
(y − 2)2 = 25 − 9
(y − 2)2 = 16
y = ±4
y = 4 + 2 or 4 + 2
The y-intercepts are (0, 6) and (0, −2)
4. To determine the x-intercepts let y = 0. (x + 3)2 + (0 − 2)2 = 25

(x + 3)2 = 25 − 4
√
x + 3 = ± 21
√
x = −3 ± 21
( √ ) ( √ )
The x-intercepts are −3 + 21, 0 and −3 − 21, 0 .


8
(0, 6)
6
(–3, 2)
(–3 – √21, 0 ) 2
(–3 + √21, 0)
x
–10 –9 –8 –7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4
–2 (0, –2)
–4

On a Graphing page, press: On a Conics screen, type:
• MENU (x + 3)2 + (y − 2)2 = 25
• 3: Graph Entry/Edit
• 2: Relation Press the graphing icon and
the graph will be displayed.
Then type:
(x + 3)2 + (y − 2)2 = 25
Press ENTER and the graph
will be displayed.
DISCUSSION
How could you write equations representing a set of concentric circles (circles with the same centre, but
different radii)?
Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivities Individual pathway interactivity: The circle (int-4611)
Graphs of circles (int-6156)

Exercise 9.9 Sketching the circle

Individual pathways
1, 4, 7, 10, 13, 17 2, 5, 8, 11, 14, 15, 18 3, 6, 9, 12, 16, 19, 20
Fluency
WE22 For questions 1 to 3, sketch the graphs of the following, stating the centre and radius of each.
1. a. x2 + y2 = 49 b. x2 + y2 = 42
2. a. x2 + y2 = 36 b. x2 + y2 = 81
3. a. 2x2 + 2y2 = 50 b. 9x2 + 9y2 = 100
WE23 For questions 4 to 6, sketch the graphs of the following, clearly showing the centre and the radius.
2 2 2 2
4. a. (x − 1) + (y − 2) = 52 b. (x + 2) + (y + 3) = 62
2 2 2 2
5. a. (x + 3) + (y − 1) = 49 b. (x − 4) + (y + 5) = 64
2 2
6. a. x2 + (y + 3) = 4 b. (x − 5) + y2 = 100
WE24 For questions 7 to 9, sketch the graphs of the following circles.

7. a. x2 + 4x + y2 + 8y + 16 = 0 b. x2 − 10x + y2 − 2y + 10 = 0
8. a. x2 − 14x + y2 + 6y + 9 = 0 b. x2 + 8x + y2 − 12y − 12 = 0
9. a. x2 + y2 − 18y − 19 = 0 b. 2x2 − 4x + 2y2 + 8y − 8 = 0
Understanding
10. MC The graph of (x − 2)2 + (y + 5)2 = 4 is:
A. y B. y
5
5
x
–2 0
x
–2 0
C. y D. y
0 x x
2 0 2
–5 –5
E. None of these

11. MC The centre and radius of the circle (x + 1)2 + (y − 3)2 = 4 is:
A. (1, −3), 4 B. (−1, 3), 2 C. (3, −1), 4
D. (1, −3), 2 E. (−1, 3), 4
12. MC The centre and radius of the circle with equation x2 + y2 + 8x − 10y = 0 is:
√
A. (4, 5), 41 B. (−4, 5), 9 C. (4, −5), 3
√ √
D. (−4, 5), 41 E. (−4, −5), 41
Reasoning
13. Determine the equation representing the outer edge of the galaxy as shown in the photo below, using the
astronomical units provided.
y
0 x
5 9
14. Circular ripples are formed when a water drop hits the surface of a pond.
If one ripple is represented by the equation x2 + y2 = 4 and then 3 seconds later by x2 + y2 = 190, where the
length of measurements are in centimetres:
a. identify the radius (in cm) of the ripple in each case
b. calculate how fast the ripple is moving outwards.
(State your answers to 1 decimal place.)
2
15. Two circles with equations x2 + y2 = 4 and (x − 1) + y2 = 9 intersect. Determine the point(s) of intersection.
Show your working.
16. a. Graph the line y = x, the parabola y = x2 and the circle x2 + y2 = 1 on the one set of axes.
b. Evaluate algebraically the points of intersection of:
i. the line and the circle
ii. the line and the parabola
iii. the parabola and the circle.
Problem solving
2 2
17. Sketch the graph of (x + 6) + (y − 3) = 100 showing all axial intercepts.
18. Determine the points of intersection between the quadratic equation y = x2 − 5 and the circle given
by x2 + y2 = 25.
19. Determine the point(s) of intersection of the circles x2 + y2 − 2x − 2y − 2 = 0 and x2 + y2 − 8x − 2y + 16 = 0
both algebraically and graphically.
20. The general equation of a circle is given by x2 + y2 + ax + by + c = 0. Determine the equation of the circle
which passes through the points (4, 5), (2, 3) and (0, 5). State the centre of the circle and its radius.

9.10 Review
Transformations of the parabola The parabola Turning point form
• The parabola with the equation y = has a x2 • The graph of a quadratic equation • Completing the square allows us
turning point at (0,0). is called a parabola. to write a quadratic in turning
• A dilation from the x-axis stretches the axis of point form.
parabola. y • Turning point form:
symmetry
• A dilation of factor a from the x-axis x-intercept, y = a(x – h)2 + k
produces the equation y = ax2 and: y=0 • Turning point at (h, k)
• will produce a narrow graph for a > 0 0 x • The y-intercept is determined by
• will produce a wider graph for 0 < a < 1 setting x = 0 and solving for y.
• For a < 0 (a is negative), the graph is • x-intercept/s is determined by
in the x-axis. setting y = 0 and solving for x.
y-intercept, turning
1
y = 2x2y y = x2 y = – x2y y = x2 y y = x2 x=0 point
4
Expanded form
• The expanded form of a
(0, 0) x (0, 0) x x
(0, 0) quadratic is y = ax2 + bx + c.
NON-LINEAR • There are two methods for
sketching: factorising or using the
y = –x22
RELATIONSHIPS quadratic formula.
• The graph of y = (x – h)2 has been
translated left/right h units. e.g. Consider y = x2 – 2x – 3.
• The graph of y = x2 + k has been •
Exponential graphs y = (x – 3)(x + 1)
translated up/down k units.
• Equations y = ax are called • Use the null-factor law to
y y = x2 + 2 exponential functions. determine the x-intercepts:
y = (x – 2)2 y y = x2
y = x2 • The general form y = a(x – h) + k has: when y = 0, 0 = (x – 3)(x + 1)
• a horizontal asymptote at y = k so x = 3 or –1.
3 + (–1)
(0, 4)
(0, 2) • a y-intercept at (0, a–h + k) • Axis of symmetry: x = – = 1
2
(2, 0) x x • A negative in front of a results in • y-coordinate of the turning point:
x-axis. x = 1, y = (1 – 3)(1 + 1) = –4.
• A negative in front of x results in Turning point is (1, –4). The
y-axis. y-intercept when x = 0 is (0, –3) .
y y
Inverse proportion and hyperbolas 3 2
2x +1 (–1, 0) 1
(0, 3)
• If y and x are inversely proportional then y=1 2 2x + 1 0 x
–2 –1 –1 1 2 3
y∝–
1
–k 1
x or y = x , where k is the constant –2
–3
of proportionality. –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 x –4
k –1 –2x + 1 (1, –4)
• The graph of an equation in the form y = – x
is called a hyperbola.
• The general form of a hyperbola is Quadratic formula
a
y = – + k and has:
x–h Circles • For y = ax2+ bx + c
• vertical asymptote at x = h • axis of symmetry: x = – – b
• horizontal asymptote at y = k • x2 + y2 = r2 is a circle with centre • turning – b , c – b 2 2a
) (0, 0) and radius r. – –

• y-intercept at 0, –
–a
h+k ( • (x – h)2 + (y – k)2 = r2 is a circle
point: 2a
• x-intercepts can be
4a

–a
• x-intercept at – , 0 .
k+h ( ) with centre (h, k) and radius r.
• Use completing the square to
determine the equation of a
calculated as: x =
–b ± b2 – 4ac
–
2a
• Discriminant: ∆ = b2 – 4ac is
• If a x-axis.
circle: used to determine the number of
x2 + 6x + y2 + 8x=0 x-intercepts.
x2 + 6x + 9 + y2 + 8x + 16 = 9 + 16 • ∆ > 0, two x-intercepts
(x + 3)2 + (y + 4)2 = 25 • ∆ = 0, one x-intercept
• ∆ < 0, no x-intercept


9.2 I can create a table of values and use this to sketch the graph of
a parabola.
I can identify the axis of symmetry, turning point and y-intercept of
a parabola.
9.3 I am familiar with the key features of the basic quadratic y = x2 .
I can determine whether a dilation has made the graph of quadratic

narrower or wider
I can determine whether a translation has moved the graph of a quadratic
function left/right or up/down
I can sketch a quadratic equation that has undergone any of the following
transformations: dilations, reflections or translations.
9.4 I can determine the axis of symmetry and turning point of a quadratic
expressed in turning point form.
I can calculate the y-intercept and any x-intercepts of a quadratic in
turning point form.
9.5 I can determine the x-intercept/s, y-intercept and turning point of a
quadratic equation and sketch its graph by first factorising the equation.
I can determine the x-intercept/s, y-intercept and turning point of a
quadratic equation and sketch its graph using the quadratic formula.
9.6 I can determine the equation of the asymptote of an exponential equation
and sketch a graph of the equation.
I can sketch the graph of an exponential equation after it has undergone
any number of transformations that may include dilations, a reflection in
the x- or y-axis, or translations.
9.7 I can calculate the constant of proportionality, k, between two variables
that are inversely proportional to each other.
I can determine the rule between two inversely proportional variables and
plot the graph of their relationship.
9.8 I can determine the equation of the vertical and horizontal asymptote of
a hyperbola.
I can sketch the graph of a hyperbola, and understand the effect dilations
and reflections have on the shape of the graph.
9.9 I can identify the centre and radius of the graph of a circle from its equation
and then sketch its graph.
I can use completing the square to turn an equation in expanded form into
the form of an equation of a circle.

9.10.3 Project
Parametric equations
You are familiar with the quadratic equation y = x2 and its

resulting graph. Let us consider an application of this equation by
forming a relationship between x and y through a third variable,
say, t.
x = t and y = t2
It is obvious that these two equations are equivalent to the

equation y = x2 . This third variable t is known as a parameter,
and the two equations are now called parametric equations. We
cannot automatically assume that the resulting graph of these
two parametric equations is the same as that of y = x2 for all real
values of x. It is dependent on the range of values of t.
Consider the parametric equations x = t and y = t2 for values of the parameter t ≥ 0 for questions 1 to 3.
1. Complete the following table by calculating x- and y-values from the corresponding t-value.
t x y
0
1
2
3
4
5
2. Graph the x-values and corresponding y-values on this Cartesian Parametric equations
plane. Join the points with a smooth curve and place an arrow on y
25
the curve to indicate the direction of increasing t-values.
20
3. Is there any difference between this graph and that of y = x2 ?
15
Explain your answer. 10
2
4. Consider now the parametric equations x = 1 − t and y = (1 − t) . 5
These clearly are also equivalent to the equation y = x2 . Complete
x
the table and draw the graph of these two equations for values of the –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5
parameter t ≥ 0. Draw an arrow on the curve in the direction of
increasing t-values.
Parametric equations
t x y y
0 25
20
1
15
2 10
3 5
4
x
5 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5
Describe the shape of your resulting graph. What values of the parameter t would produce the same
curve as that obtained in question 2?

5. The graph of y = −x2 is a reflection of y = x2 in the x-axis. Construct Parametric equations

a table and draw the graph of the parametric equations x = t and x = t and y = –t2
y
y = −t2 for parameter values t ≥ 0. Remember to place an arrow on
the curve in the direction of increasing t-values.
0 x
6. Without constructing a table, predict the shape of the graph of the –5 –4 –3 –2 –1
–5 1 2 3 4 5
parametric equations x = 1 − t and y = −(1 − t)2 for parameter –10
values t ≥ 0. Draw a sketch of the shape. –15
–20
–25
Resources
Resourceseses

Fluency
1. MC
(The turning
) point for the graph y(= 3x2 )
− 4x + 9 is: ( )
1 2 1 2 1 1
A. ,1 B. , C. ,1
3 3 3 3 6 6
( ) ( )
2 2 2 2
D. ,7 E. ,6
3 3 3 3
2. MC Select which graph of the following equations has the x-intercepts closest together.
A. y = x2 + 3x + 2 B. y = x2 + x − 2 C. y = 2x2 + x − 15
D. y = 4x2 + 27x − 7 E. y = x2 − 2x − 8
3. MC Select which graph of the equations below has the largest y-intercept.
2 2 2
A. y = 3(x − 2) + 9 B. y = 5(x − 1) + 8 C. y = 2(x − 1) + 19
2 2
D. y = 2(x − 5) + 4 E. y = 12(x − 1) + 10
1
4. MC The translation required to change y = x2 into y = (x − 3)2 + is:
4
1 1 1
A. right 3, up B. right 3, down C. left 3, down
4 4 4
1 1
D. left 3, up E. right , up 3
4 4
5. MC If y is inversely proportional to x, then select which of the following statements is true.

A. x + y is a constant value. B. y ÷ x is a constant value. C. y × x is a constant value.
D. y − x is a constant value. E. x ÷ y is a constant value.

6. MC The number of calculators a company sells is inversely proportional to the selling price. If a
company can sell 1000 calculators when the price is $22, determine how many they could sell if they
reduced the price to $16.
A. 2000 B. 727 C. 6000 D. 1375 E. 137.5
7. MC The graph of y = −3 × 2x is best represented by:

A. y B. y
10 10
5 5
3
x x
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4
–3
–5 –5
–10 –10
C. y D. y
10 10
5 5
3
1
x x
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4
–5 –5
–10 –10
E. y
10
5
3
x
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4
–5
–10
8. Use the completing the square method to determine the turning point for each of the following graphs.
a. y = x2 − 8x + 1 b. y = x2 + 4x − 5
9. For the graph of the equation y = x2 + 8x + 7, produce a table of values for the x-values between
−9 and 1, and then plot the graph. Show the y-intercept and turning point. From your graph, state
the x-intercepts.
10. For each of the following, determine the coordinates of the turning point and the x- and y-intercepts and
sketch the graph.
2 2
a. y = (x − 3) + 1 b. y = 2(x + 1) − 5

11. For the equation y = −x2 − 2x + 15, sketch the graph and determine the x- and y-intercepts and the
coordinates of the turning point.
12. Draw the graph of y = 10 × 3x for − 2 ≤ x ≤ 4.
−x
13. Draw the graph of y = 10 for − 2 ≤ x ≤ 2.
14. For the exponential function y = 5x :

a. complete the table of values
x y
−3
–2
–1
0
1
2
3
b. plot the graph.

x x
15. a. On the same axes, draw the graphs of y = (1.2) and y = (1.5) .
b. Use your answer to part a to explain the effect of changing the value of a in the equation of y = ax .
1
16. a. On one set of axes, draw the graphs of y = 2 × 3x , y = 5 × 3x and y = × 3x
2
b. Use your answer to part a to explain the effect of changing the value of k in the equation of y = kax .
x −x
17. a. On the same set of axes, sketch the graphs of y = (2.5) and y = (2.5) .
b. Use your answer to part a to explain the effect of a negative index on the equation y = ax .
18. Sketch each of the following.

4
a. y =
x
2
b. y = −
x
−3
19. Sketch y = .
x−2
20. Give an example of an equation of a hyperbola that has a vertical asymptote at x = −3.
21. Sketch each of these circles. Clearly show the centre and the radius.
a. x2 + y2 = 16
2 2
b. (x − 5) + (y + 3) = 64
22. Sketch the following circles. Remember to first complete the square.
a. x2 + 4x + y2 − 2y = 4
b. x2 + 8x + y2 + 8y = 32

23. Determine the equation of this circle.
y
6
–6 0 6 x
–6
Problem solving
24. The height, h, in metres of a golf ball t seconds after it is hit is given by the formula h = 4t − t2 .
a. Sketch the graph of the path of the ball.
b. Calculate the maximum height the golf ball reaches.
c. Determine how long it takes for the ball to reach the maximum height.
d. Determine how long is it before the ball lands on the ground after it has been hit.
25. A soccer ball is kicked upwards in the air. The height, h, in metres, t seconds after the kick is modelled
by the quadratic equation h = −5t2 + 20t.
a. Sketch the graph of this relationship.
b. Determine how many seconds the ball is in the air for.
c. Determine how many seconds the ball is above a height of 15 m. That is, solve the quadratic
inequation −5t2 + 20t > 15.
d. Calculate how many seconds the ball is above a height of 20 m.
26. The height of the water level in a cave is determined by the tides. At any time, t, in hours after 9 am, the
height, h (t), in metres, can be modelled by the function h (t) = t2 − 12t + 32, 0 ≤ t ≤ 12.
a. Determine the values of t for which the model is valid. Write your answer in interval notation.
b. State the initial height of the water.
c. Bertha has dropped her keys onto a ledge which is 7 metres from the bottom of the cave. By using a
graphics calculator, determine the times in which she would be able to climb down to retrieve her
keys. Write your answers correct to the nearest minute.
27. When a drop of water hits the flat surface of a pool, circular ripples are made. One ripple is represented
by the equation x2 + y2 = 9 and 5 seconds later, the ripple is represented by the equation x2 + y2 = 225,
where the lengths of the radii are in cm.
a. State the radius of each of the ripples.
b. Sketch these graphs.
c. Evaluate how fast the ripple are moving outwards.
d. If the ripple continues to move at the same rate, determine when it will hit the edge of the pool which
is 2 m from its centre.
28. Seventy grams of ammonium sulfate crystals are dissolved in 0.5 L of water.
a. Determine the concentration of the solution in g/mL.
b. Another 500 mL of water is added. Determine the concentration of the solution now.

29. A grassed area is planted in a courtyard that has a width of 5 metres and length of 7 metres. The shape
of the grassed area is described by the function P = −x2 + 5x, where P is the distance, in metres, from
the house and x is the distance, in metres from the side wall. The diagram represents this information
on a Cartesian plane.
7m
Wall
x
5m
House
a. In terms of P, write down an inequality that describes the region where the grass has been planted.
b. Determine the maximum distance the grass area is planted from the house.
c. The owners of the house have decided that they would prefer all of the grass to be within a maximum
distance of 3.5 metres from the house. The shape of the lawn following this design can be described
by the equation N (x) = ax2 + bx + c
i. Using algebra, show that this new design can be described by the function N (x) = −0.56x (x − 5).
ii. Describe the transformation that maps P(x) to N(x).
d. If the owners decide on the first design, P(x), the percentage of area within the courtyard without
grass is 40.5%. By using any method, determine the approximate percentage of area of courtyard
without lawn with the new design, N (x).
30. A stone arch bridge has a span of 50 metres. The shape of the curve AB can be modelled using a
quadratic equation.
a. Taking A as the origin (0, 0) and given that the maximum
height of the arch above the water level is 4.5 metres, show b(x)
using algebra, that the shape of the arch can be modelled using
the equation b (x) = −0.0072x2 + 0.36x, where b (x) is the
vertical height of the bridge, in metres, and x is the horizontal
distance, in metres. 4.5 m
b. A floating platform p metres high is towed under the bridge.
Given that the platform needs to have a clearance of at least
A B x
30 centimetres on each side, explain why the maximum value 50 m
of p is 10.7 centimetres. (0, 0)

eWorkbook 9.4 Individual pathway interactivity: Sketching parabolas in

turning point form (int-4607) ⃞
Download the workbook for this topic, which includes Quadratic functions (int-2562) ⃞
worksheets, a code puzzle and a project (ewbk-2035) ⃞ 9.5 Individual pathway interactivity: Sketching parabolas
of the form y = ax2 + bx + c (int-4608) ⃞
Solutions 9.6 Individual pathway interactivity: Exponential functions
Download a copy of the fully worked solutions to every and graphs (int-4609) ⃞
question in this topic (sol-0743) ⃞ Exponential functions (int-5959) ⃞
9.7 Individual pathway interactivity: Inverse proportion
Digital documents (int-4512) ⃞
Inverse proportion (int-6058) ⃞
9.2 SkillSHEET Substitution into quadratic equations 9.8 Individual pathway interactivity: The hyperbola
(doc-5266) ⃞ (int-4610) ⃞
SkillSHEET Equation of a vertical line (doc-5267) Hyperbolas (int-6155) ⃞
9.5 SkillSHEET Completing the square (doc-5268) ⃞ 9.9 Individual pathway interactivity: The circle (int-4611) ⃞
SkillSHEET Solving quadratic equations using the Graphs of circles (int-6156) ⃞
quadratic formula (doc-5269) ⃞ 9.10 Crossword (int-2851) ⃞
SkillSHEET Solving quadratic equations of the type Sudoku puzzle (int-3596) ⃞
ax2 + bx + c = 0 where a = 1 (doc-5270) ⃞
SkillSHEET Solving quadratic equations of the type
ax2 + bx + c = 0 where a ≠ 1 (doc-5271) ⃞ Teacher resources
Video eLessons online.
9.2 Plotting parabolas (eles-4864) ⃞
9.3 Sketching parabolas (eles-4865) ⃞
Vertical translation (eles-4866) ⃞
Horizontal translation (eles-4867) ⃞
Reflection (eles-4868) ⃞
Combining transformations (eles-4869) ⃞
9.4 Turning point form (eles-4870) ⃞
x- and y-intercepts of quadratic graphs (eles-4871) ⃞
Sketching quadratics in turning point form (eles-1926) ⃞
Solving quadratic equations in turning point form
(eles-1941) ⃞
9.5 Parabolas of the form y = ax2 + bx + c (eles-4872) ⃞
Sketching quadratics in factorised form (eles-1927) ⃞
Sketching parabolas using the quadratic formula
(eles-1945) ⃞
9.6 Exponential functions (eles-4873) ⃞
Combining transformations of exponential graphs
(eles-4874) ⃞
9.7 Inverse proportion (eles-4875) ⃞
9.8 Hyperbolas (eles-4876) ⃞
9.9 Circles (eles-5352) ⃞
Interactivities
9.2 Individual pathway interactivity: Plotting parabolas
(int-4605) ⃞
Plotting quadratic graphs (int-6150) ⃞
Parabolas in the world around us (int-7539) ⃞
9.3 Individual pathway interactivity: Sketching parabolas
(int-4606) ⃞
Horizontal translations of parabolas (int-6054) ⃞
Vertical translations of parabolas (int-6055) ⃞
Dilation of parabolas (int-6096) ⃞
Reflection of parabolas (int-6151) ⃞

Answers 3. a.
10
y y = x2 + 1
8
Topic 9 Non-linear relationships 6
Exercise 9.1 Pre-test 4
2
1. x
x −3 −2 −1 0 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3
y 9.5 5 1.5 −1
x = 0, (0, 1) , 1
2. x = −1 b. y y = x2 + 3
12
3. B
10
4. A 8
5. D 6
6. (−4, −1) 4
7. b = 20 2 (0, 3)
8. D x
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3
9. E
10. (−0.79, 0.62) and (0.79, 0.62) x = 0, (0, 3) , 3
11. B c. y
12. C y = x2 – 3
6
13. a. 2 b. 1
4
14. D 2
15. B
x
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3
–2
Exercise 9.2 Plotting parabolas from a
table of values
1. a. y x = 0, (0, −3) , −3
y = 3x2
30 d. y y = x2 – 1
25 8
20 6
15 4
10 2
5 (0, –1)
x
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3
x
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 –2
x = 0, (0, −1) , −1
x = 0, (0, 0)
4. Adding a number raises the graph of y = x2 vertically that
b. y 1 number of units. Subtracting a number lowers the graph of
y = – x2
4 y = x2 vertically that number of units.
5. y
2
20 y = (x + 1)2
(–5, 16)
16
1
12
8
x 4
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 (1, 4)
x
–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3
x = 0, (0, 0)
2
2. Placing a number greater than 1 in front of x makes the x = −1, (−1, 0) , 1
graph thinner. Placing a number greater than 0 but less than
1 in front of x2 makes the graph wider.

6. y 12. y
10
x
8 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4
y = (x – 2)2 –2
6 –4 y = –x2 –3
4 –6
2 –8
x –10
0 1 2 3 4 5 –12
x = 2, (2, 0) , 4 x = 0, (0, −3) , −3

7. y 13. y
10 1
8 x
y = (x – 1)2 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4
6 –1
4 –2
2 –3
–4
0 x
1 2 3 4 5 –5
–6
x = 1, (1, 0) , 1 –7
8. y –8
y = (x + 2)2 –9 y = –(x – 1)2
16
12 x = 1, (1, 0) , −1
2
8 14. The negative sign inverts the graph of y = x . The graphs
4 with the same turning points are: y = x2 + 1 and
x y = −x2 + 1; y = (x − 1)2 and y = −(x − 1)2 ; y = (x + 2)
–6 –4 –2 0 2 and y = −(x + 2)2 ; y = x2 − 3 and y = −x2 − 3. They differ
in that the first graph is upright while the second graph is
x = −2, (−2, 0) , 4 inverted.
2
9. Adding a number moves the graph of y = x horizontally 15. a. y
to the left by that number of units. Subtracting a number 25
y = (x − 5)2 + 1
moves the graph of y = x2 horizontally to the right by that 20
number of units. 15
y 10
10.
1 5
x
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4
x –2 0 2 4 6 8 10
–1
–2
–3 b. x=5 c. (5, 1), min d. 26
–4 16. a. y
–5 y = 2(x + 2)2 – 3 20
–6 15
–7 10
–8 5
y = –x2 + 1
x
x = 0, (0, 1) , 1 –6 –4 –2 0 2
–5
11. y b. x = −2 c. (−2, −3), min
1
d. 5
0 x 17. a. y
–6 –4 –2 2
–1 4
–2
3
–3
2
–4
1
–5
–6 x
–1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
–7 –1
–2
–8
–3
–9 y = –(x – 3)2 + 4
y = –(x + 1)2 –4
–5
x = −2, (−2, 0) , −4
b. x=3 c. (3, 4), max d. −5

18. a. y 27. a. h
5 18
x 16
–2 0 2 4 6 14
–5
–10 12
–15 10
–20 8
–25 6
y = −3(x − 1)2 + 2
4
b. x=1 c. (1, 2), max d. −1 2
19. a. y
0 t
15 1 2 3 4
y= x2 + 4x − 5 b. i. 18 m ii. Yes, by 3 m
10
5 iii. 1.5 s iv. 3s
28. a. y y
x
–6 –4 –2 0 2 4
–5
–10
b. x = −2 c. (−2, −9), min

d. −5 0 x 0 x
20. a. y = −3x2 − 6x + 24
y
25
20
15 y y
10
5
x
–6 –4 –2 0 2 4
–5
–10
–15 0 x 0 x
–20
–25
b. x = −1 c. (−1, 27), max

d. 24
b. An infinite number of points of intersection occur when
21. a. If the x2 term is positive, the parabola has a minimum the two equations represent the same parabola, with the
turning point. If the x2 term is negative, the parabola has effect that the two parabolas superimpose. For example
a maximum turning point. y = x2 + 4x + 3 and 2y = 2x2 + 8x + 6.
2
b. If the equation is of the form y = a(x − b) + c, the c. It is possible to have 0, 1 or 2 points of intersection.
turning point has coordinates (b, c). y y
c. The equation of the axis of symmetry can be found from
the x-coordinate of the turning point. That is, x = b.
22. C
23. B
0 x 0 x
24. C
25. A
26. a. h
18
h = −(t − 4)2+16
16 y y
14
12
10
8
6 0 x 0 x
4
2
0 t
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
b. i. 16 m ii. 8s

29. a.
w cm −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8. a. Horizontal 10 left, (−10, 0)
A cm2 −11.2 0 8 12.8 14.4 12.8 8 0 −11.2 b. Horizontal 4 left, (−4, 0)
( )
1 1
c. Horizontal right, ,0
b. The length of a rectangle must be positive, and the area 2 2
must also be positive, so we can discard ( )
1 1
w = −1, 0, 6 and 7. 9. a. Horizontal left, − , 0
5 5
c. A b. Horizontal 0.25 left, (−0.25, 0)
20 A = –8w
– (w – 6) √ ( √ )
15 5 c. Horizontal 3 left, − 3, 0
10 (3, 14.4) 10. a. (0, 1), max b. (0, −3), min
5 (6, 0) 11. a (−2, 0), max b (0, 0), min c (0, 4), max
w
–1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 12. a. (0, 0), max b. (5, 0), min c. (0, 1), min
13. a. Narrower, min b. Narrower, max
d. The maximum area is 14.4 cm2 .
14. a. Wider, min b. Wider, max c. Narrower, max
e. The dimensions of this rectangle are 3 cm × 4.8 cm.
15. a. Wider, min b. Narrower, min
30. a. c. Wider, max
x −1 0 1 2 3 4
16. a. i. Horizontal translation 1 left
y −2.4 1.8 4 4.2 2.4 −1.4 ii. (−1, 0)
iii. y y = (x + 1)2
b. y
10
5
x y = x2
–2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5
–2
–4
(–1, 0) 0 x
c. x cannot equal −1 as this would put the ball behind her;
at x = 4, the ball is under ground level. b. i. Reflected, narrower (dilation)
d. The maximum height reached is 4.36 m. ii. (0, 0)
e. The ball will hit the ground 3.688 m from the player. iii. y
2
31. y = 2x − 3x + 1
Exercise 9.3 Sketching parabolas using

transformations y = x2
1. a. Narrower, TP (0, 0) b. Wider, (0, 0)

2. a. Narrower, TP (0, 0) b. Narrower, TP (0, 0) 0 x
c. Wider, TP (0, 0) y= –3x2
3. a. Wider, TP (0, 0) b. Narrower, TP (0, 0)
c. Narrower, TP (0, 0)
4. a. Vertical 3 up, TP (0, 3)
b. Vertical 1 down, TP (0, −1) c. i. Vertical translation 1 up
5. a. Vertical 7 down, TP (0, −7) ii. (0, 1)
( )
1 1 iii. y y = x2 + 1
b. Vertical up, TP 0,
4 4
( )
1 1
c. Vertical down, TP 0, −
2 2
y = x2
6. a.Vertical 0.14 down, TP (0, −0.14) (0, 1)
b. Vertical 2.37 up, TP (0, 2.37)
√ ( √ ) x
0
c. Vertical 3 up, TP 0, 3
7. a. Horizontal 1 right, (1, 0) 17. a. i. Wider (dilation)

b. Horizontal 2 right, (2, 0) ii. (0, 0)

iii. y y = x2 iii. y
y = x2
(0, 2)
1 0 x
y = – x2
3
(0, 0) x
y = –x2 + 2
b. i. Vertical translation 3 down b. i. Reflected, horizontal translation 6 right

ii. (0, −3) ii. (6, 0)
y iii. y y = x2
iii.
y = x2
(6, 0)
0 x
y= x2 – 3
0 x
(0, –3) y = –(x – 6)2
20. a. i. Reflected, vertical translation 4 down

18. a. i. Horizontal translation 4 right
ii. (0, −4)
ii. (4, 0)
iii. y y = x2
iii. y
y = x2 y = (x – 4)2
0 x
y = –x2 – 4
0 (4, 0) x
b. i. Narrower (dilation), horizontal translation 1 left,

b. i. Reflected, wider (dilation) vertical translation 4 down
ii. (0, 0) ii. (−1, −4)
iii. y iii. y
y = x2
y = x2
(0, 0) x
2
y = – – x2
5
0 x
c. i. Narrower (dilation) y = 2(x + 1)2 – 4
ii. (0, 0)
iii. y y = 5x2
y = x2
(–1, –4)
c. i. Wider (dilation), horizontal translation 3 right,

vertical translation 2 up
ii. (3, 2)
(0, 0) x
iii. y
19. a. i. Reflected, vertical translation 2 up

ii. (0, 2) (3, 2)
1
y = x2 y = (x – 3)2 + 2
2
0 x

21. a. i. Wider (dilation), reflected, horizontal translation 22. a. 10 cm b. 5 cm c. 5 cm

1 d. y = (x − 5)2
2 left, vertical translation up
( ) 4 23. a. 40 m
1
ii. −2, b. 5m
4 1
c. h=− (d − 70)2 + 40
iii. y 10
3
y = x2 d. h=− (d − 70)2 + 120, this is a dilation by a factor of
10
3 from the d axis.
( ) –2, 1
4 24. a. and c.
See figure at the bottom of the page.*
0 x
b. 12.25 m d. 12.75 m
1
y=– (x + 2)2 + 4 25. a. y = −(x − 2)2 + 3 = −x2 + 4x − 1
3
b. y
6
y = x2 − 4x + 7
4
b. i. Narrower (dilation), reflected, horizontal translation
3 (2, 3)
1 right, vertical translation down 2
( ) 2
3
ii. 1, − x
2 –2 0 2 4
iii. y –2
y = x2 y = −x2 + 4x − 1
–4
26. a. (2, −7) and (0, 5)

( )
1, – 3
2
b. In the following order: translate 2 units left, translate 7
2
x
units up, reflect in the x-axis then dilate by a factor of
0 3
7 2 3 from the x-axis.
y = – (x – 1) –
4 2
*24. a. and c. h
25
h = 10t – t2 Ball 2
20
15
10 h = 7t – t2 Ball 1
0 t
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

27. a. Y = −(x − 3)2 + 3 14. a. i. −3 ii. −3, 1

b. Reflected in x-axis, translated 3 units to the right and up b. i. 12 ii. 2
3 units. No dilation.
15. a. i. −18 ii. No x-intercepts
c. (3, 3)
b. i. −5 ii. −1, 5
d. See figure at the bottom of the page.*
2 16. a. i. 4 ii. No x-intercepts
28. v = −2h + 40h, where v is the vertical distance h is the
horizontal distance. b. i. 4 √ √
ii. −3 − 5, –3 + 5 (approx.−5.24, −0.76)
Exercise 9.4 Sketching parabolas using turning 17. a. i. (4, 2)
point form ii. Min
1. a. (1, 2) , min iii. Same width
b. (−2, −1) , min iv. 18
c. (−1, 1) , min v. No x-intercepts
2. a. (2, 3) , max b. (5, 3) , max c. (−2, −6) , min vi. y
( ) ( ) y = (x – 4)2 + 2
1 3 1 2
3. a. ,− , min b. , , min 18 (0, 18)
2 4 3 3
c. (−0.3, −0.4) , min
4. a. i. (−3, −5) ii. Min iii. Narrower
b. i. (1, 1) ii. Max iii. Same (4, 2)
0 x
5. a. i. (−2, −4) ii. Max iii. Narrower 12 34
b. i. (3, 2) ii. Min iii. Wider b. i. (3, −4)

6. a. i. (−1, 7) ii. Max iii. Wider ii. Min
( )
1 1 iii. Same width
b. i. ,− ii. Min iii. Wider
5 2 iv. 5
7. a. y = (x + 1)2 − 3, graph iii v. 1, 5
b. y = −(x − 2)2 + 3, graph i vi. y

y = (x – 3)2 – 4
c. y = −x2 + 1, graph ii
5 (0, 5)
8. a. y = (x − 1)2 − 3, graph iii
b. y = −(x + 2)2 + 3, graph i (1, 0) (0, 5)
0 x
c. y = x2 − 1, graph ii 1 2 3 45
9. A –4
(3, –4)
10. C
c. i. (−1, 2)
11. B
ii. Min
12. C
iii. Same width
13. B
iv. 3
v. No x-intercepts
*27. d. y
3
2 Local maximum
x-intercept (3, 3) x-intercept
1
(1.267 949, 0) (4.732 051, 0)
0 x
1 2 3 4 5 6
–1
–2
–3
–4
–5
–6
–7

vi. vi. y
y = (x + 1)2 + 2
y 0 x
–3 –2 –1
–2
(–3, –2)
3 (0, 3)
(–1, 2) 2
1 –11 (0, –11)
0 x
–1 y = –(x + 3)2 –2
18. a. i. (−5, −3) b. i. (1, 3)

ii. Min ii. Min
iii. Same width iii. Narrower
iv. 22 iv. 5
√ √
v. −5 − 3, −5 + 3 (approx. −6.73, −3.27) v. No x-intercepts
vi. vi. y
y = (x + 5)2 – 3 y y = 2(x – 1)2 + 3
22 (0, 22)
5
–5 + 3 (1, 3)
0 x
5 0 x
–5 – 3 (–5, –3)
b. i. (1, 2) c. i. (−2, 1)
ii. Max ii. Max
iii. Same width iii. Narrower
iv. 1 iv. −11
√ √
v. 1 − 2, 1 + 2 (approx. −0.41, 2.41)
1 1
v. −2 − √ , −2 + √ (approx.−2.58, −1.42)
vi. y 3 3
(1, 2) vi. y
1– 2 2 1+ 2 (–2, 1)
1
0 x
0 x 1 1
–1 1 –2 – — –2 + —
3 3
y = –(x – 1)2 + 2 y = –3(x + 2)2 + 1

–11
c. i. (−2, −3)
ii. Max ( )2
3 73
iii. Same width 20. a. 2 x − − =0
4 8
iv. −7
√
3 73
v. No x-intercepts b. x= ±
( 4 4
)
vi. y 3 73
c. ,− , minimum
x 4 8
–2 0
2
(–2, –3) 21. a. y = − (x + 4)2 + 6
–3 3
b. (−7, 0)
–7
(0, –7) 22. a. y = −x2
b. y = 7x2
y = –(x + 2)2 – 3
c. y = (x + 3)2
19. a. i. (−3, −2) d. y = x2 + 6
ii. Max 1
e. y = − (x − 5)2 − 3
iii. Same width 4
iv. −11
v. No x-intercepts

23. a. p ($) b. y = (x + 2)2 − 9

1.9 y
1.4 (–5, 0) (1, 0)
0 x
1.0 –5 1
t (Hours after 12 pm)

0
3 5
(0, –5)
b. $1.90 c. $1 d. 3 pm e. $1.40
24. a.0.5 m
( √ )
b. 15 + 4 15 m
–9
Local minimum
c. Maximum height is 8 meters when horizontal distance is (–2, –9)
15 meters. ( )2
3 1
25. a. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions c. y= x+ −
2 4
An example is y = (x − 2)2 + 6. y
1 2 (0, 2)
b. y = − (x − 2)2 + 6
2
26. a. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions (–1, 0)
( )2
An example is y = x − p + q. 0 x
( ) –3 (–2, 0) –1 1
r−q ( )2
b. y= 2
x−p +q –1
p Local minimum
27. a. y = (x − 4)2 − 15 (–1.5, –0.25)
y
1 (0, 1)
√15 + 4 , 0 ( ) 28. a. y = 3(x − 2)2 − 8
b. Dilated by a factor of 3 parallel to the y-axis or from the
0 x
8 x-axis as well as being translated 2 units to the right and
(
–√15 + 4 , 0 ) down 8 units.
2
c. y = −3(x − 2) + 8
d. See figure at the bottom of the page.*
–15
Local minimum
(4, –15)
*28. d. Local maximum

y
(2, 8)
8
(0.37, 0) (3.63, 0)
0 x
1 2 3 4
–1

1
29. a. y = − (x + 3)2 + 8 3. a. y
2 15 (0, 15)
1
b. In the following order: a dilation of a factor of from
2 10
the x-axis, a reflection in the x-axis, a translation of 3
units left and 8 units up. 5
c. x- intercepts:((−7, )0) and (1, 0)
(–5, 0)(–3, 0)
7
y- intercept: 0, x
2 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0
2 Turning point
d. The new rule is y = (x − 3) − 16 –5
(–4, –1)
(–1, 0) y b.
(7, 0) y
x
–1 0 7
15 (0, 15)
10
5
(–5, 0)
(–1.5, 0)
–7 (0, –7) 0 x
–6 –4 –2
–5
Turning point
(–3.25, –6.125) –10
4. a. y
10
5
Local minimum (–2, 0) (4, 0)
(3, –16) x
–2 0 2 4
–5
Exercise 9.5 Sketching parabolas in
expanded form –10
1. You need the x-intercepts, the y-intercept and the turning
point to sketch a parabola. b.
Turning point y
2. a. (–0.5, 15.125) 15
y
12
10 (0, 10) 10
8
6 5
4 (–6, 0) (5, 0)
2 (2, 0) (5, 0) 0 x
–6 –4 –2 2 4 6
x
–2 0 2 4 6 –5
–2 Turning point
–4
(3.5, –2.25) 5. a. y
b. y 4
10
2 (0, 2)
(–4, 0) (7, 0)
(–3.41, 0) (–0.59, 0)
x
–4 –2 0 2 4 6 8 10
x
–10 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2
–2
Turning point
–20
(–2, –2)
–4
Turning point
–30
(1.5, –30.25)

b. y c. y
4
4
2
2
(–1, 0) (5, 0) (0, 1)
0 x
–2 2 4 6
0 x
–6 –4 –2 2
–2
Turning point –2
–4 (–1, –2)
–4
–6
7. a. y
Turning point
–8
–10
Turning point (–5 49
–, –
6 12
)4
(2, –9)
2 (0, 2)
c. y
4 0 x
–6 –4 –2 2
2 –2
(–0.58, 0) (2.58, 0)
–4
x
–2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5
–2 b. y
10
–4 8
y = 2x2 + 8x – 10
6
Turning point
–6 4
(1, –5)
2
(–5, 0) (1, 0)
6. a. y x
20
Turning point –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5
(2.75, 20.1) –2
–4
15 –6
–8
10 –10
–12
5 (0, 5) –14
–16
x –18
–2 0 2 4 6 8 (–2, –18)
–20
–5
c. y
( )
y = –3x2 + 7x + 3
b. y 10 – 7 , 85
Turning point –
20
(3, 18) 8 6 12
6
15
10
( 7 + √85
6
,0 ) 4
2
(0, 3) (
7 – √85
6
,0 )
0 x
–3 –2 –1 1 2 3
–2
5 –4
(0, 0) (6, 0) –6
0 x –8
–2 2 4 6 8
–10
–5

8. a. y 15. a. T
1.4
degrees celsius
25
Temperature
1.2 (12, 1) 20
1 15
0.8 10
0.6 5
0.4
0 t
0.2 2 4 6 8
(24, 0) Hours
0 x b. 21 °C
5 10 15 20 25 30
b. 24 m c. Decreasing
c. 1m d. Increasing
9. a. e. 5 °C after 4 hours
p = 3x2 – 15x – 18
y f. 21 °C
20 1 13
16. a. a=− ,b= ,c=7
(–1, 0) 10 18 6
(6, 0) b. 7 metres
–4 –2 0 2 4 6 x 225
–10 (0, –18) c. metres
–20 8
–30
d. 42 metres
–40
e. y
b. 6th month 50
c. The company breaks even at the end of the 6th month.
The first month in which a profit is made is the
40
30
( –392 , –8 )
225
7th month. 20
10 (42, 0)
10. a. h (0, 7)
(25, 2500)
2500 0 x
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
2000
1500 Exercise 9.6 Exponential graphs
1000
500
(50, 0) 1.
x −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
0 10 20 30 40 50 t
1 1 1
b. 0 y 1 3 9 27
27 9 3
c. 2500 m
d. 25 seconds y
e. 50 seconds 28
26
11. 200
24
12. − (m + n)
22
1 2
13. y = − x + 2x + 9 20
2 18
14. a. h (2, 25) 16
21 14
h = −x2 + 4x + 21
12
10
8 y = 3x
0 x
−3 7 6
4
2
x
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4
b. 25 m
c. 2 m
2. a. 2 b. 3 c. 4
d. 7 m
3. a. 10 b. a

4. y b. Each graph has a different y- intercept and a different

16 y = 4x horizontal asymptote.
14 y = 3x c. i. (0, 11)
12
ii. y = 10
10
6. a. y
8
y = 2x 8
6
7
4
6
2
5
x
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 4
–2 3
–4 y = 2x
2
–6
1
–8
–10 x
–5 –4 –3 –1 0 1 2 3 4
–12 –1
–2
–14 y = –2x
–3
–16
–4
a. The graphs all pass through ((0, 1). )The graphs have the –5
same horizontal asymptote, y = 0 . The graphs are all –6
very steep. –7
–8
b. As the base grows larger, the graphs become steeper.
c. y b.
y = 8x y
16 9
y = 4x
14 8
12 y = 3x 7
10 6
8 5
y = 2x
6 4
4 3
2 y = 3x
2
x 1
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5
–2 x
–4 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4
–1
–6 –2
–8 –3 y = –3x
–10 –4
–12 –5
–14 –6
–16 –7
–8
5. y –9
11
10 c. y
9 7
8 6
7 5
y = 3x + 5 6 4
5 3 y = 6x
4 2
y = 3x + 2 3 1
2
x
y = 3x 1 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4
–1
x –2
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 –3 y = –6x
–1
y = 3x – 3 –2 –4
–3 –5
–4
d. In each case the graphs are symmetric about the x-axis.
a. The shape of each graph is the same.

7. a. y 9. a, b y
8 8
7 7
6 6
5 5 y = 3x
4 4
3 y=3 +2 3
x
y = 2–x 2 y = 2x 2
1 1
x x
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4
–1 –1
–2 –2
y = −3x
–3
b. y –4
8 –5
7 –6
6 –7
5 –8
4 –9
3
2 y = 3x 10. a, b y
y = 3–x
1 8
7
x
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 6
–1 y = 4–x
–2 5
4
c. y 3
8 2
7 1
y = 4x
6 x
5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4
–1
4 –2 y = 4x – 3
3 –3
y = 6–x 2 y = 6x –4
1 –5
–6
x
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 –7
–1
–2 –8
d. In each case the graphs are symmetric about the y-axis. 11. a, b y
8. a–c. 8 y = 2x
x
y=2 +6 7
y
8 6
7 5
6 4
5 3
4 2
y = 2–x + 2
3 1
y = 2−x 2 y = 2x x
1 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4
–1
–2
x
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 –3
–1
–2 –4
y = −2x –5
–3
–4 –6
–5 –7
–6 –8
y = –2–x + 3

12. a, b y 18. y
y=2
16 y= 5x 2
15
(–1, 0) (0, 1)
14
0 x
13 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3
12 y = –2–x + 2 2
11
10 4
y = 5–x + 10
9
8 19. a. 10 000
7 b. i. 1111
6 ii. 41
5
iii. 0
4
3 20. a. Yes
2 b. There is a constant ratio of 1.3.
1 y = –5x + 10
c. 30%
x d. 3.26 million
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4
–1 e. 30.26 million
–2
13. a. B b. C
Exercise 9.7 Inverse proportion
c. D d. A k k
1. a. s= or t = b. No
t s
14. a. B b. D k k k k
c. A d. C c. t = or p = or p =d. L=
p t p L
15. y
k k
1 e. No f. t = or n =
n t
x
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 2. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions in
–1
–2 the online resources.
–3 1000
3. a. k = 1000, y =
–4 x
–5 b. y
–6 1000
–7
–8 800
16. y 600
y = 32 40
30 400
Point of
20
intersection
200
y = 16x 10 (1.25, 32)
x
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3
–10 0 x
4 10 15 20 25
x = 1.25
48
4. a. k = 48, p =
17. Point of q
y intersection b. p
y = 36√6 100 (3.5, 88.181631) 50
80
60 40
y = 6x – 1
40
20 30
x
–10 –5 0 5 10 20
–20
x = 3.5 10
0 q
2 4 6 8 10

42
5. a. k = 42, y =
x Exercise 9.8 Sketching the hyperbola
b. y 1. See table at the bottom of the page.*
50 y
10 10
40 y =—
x
30
0 x
–3 –2 –1 1 2 3
20 –10
10
2. a. y
0 x 5
2 4 6 8 10 5 y = —–
x
4000
6. a. 4000 b. a=
m 0 x
1
c. 20 m/s2 d. 4 m/s
2
7. a. 500 b. 2500 pencils

c. 1000 pencils b. x = 0, y = 0
8. a. 337.5 b. 3.97 hours = 3 h 58 min 3. a. y
c. 96.4 km/h d. 337.5 km
20 20
y=—
9. a. 17 500 b. $233.33 x
c. 70 people d. $17 500
10. a. 200 0 x
1
b. 1 ampere
c. 13.3 ohms
d. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions b. x = 0, y = 0
in the online resources. 4. a. y
11. a. k = 15 b. V = 20 L 100
100 y = —–
c. P = 2.5 atmospheres x
12. The constant of proportionality represents the distance of
the trip; therefore, when this value is smaller, the time taken 0 x
1
to complete the trip at the same speed is also smaller.
10
13. a. 10 b. T =
P
c. 1 hour 40 minutes b. x = 0, y = 0
100.048 5. y
14. a. 100.048 b. T = c. 9.58 seconds
V (1, 4)
d. 15.00 seconds (1, 3) 4
y =— 3
1350 x y =—
15. a. C= b. $96.43 per person (1, 2) x
n 0 x
2
c. $30 per person y =—
x
6. It increases the y-values by a factor of k and hence dilates

the curve by a factor of k.
*1.
x −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5
y −2 −2.5 −3.3 −5 −10 Undef. 10 5 3.3 2.5 2

7. y 12. y
y = –10 1
10 —– y = ——
x x+1
1
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x x
–2 –1 0 1
–10 –1
8. x = –1
y
13. The a translates the graph left or right, and x = a becomes
(1, 6) the vertical asymptote.
6
y=— 14. a. i. x = −1, y = 0
x
0 x ii. y
–4
y = ——
(1, –6) (–2, 4) x+1
–6
y=—
x
–1 0 x
k –4
9. The negative reflects the curve y = in the x-axis.
x
10. See table bottom of the page.*
y
b. i. x = 1, y = 0
1
y = —— ii. y
x–1
2
1 y = ——
x–1
–1
0 x (2, 2)
–1 1 2
0 1 x
–2
x=1
Equation of vertical asymptote is x = 1.
11. a. y 15. a. i. x = −2, y = 0
1 ii.
y = ——
x–2
y
1 1
2—
2
0
1 x
–— 2 3
2 –2 0 x
5
y = ——
x+2
x=2
(–3, –5)
b. y
1 b. i. x = −2, y = −2
y = ——
x–3
ii. y
1
0 3
1
–— x y= ––2
3 34 x+2
(–0.5, 0)
x
x=3 –2 0
–2
(0, –0.5)
*10. a.
x −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
y −0.25 −0.33 −0.5 −1 Undef. 1 0.5 0.33

16. a. i. x = −2, y = 1 20. a.

1 1
x −2 −1 − 1 2
ii. y 2 2
4 1 1
y=––+1 y 1 4 4 1
x+2
4 4
1
–2 0 (2, 0) x See figure at the bottom of the page.*
2
1 1
b. x = 0 c. y = − d. y =
(0, –1) x 2 x2
21. a. 100 °C
b. i. x = 3, y = 5 b. 33.1 °C
ii. c. 17.85 minutes ≈ 18 minutes
y 7
(0, 7.333) y= –+5 d. No. The horizontal asymptote is 22 °C, so the
5 3–x temperature will never drop below this value.
( )
1
22. a. y-intercept: 0,
(4.4, 0) 2
0 3 x x-intercepts: (1, 0) and (−1, 0)
b. x = 2, x = −2 and y = 2
17. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions in c. y
the online resources. Possible answers: 6 6
y= – +2
1 x2 – 4
a. y =
x−3 4
1
b. y =
x + 10 2
a (0, 0.5)
18. a. Any equation of the form y = + 3. (–1, 0) (1, 0)
x−2 x
–8 –6 –4 –2 0 2 4 6 8
−14
b. y = +4
x+2 2
−2
19. y = − 1, x = −3, y = −1 4
x+3
3
23. y=− + 2, x = −1, y = 2
(x + 1)2
*20. a. y
1
y = –2
x
2
x
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3
x = 0, y = 0

Exercise 9.9 Sketching the circle b. y

1. a. 3
y
7 –8 –2 0 4 x
6 –3
–7 0 7 x –9
5. a. y
–7
8
Centre (0, 0), radius 7
7
b. y 1
4 –10 –3 0 4 x
–6
–4 0 4 x
b. y
–4
3
–4 0 4 8 12 x
2. a. y –5
6
–13
–6 0 6 x 6. a. y
–6 0
–1 x
–2 2
2
Centre (0, 0), radius 6 –3
b. y
–5
9
b. y
–9 0 9 x
10
10
–9
–5 0 5 15 x
–10
3. a. y
( )2
5 7. a. (x + 2)2 + y + 4 = 22
y
0 5 x x
–4 –2–20
–5
–5
–4
Centre (0, 0), radius 5 –6
b. y ( )2
b. (x − 5)2 + y − 1 = 42
1 y
3–
3
5
1
1 0 1 x 0 5 x
–3 – 3–
3 –3 1 9
3
1
–3 –
3 8. a. (x − 7)2 + (y + 3)2 = 72
10 y
3 7
4. a. y 0 x
–3 14
7
5 –10
(1, 2)
–4 –3 0 6
x

( )2
b. (x + 4)2 + (y − 6)2 = 82 13. (x − 5)2 + y − 3 = 16
y 14. a. 2 cm, 13.8 cm
14 b. 3.9 cm/s
6 15. (−2, 0)
16. a. See the figure at the bottom of the page.*
0
x b. i. (0.707, 0.707) and (−0.707, −0.707)
12 –2 4
( )2 ii. (0, 0) and (1, 1)
9. a. x2 + y − 9 = 102
iii. (0.786, 0.618) and (−0.786, 0.618)
y
17. y
19
(–6, 13) 15
9 (0, 11)
10
0
x (x + 6)2 + (y – 3)2 = 100
–10 –1 4 10 5
( )2 (–15.539, 0) (3.539, 0)
b. (x − 1)2 + y + 2 = 32
0 x
y –15 –10 –5 5
1 –5 (0, –5)
–2 0 1 x (–6, –7)
4
–2 –10
–5
18. (−3, 4), (3, 4), (0, 5) and (0, −5)
10. D
11. B
12. D
*16. a. y
(1, 1)
1 Point of intersection
Point of intersection (0.707107, 0.707107)
(–0.786151, 0.618034)
(0.786151, 0.618034)
0 x
–2 –1 1 2
(–0.707107, –0.707107)
–1
–2

( )2
19. (x − 1)2 + y − 1 = 4 centre at (1, 1) and radius of 2 units. 4.
t x y
( )2
(x − 4)2 + y − 1 = 1 centre at (4, 1) and radius of 1 unit. 0 1 1
The circles intersect (touch) at (3, 1). 1 0 0
See figure at the bottom of the page.*
2
( )2 2 −1 1
20. (x − 2) + y − 5 = 4 centre at (2, 5) and radius of 2 units. 3 −2 4
4 −3 9
Project
5 −4 16
1. t x y Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions in the
0 0 0 online resources.
1 1 1 t = 1, 0, −1, −2, −3, −4.
2 2 4 Parametric equations
3 3 9 x = 1 – t and y = (1 – t)2
y
4 4 16 25
5 5 25 20
15
2. Parametric equations 10
x = t and y = t2 5
y
x
25 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5
20
15 5.
10 t x y
5 0 0 0
x 1 1 −1
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5
2 2 −4
3. Sample response: Yes the graph is different. Y = x2 is a 3 3 −9
parabola and therefore, the graph appears in the I and the 4 4 −16
II quadrants. Where as in Q2 the graph only appears in the I
5 5 −25
quadrant. Other sample responses can be found in the worked
*19. y
x2 + y2 – 2x – 2y – 2 = 0
3
x2 + y2 – 8x – 2y + 16 = 0
2
–1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x
–1

Parametric equations 10. a. TP (3, 1); no x-intercepts; y-intercept: (0, 10)

x = t and y = –t2 y
y y = (x – 3)2 + 1
x 10 (10, 0)
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5
–5
–10
–15
–20 (3, 1)
–25 0 x
–30 √ √
5 5
b. TP (−1, −5); x-intercepts: −1 − , −1 + ;
6. Sample response: The shape of the graph will be the same as 2 2
shown in Q5 but it will be in quadrant III (reflection of the y-intercept: (0, −3)
y
graph in Q5). Other sample responses can be found in the y = 2(x + 1)2 – 5
worked solutions in the online resources.
5–
Parametric equations –1 +
2
x = t and y = t2
y 0 x
25 5– –3
–1 –
2
20 (–1, –5)
15
10 11. TP (−1, 16); x-intercepts: −5 and 3; y-intercept: (0, 15)
5
y
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x (–1, 16)
15

(–5, 0) (3, 0)
1. D 0
–5 3 x
2. A 2
y = –x – 2x + 15
3. D
4. A
5. C 12. y
6. D 450
7. B 400
y = 10 × 3x
8. a. (4, −15) b. (−2, −9) 350
300
9. See table at the bottom of the page.*
250
y
16 200
14 150
(0, 10)
12 100
10 50
8 x
–2 –1 0 1 2 3 4
6
4
y = x2 + 8x + 7 13. y
2
140
x
–8 –6 –4 –2 0 2 4 6 8 120
–2
–4 100
–6 80
–8 60
(–4, –9) 40
–10 (0, 1)
y = 10–x 20
TP (−4, −9); x-intercepts: −7 and −1 x
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3
*9.
x −9 −8 −7 −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1
y 16 7 0 −5 −8 −9 −8 −5 0 7 16

14. a. See table at the bottom of the page.* 18. a. y

b. y (1, 4)
160
140 y = 5x
120
0 x
100 4
y=—
80 x
60
40
(0, 1) 20 (1, 5) b. y
x
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 y = –2
—
x
15. a. y
0 x
140
120 (1, –2)
10
8
19. y
6 y = (1.5)x
4 −3
y = (1.2)x 3 y = ——
(0, 1) 2 — x−2
2
x
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 0 2 x
(3, −3)
b. Increasing the value of a makes the graph steeper for
positive x-values and flatter for negative x-values.
16. a. y 1
36 the online resources. Possible answer is y = .
x+3
32
21. a. y
28 2 2
4 x + y = 16
24
20 y = 5 × 3x
16 y = 2 × 3x 4 x
–4 0
12 1
y = — × 3x
8 2
–4
4
x b. y
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 (x − 5)2 + (y + 3)2 = 64
b. Increasing the value of k makes the graph steeper. 0 8 x

(5, −3)
17. a. y
–x
45
y = (2.5) y = (2.5)x
40 22. a. x2 + 4x + y2 − 2y = 4 y
35
30 (−2, 1)
25 3
20 0 x
15
b. y
10
5
8 0 x
x
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 (−4, −4)
b. Changing the sign of the index reflects the graph in x2 + 8x + y2 + 8y = 32

the y-axis.
23. x2 + y2 = 36
*14. a.
x −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
y 0.008 0.04 0.2 1 5 25 125

24. a. h (2, 4)
h = 4t – t2
(4, 0)
0
4 t
b. 4m
c. 2 seconds
d. 4 seconds
25. a. h
(2, 20)
h = −5t2+ 20t
(4, 0)
0 t
4
b. 4 seconds
c. 2 seconds (1 < t < 3)
d. The ball is never above a height of 20 m.
[ ]
26. a. 0, 12
b. 32 m
c. 11:41 am to 6:19 pm.
27. a. First ripple’s radius is 3 cm, second ripple’s radius
is 15 cm.
b. y
15
10
0 x
–15 –10 –5 5 10 15
–5
–10
–15
c. 2.4 cm/s
d. 1 minute 22.1 seconds after it is dropped.
28. a. 0.14 g/ml b. 0.7 g/ml
29. a. P ≤ −x2 + 5x, 0 ≤ x ≤ 5

b. 6.25 m
c. i. Sample responses can be found in the worked
ii. Dilation by a factor of 0.56 parallel to the y-axis.
d. 66.7%
b. When x = 0.3, b = 10.7. Therefore if p is greater than
10.7 cm the platform would hit the bridge.

“c10DeductiveGeometry_PrintPDF” — 2021/9/1 — 12:08 — page 617 — #1
10 Deductive geometry
LEARNING SEQUENCE
10.1 Overview ...............................................................................................................................................................618
10.2 Angles, triangles and congruence .............................................................................................................. 621
10.3 Similar triangles ................................................................................................................................................. 633
10.4 Quadrilaterals ..................................................................................................................................................... 641
10.5 Polygons ...............................................................................................................................................................652
10.6 Review ................................................................................................................................................................... 660
10.1 Overview
Why learn this?
Geometry is an area of mathematics that has an abundance of
real-life applications. The first important skill that geometry
teaches is the ability to reason deductively and prove logically
that certain mathematical statements are true.
Euclid (c. 300 BCE) was the mathematician who developed a
systematic approach to geometry, now referred to as Euclidean
geometry, that relied on mathematical proofs. Mathematicians
and research scientists today spend a large part of their time
trying to prove new theories, and they rely heavily on all the
proofs that have gone before.
Geometry is used extensively in professions such as navigation
and surveying. Planes circle our world, land needs to be
surveyed before any construction can commence, and
architects, designers and engineers all use geometry in their
drawings and plans. Geometry is also used extensively in
software and computing. Computer-aided design programs, computer imaging, animations, video games and
3D printers all rely greatly on built-in geometry packages.
Just about every sport involves geometry heavily. In cricket alone there are many examples; bowlers adjust the
angle at which they release the ball to make the ball bounce towards the batsmen at different heights; fielders are
positioned so they cover as much of the ground as efficiently as possible and batsmen angle their bat as they hit
the ball to ensure the ball rolls along the ground instead of in the air. Netballers must consider the angle at which
they shoot the ball to ensure it arcs into the ring and cyclists must consider the curved path of their turns that will
allow them to corner in the quickest and most efficient way.
Where to get help

Fully worked
solutions
eLessons
to every
question
Digital
eWorkbook
documents


1. Calculate the value of the pronumeral x.
110°
2x°
x°
42°
3. State what type of triangles have the same size and shape.
4. Determine the values of the pronumerals x and y.
11 12
x y
5. Triangles ABC and DEF are congruent; calculate the values of the pronumerals x, y and z.
A D (2x + y)°
40°
100°
B F
C E
(x + 2)° (3y + z)°
6. MC Choose which congruency test will prove these triangles are congruent.
6 6
75° 3 75° 3
A. SAS B. SSS C. AAS D. RHS E. ASA
7. State what the AAA test checks about two triangles.
TOPIC 10 Deductive geometry 619

8. Calculate the value of the pronumeral x in the quadrilateral shown.
x° 125°
75° 65°
9. Determine the value of the pronumeral x in the quadrilateral shown.
(2x + 40)°
110°
(x + 105)°
10. Determine the exterior angle of a regular pentagon.
11. Evaluate the sum of the interior angles of an octagon.
12. MC Select the correct values of the pronumerals x and y. 3 cm (3x + 2)° cm
1 √ 2 √
A. x = , y = 7 2 B. x = , y = 5 2
3 3 4 cm
2 √ 1 √ 7 cm
C. x = , y = 7 2 D. x = 1 , y = 7 2
3 3 y cm
2 √
E. x = , y = 78
3
x°
82°
127°
14. MC Choose the correct values for the pronumeral x. A

A. x = 6 or x = 5
B. x = 4 or x = 4 x–1 4
C. x = 5 or x = 4 B E
D. x = 6 or x = 4
E. x = 5 or x = 5 3x – 8 x+2
C D
15. MC Select the correct values of the pronumerals x and y.

A. x = 1.25 and y = 6.5
B. x = 0.8 and y = 5.6 8
10
C. x = 0.25 and y = 1.125
D. x = 5 and y = 3.5
( 1
–x + 1
2 )
E. x = 0.2 and y = 1.1 y 2x
2

10.2 Angles, triangles and congruence

LEARNING INTENTION
• apply properties of straight lines and triangles to determine the value of an unknown angle
• construct simple geometric proofs for angles in triangles or around intersecting lines
• prove that triangles are congruent by applying the appropriate congruency test.
10.2.1 Proofs and theorems of angles

eles-4892
• Euclid (c. 300 BC) was the mathematician who developed a systematic approach to geometry, now referred
to as Euclidean geometry, that relied on mathematical proofs.
• A proof is an argument that shows why a statement is true.
• A theorem is a statement that can be demonstrated to be true. It is conventional to use the following
structure when setting out a theorem.
• Given: a summary of the information given
• To prove: a statement that needs to be proven
• Construction: a description of any additions to the diagram given
• Proof: a sequence of steps that can be justified and form part of a formal mathematical proof.
Sums of angles
Angles at a point
• The sum of the angles at a point is 360°.
a
b
c
d e
a + b + c + d + e = 360°
Supplementary angles
• The sum of the angles on a straight line is 180°.
• Angles that add up to 180° are called supplementary b
c a
angles.
• In the diagram angles a, b and c are supplementary. a + b + c = 180°
Complementary angles
• The sum of the angles in a right angle is 90°.
• Angles that add up to 90° are called complementary angles.
• In the diagram angles a, b and c are complementary.
c
b
a
a + b + c = 90°

Vertically opposite angles

Theorem 1
• Vertically opposite angles are equal. D B
c
a b
O
A C
Given: Straight lines AB and CD, which intersect at O.

To prove: ∠AOD = ∠BOC and ∠BOD = ∠AOC
Construction: Label ∠AOD as a, ∠BOC as b and ∠BOD as c.
Proof: Let ∠AOD = a°, ∠BOC = b° and ∠BOD = c°.
a + c = 180° (supplementary angles)
b + c = 180° (supplementary angles)
∴ a+c = b+c
∴a=b
So, ∠AOD = ∠BOC.
Similarly, ∠BOD = ∠AOC.
Parallel lines
• If two lines are parallel and cut by a transversal, then:
• co-interior angles are • corresponding angles are • alternate angles are
supplementary equal equal.
a a a
b b
b
a + b = 180° a=b a=b
Digital technology
There are many online tools that can be used to play around with lines,
shapes and angles. One good tool to explore is the Desmos geometry
tool, which can be used for free at www.desmos.com/geometry.
In the Desmos geometry tool, you can draw lines, circles, polygons and
all kinds of other shapes. You can then use the angle tool to explore the
angles between lines or sides. The figure at right shows the angle tool
being used to demonstrate that co-interior angles are supplementary and
alternate angles are equal.

10.2.2 Angle properties of triangles

eles-5353
Theorem 2
• The sum of the interior angles of a triangle is 180°.
B
b
a c
A C
Given: ΔABC with interior angles a, b and c

To prove: a + b + c = 180°
Construction: Draw a line parallel to AC, passing through B and label it DE as shown.
Label ∠ABD as x and ∠CBE as y.
D B E
x y
b
a c
A C
Proof: a=x (alternate angles)

c=y (alternate angles)
x + b + y = 180° (supplementary angles)
∴ a + b + c = 180°
Equilateral triangles
• It follows from Theorem 2 that each interior angle of an equilateral triangle is 60°, and, conversely, if the
three angles of a triangle are equal, then the triangle is equiangular.
a + a + a = 180° (sum of interior angles in a triangle is 180°)

3a = 180°
a = 60°
B
a
a a
A C

Theorem 3
• The exterior angle of a triangle is equal to the sum of the B
opposite interior angles. b
a d
c
A C
Given: ΔABC with the exterior angle labelled d

To prove: d = a+b
Proof: c + d = 180° (supplementary angles)
a + b + c = 180° (sum of interior angles in a triangle is 180°)
∴ d=a+b
10.2.3 Congruent triangles

eles-4897
• Congruent triangles have the same size and the same shape; that is, they are identical in all respects.
• The symbol used for congruency is ≅.
• For example, ΔABC in the diagram below is congruent to ΔPQR. This is written as ΔABC ≅ ΔPQR.
C P Q
A B R
• Note that the vertices of the two triangles are written in corresponding order.
• There are four tests designed to check whether triangles are congruent. The tests are summarised in the
table below.
Congruence test Example Description
Side-side-side The three corresponding sides are the
(SSS) same lengths.
Side-angle-side Two corresponding sides are the

(SAS) same length and the angle in between
these sides is equal.
Angle-angle-side Two corresponding angles are equal

(AAS) and the side in between these angles
is the same length.

Congruence test Example Description

A pair of corresponding angles and a
non-contained side are equal.
Right angle- The triangles are right-angled, and

hypotenuse-side the hypotenuse and one other side
(RHS) of one triangle are equal to the
hypotenuse and a side of the other
triangle.
• In each of the tests we need to show three equal measurements about a pair of triangles in order to show
they are congruent.
WORKED EXAMPLE 1 Determining pairs of congruent triangles
Select a pair of congruent triangles from the diagrams shown, giving a reason for your answer.
A Q 18 cm N
L 35°
50° 15 cm
95°
C
95° 35° 95°
P R
B 15 cm M
THINK WRITE
1. In each triangle the length of the side opposite All three triangles have equal angles, but the sides
the 95° angle is given. If triangles are to be opposite the angle 95° are not equal.
congruent, the sides opposite the angles of AC = PR = 15 cm and LN = 18 cm
equal size must be equal in length. Draw your
conclusion.
2. To test whether ΔABC is congruent to ΔPQR, ΔABC: ∠A = 50°, ∠B = 95°,
first evaluate the angle C. ∠C = 180° − 50° − 95°
= 35°
3. Apply a test for congruence. Triangles ABC A pair of corresponding angles
and PQR have a pair of corresponding sides (∠B = ∠Q and ∠C = ∠R) and a corresponding
equal in length and 2 pairs of angles the same, side (AP = PR) are equal.
so draw your conclusion. ΔABC ≅ ΔPQR (AAS)
10.2.4 Isosceles triangles C

eles-4898
• A triangle is isosceles if the lengths of two sides are equal but the third side is
not equal.
a b
A B

Theorem 4
• The angles at the base of an isosceles triangle are equal.
Given: AC = CB
To prove: ∠BAC = ∠CBA
Construction: Draw a line from the vertex C to the midpoint of the base AB and label the midpoint D.
CD is the bisector of ∠ACB.
C
c
c
a b
A B
D
Proof: In ΔACD and ΔBCD,
CD = CD (common side)
AD = DB (construction, D is the midpoint of AB)
AC = CB (given)
⇒ ΔACD ≅ ΔBCD (SSS)
∴ ∠BAC = ∠CBA
• Conversely, if two angles of a triangle are equal, then the sides opposite those angles are equal.
WORKED EXAMPLE 2 Determining values in congruent triangles
Given that ΔABD ≅ ΔCBD, determine the values of the pronumerals in the figure shown.
B
40° z y
A x D C
3 cm
THINK WRITE
1. In congruent triangles corresponding sides are equal in ΔABD ≅ ΔCBD
length. Side AD (marked x) corresponds to side DC, so AD = CD, AD = x, CD = 3
state the value of x. So x = 3 cm.
2. Since the triangles are congruent, corresponding angles ∠BAD = ∠BCD

are equal. State the angles corresponding to y and z and ∠BAD = 40°, ∠BCD = y
hence determine the values of these pronumerals. So y = 40°
∠BDA = ∠BDC
∠BDA = z, ∠BDC = 90°
So z = 90°.

WORKED EXAMPLE 3 Proving two triangles are congruent
Prove that ΔPQS is congruent to ΔRSQ.

P Q
S R
THINK WRITE
1. Write the information given. Given: Rectangle PQRS with diagonal QS.
2. Write what needs to be proved. To prove: that ΔPQS is congruent to ΔRSQ.
QP = SR (opposite sides of a rectangle)
∠SPQ = ∠SRQ = 90° (given)
QS is common.
3. Select the appropriate congruency test for proof. (In this So ΔPQS ≅ ΔRSQ (RHS)
case, it is RHS because the triangles have an equal side,
a right angle and a common hypotenuse.)
Resources
Resourceseses
Digital documents SkillSHEET Naming angles, lines and figures (doc-5276)
SkillSHEET Corresponding sides and angles of congruent triangles (doc-5277)
SkillSHEET Angles and parallel lines (doc-5280)
Interactivities Individual pathway interactivity: Angles, triangles and congruence (int-4612)
Angles at a point (int-6157)
Supplementary angles (int-6158)
Angles in a triangle (int-3965)
Interior and exterior angles of a triangle (int-3966)
Vertically opposite and adjacent angles (int-3968)
Corresponding angles (int-3969)
Co-interior angles (int-3970)
Alternate angles (int-3971)
Congruency tests (int-3755)
Congruent triangles (int-3754)
Angles in an isosceles triangle (int-6159)

Exercise 10.2 Angles, triangles and congruence

Individual pathways
1, 4, 7, 8, 9, 16 2, 5, 10, 11, 12, 17 3, 6, 13, 14, 15, 18
Fluency
1. Determine the values of the unknown in each of the following.
a. b. A c. A
a 120°
56°
30° b
B C
c
B C
d. C e. A
B
58° d e
44° B
62° e
C
A
2. Determine the values of the pronumerals in the following diagrams.
a. b. c. d.
115° 120°
b° a°
100° y°
x° c° d°
x° x°
x°
3. WE1 Select a pair of congruent triangles in each of the following, giving a reason for your answer. All side
lengths are in cm.
a.
65° 65°
3 II
4 3 III
4
I 4
70° 3
65° 70° 45°
b.
110° 110°
6 cm 6 cm
I
40° 40° II
III
110°
40°
6 cm

c. 3
5
4 II
3
4 III
I
d. 3.5 2 3.5
2 I
III
4.8 II
3.5 4.8 2.5
4.8
Understanding
4. Determine the missing values of x and y in each of the following diagrams. Give reasons for your answers.
a. A b. A
y y
O
x
B C 6 D D
B
E 130°
c. d. A
C y
32°
x
A
y
x 45°
B C
99°
B
5. Determine the values of the pronumerals. Give reasons for your answers.
a. b.
72°
5c
130°
120° 2i
d 2b g
2f
e 3h

6. WE2 Determine the value of the pronumeral in each of the following pairs of congruent triangles. All side
lengths are in cm.
a. b. c.
80°
4 3
30°
85°
4 x x y
x
d. e.
x
40°
y n m z
7 30° x y
7. MC Choose which of the following is congruent to the triangle shown.

Note: There may be more than one correct answer. 3 cm
5 cm
35°
A. 3 cm B.
5 cm
5 cm
3 cm
35°
35°
C. D. 3 cm
3 cm 35°
5 cm
35° 5 cm
E. None of these

Reasoning
8. Prove that ΔABC ≅ ΔADC and hence determine the value of the pronumerals.
A
30°30°
7 cm w
B x y D
40° z
4 cm 40°
C
9. If DA = DB = DC, prove that ∠ABC is a right angle.
A B
10. WE3 Prove that each of the following pairs of triangles are congruent.
a. P b. P Q c. P S Q
S R
R S Q R
d. A B e. Q
P R
D C
11. Prove that ΔABC ≅ ΔADC and hence determine the value of x.
B D
x 70°
A C

12. Explain why the triangles shown are not necessarily congruent.
40°
5 cm 5 cm
7 cm
40°
7 cm
13. Prove that ΔABC ≅ ΔADC and hence determine the values of the pronumerals.
B C
30°
y
65°
x
A D
14. Explain why the triangles shown are not congruent.
8 cm
8 cm
30° 30°
70° 70°
15. If AC = CB and DC = CE in the diagram shown, prove that AB‖DE.
D E
A B
Problem solving
16. Show that ΔABO ≅ ΔACO, if O is the centre of the circle.
A B

17. Triangles ABC and DEF are congruent.
A D
50° (2x + y)°
110° (x + z)° (3y + z)°

B C E F
Determine the values of the pronumerals x, y and z.

18. ABC is an isosceles triangle in which AB and AC are equal in length. BDF is a right-angled triangle.
B D C
Show that triangle AEF is an isosceles triangle.
10.3 Similar triangles

LEARNING INTENTION
• identify similar figures
• calculate the scale factor in similar figures
• show that two triangles are similar using the appropriate similarity test.
10.3.1 Similar figures

eles-4899
• Two geometric shapes are similar when one is an enlargement or reduction B′
of the other shape.
• An enlargement increases the length of each side of a figure in all
directions by the same factor. For example, in the diagram shown, triangle
A′ C′
A′B′C′ is an enlargement of triangle ABC by a factor of 3 from its centre
B
of enlargement at O.
• Similar figures have the same shape. The corresponding angles are the same A C
and each pair of corresponding sides is in the same ratio.
• The symbol for similarity is ~ and is read as ‘is similar to’. O
• The image of the original object is the enlarged or reduced shape.
• To create a similar shape, use a scale factor to enlarge or reduce the original
shape called the object.

Calculating scale factor

• The scale factor can be found using the formula below and the lengths of a pair of corresponding sides.
image side length

Scale factor =
object side length
• If the scale factor is less than 1, the image is a reduced version of the original shape. If the scale factor is
greater than 1, the image is an enlarged version of the original shape.
Similar triangles
• Two triangles are similar if:
the angles are equal, or
•
the corresponding sides are proportional.
•
• Consider the pair of similar triangles below.
U
A
10
5 6
3
B C V 8 W
4
• The following statements are true for these triangles.

• Triangle UVW is similar to triangle ABC or, using symbols, ΔUVW ~ ΔABC.
• The corresponding angles of the two triangles are equal in size:
∠CAB = ∠WUV, ∠ABC = ∠UVW and ∠ACB = ∠UWV
UV VW UW
• The corresponding sides of the two triangles are in the same ratio. = = = 2; that is,
AB BC AC
ΔUVW has each of its sides twice as long as the corresponding sides in ΔABC.
• The scale factor is 2.
10.3.2 Testing triangles for similarity

eles-4900
• Triangles can be checked for similarity using one of the tests described in the table below.
Similarity test Example Description

Angle-angle-angle The three corresponding angles
(AAA) are equal.
•
Side-side-side The three sides of one triangle are

(SSS) a proportional to the three sides of
b ka kc the other triangle.
c
kb

Similarity test Example Description

Side-angle-side Two sides of one triangle are
(SAS) a proportional to two sides of the
ka kc other triangle, and the included
c
angle is equal.
• Note: When using the equiangular test, only two corresponding angles have to be checked. Since the sum
of the interior angles in any triangle is a constant number (180°), the third pair of corresponding angles will
automatically be equal, provided that the first two pairs match exactly.
WORKED EXAMPLE 4 Determining pairs of similar triangles
Determine a pair of similar triangles among those shown. Give a reason for your answer.
a. b. c.
3 cm 6 cm 140°
3 cm 5 cm
140° 140°
2 cm 4 cm
THINK WRITE
6 4
1. In each triangle the lengths of two sides and the included For triangles a and b: = =2
angle are known, so the SAS test can be applied. Since all 3 2
included angles are equal (140°), we need to the calculate 5 3
For triangles a and c: = 1.6, = 1.5
ratios of corresponding sides, taking two triangles at a time. 3 2
5 3
For triangles b and c: = 0.83, = 0.75
6 4
2. Only triangles a and b have corresponding sides in the same Triangle a ~ triangle b (SAS)
ratio (and the included angle is equal). State your conclusion,
specifying the similarity test you used.
WORKED EXAMPLE 5 Proving two triangles are similar
Prove that ΔABC is similar to ΔEDC.

A D
C
B
E
THINK WRITE
1. Write the information given. AB is parallel to Given:
DE. Transversal BD forms two alternate angles: ΔABC and ΔDCE
∠ABC and ∠EDC. AB||DE
C is common.
2. Write what is to be proved. To prove: ΔABC ~ ΔEDC

3. Write the proof. Proof:

∠ABC = ∠EDC (alternate angles)
∠BAC = ∠DEC (alternate angles)
∠BCA = ∠DCE (vertically opposite angles)
∴ ΔABC ~ ΔEDC (equiangular, AAA)
Resources
Resourceseses
Digital documents SkillSHEET Writing similarity statements (doc-5278)
SkillSHEET Calculating unknown side lengths in a pair of similar triangles (doc-5281)
Video eLesson Similar triangles (eles-1925)
Interactivities Individual pathway interactivity: Similar triangles (int-4613)
Scale factors (int-6041)
Angle-angle-angle condition of similarity (AAA) (int-6042)
Side-angle-side condition of similarity (SAS) (int-6447)
Side-side-side condition of similarity (SSS) (int-6448)
Exercise 10.3 Similar triangles

Individual pathways
1, 3, 6, 11, 14 2, 4, 7, 9, 12, 15, 16 5, 8, 10, 13, 17, 18
Fluency
1. WE4 Select a pair of similar triangles among those shown in each part. Give a reason for your answer.
a. i. ii. iii.
5 5 10
3 4 6
b. i. ii. iii.
4 2 8
20° 5 20° 2.5 20° 12
c. i. 2 ii. 2 iii.
4 5 6
3 4 4.5

d. i. ii. iii.
40° 60° 50° 60° 40° 60°
e. i. ii. iii.
4 8 7
3 6 5
2 4 4
2. Name two similar triangles in each of the following figures.

a. Q b. A c. P Q
B D C R
A C
P R
S T
d. A B e. B
D
D E
A C E
C
AB BC
3. a. Complete this statement: = = .
AD AE
b. Determine the value of the pronumerals.
D
4
B
2
A 3
4 f
C
g
E
4. Determine the value of the pronumeral in the diagram shown.
A
x
2
P
4 B 4 R

5. The triangles shown are similar.
45°
4
45° 1
20°
9 x
y
Determine the value of the pronumerals x and y.
Understanding
6. a. State why the two triangles shown are similar.
S
P
1.5 8
3 R
6
y
Q x
b. Determine the values of the pronumerals x and y in the diagram.
7. Calculate the values of the pronumerals in the following diagrams.

a. C b. B
12 cm
18 16 cm x
S
B x A R 4 Q C 3 cm
c. 15 5 d. A
B
A C
60° 20 cm C
4
x B m
15 cm 6 cm
D n
x
70° D
E
E
8. Calculate the values of the pronumerals in the following diagrams.
a. A 10 B b.
4 x
8
E y
12 4
8 x
D 16 C

9. Determine the value of x in the diagram.
24
18
36
10. Calculate the values of the pronumerals.

a. 2 cm (4x + 1) cm b.
2x + 1 cm
5 cm 2 2.5 cm
7 cm cm x
y cm 1.5 cm
2
y cm
Reasoning
11. WE5 Prove that ΔABC is similar to ΔEDC in each of the following.
a. C b. D c. E d. D
A A
E D C B
C
B B
A B D
E
A C E
12. ΔABC is a right-angled triangle. A line is drawn from A to D as shown so that C

AD⊥BC.
Prove that:
D
a. ΔABD ~ ΔACB
b. ΔACD ~ ΔACB.
A B
13. Explain why the AAA test cannot be used to prove congruence but can be used to prove similarity.
Problem solving
14. A student casts a shadow of 2.8 m. Another student, who is taller, stands in the same spot at the same time of
day. If the diagrams are to the same scale, determine the length of the shadow cast by the taller student.
156 cm 140 cm

15. A waterslide is 4.2 m high and has a support 2.4 m tall. If a student reaches this support when she is 3.1 m
down the slide, evaluate the length of the slide.
3.1 m
4.2 m
2.4 m
16. Prove that ΔEFO ~ ΔGHO.
E F
H G
17. A storage tank as shown in the diagram is made of a 4-m-tall cylinder joined by a
5m
3-m-tall cone. If the diameter of the cylinder is 5 m, evaluate the radius of the end of
the cone if 0.75 m has been cut off the tip.
4m
3m
0.75 m
18. Determine the value of x in the diagram shown.
x–2 3
B E
4x – 20 x–3
C D

10.4 Quadrilaterals
LEARNING INTENTION
• identify the different types of quadrilaterals
• construct simple geometric proofs for angles, sides and diagonals in quadrilaterals.
10.4.1 Quadrilaterals
eles-4901
• Quadrilaterals are four‐sided plane shapes whose interior angles sum to 360°.
Theorem 5
• The sum of the interior angles in a quadrilateral is 360°.
A B
Given: A quadrilateral ABCD

To prove: ∠ABC + ∠BCD + ∠ADC + ∠BAD = 360°
Construction: Draw a line joining vertex A to vertex C. Label the interior angles of the triangles formed.
A B
a
b
f
e
D
d c
Proof: a + b + c = 180° (sum of interior angles in a triangle is 180°)

d + e + f = 180° (sum of interior angles in a triangle is 180°)
⇒ a + b + c + d + e + f = 360°
∴ ∠ABC + ∠BCD + ∠ADC + ∠BAD = 360°
10.4.2 Parallelograms
eles-5354
• A parallelogram is a quadrilateral with two pairs of parallel sides.

Theorem 6
• Opposite angles of a parallelogram are equal.
A B
D C
Given: AB ‖ DC and AD ‖ BC
To prove: ∠ABC = ∠ADC
Construction: Draw a diagonal from B to D.
A B
D C
Proof: ∠ABD = ∠BDC (alternate angles)

∠ADB = ∠CBD (alternate angles)
∠ABC = ∠ABD + ∠CBD (by construction)
∠ADC = ∠BDC + ∠ADB (by construction)
∴ ∠ABC = ∠ADC
• Conversely, if each pair of opposite angles of a quadrilateral is equal, then it is a parallelogram.
Theorem 7
• Opposite sides of a parallelogram are equal.
A B
D C
Given: AB ‖ DC and AD ‖ BC
To prove: AB = DC
Construction: Draw a diagonal from B to D.
A B
D C

Proof: ∠ABD = ∠BDC (alternate angles)

∠ADB = ∠CBD (alternate angles)
BD is common to ΔABD and ΔBCD.
⇒ ΔABD ≅ ΔBCD (ASA)
∴ AB = DC
• Conversely, if each pair of opposite sides of a quadrilateral is equal, then it is a parallelogram.
Theorem 8
• The diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other.
A B
D C
Given: AB || DC and AD || BC with diagonals AC and BD

To prove: AO = OC and BO = OD
Proof: In ΔAOB and ΔCOD,
∠OAB = ∠OCD (alternate angles)
∠OBA = ∠ODC (alternate angles)
AB = CD (opposite sides of a parallelogram)
⇒ ΔAOB ≅ ΔCOD (ASA)
⇒ AO = OC (corresponding sides in congruent triangles)
and BO = OD (corresponding sides in congruent triangles)
Rectangles
eles-5355 • A rectangle is a parallelogram with four right angles.
Theorem 9
• A parallelogram with a right angle is a rectangle.
A B
D C
Given: Parallelogram ABCD with ∠BAD = 90°

To prove: ∠BAD = ∠ABC = ∠BCD = ∠ADC = 90°
Proof: AB || CD (properties of a parallelogram)
⇒ ∠BAD + ∠ADC = 180° (co‐interior angles)
But ∠BAD = 90° (given)
⇒ ∠ADC = 90°
Similarly, ∠BCD = ∠ADC = 90°
∴ ∠BAD = ∠ABC = ∠BCD = ∠ADC = 90°

Theorem 10
• The diagonals of a rectangle are equal.
A B
D C
Given: Rectangle ABCD with diagonals AC and BD

To prove: AC = BD
Proof: In ΔADC and ΔBCD,
AD = BC (opposite sides equal in a rectangle)
DC = CD (common)
∠ADC = ∠BCD = 90° (right angles in a rectangle)
⇒ ΔADC ≅ ΔBCD (SAS)
∴ AC = BD
Rhombuses
eles-5356 • A rhombus is a parallelogram with four equal sides.
Theorem 11
• The diagonals of a rhombus are perpendicular.
A B
D C
Given: Rhombus ABCD with diagonals AC and BD

To prove: AC ⊥ BD
Proof: In ΔAOB and ΔBOC,
AO = OC (property of parallelogram)
AB = BC (property of rhombus)
BO = OB (common)
⇒ ΔAOB ≅ ΔBOC (SSS)
⇒ ∠AOB = ∠BOC
But ∠AOB + ∠BOC = 180° (supplementary angles)
⇒ ∠AOB = ∠BOC = 90°
Similarly, ∠AOD = ∠DOC = 90°.
Hence, AC ⊥ BD

WORKED EXAMPLE 6 Determining the values of the pronumerals of the quadrilaterals
a. b.
x° 60°
80°
y°
60° 120°
110°
62°
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Identify the shape. a. The shape is a parallelogram as the shape has
two pairs of parallel sides.
2. To determine the values of x°, apply theorem 6, x° = 120°
which states that opposite angles of a
parallelogram are equal.
b. 1. Identify the shape. b. The shape is a trapezium, as one pair of opposite
sides is parallel but not equal in length.
2. To determine the values of y°, apply theorem 5, The sum of all the angles = 360°
which states the sum of interior angles in a y° + 110° + 80° + 62° = 360°
quadrilateral is 360°.
3. Simplify and solve for y°. y° + 110° + 80° + 62° = 360°
y° + 252° = 360°
y° = 360° − 252°
y° = 108°
• A summary of the definitions and properties of quadrilaterals is shown in the following table.
Shape Definition Properties

Trapezium A trapezium is a quadrilateral • One pair of opposite sides is parallel but not
with one pair of opposite sides equal in length.
parallel.
Parallelogram A parallelogram is a • Opposite angles are equal.

quadrilateral with both pairs • Opposite sides are equal.
of opposite sides parallel. • Diagonals bisect each other.
Rhombus A rhombus is a parallelogram • Diagonals bisect each other at right angles.

with four equal sides. • Diagonals bisect the angles at the vertex
through which they pass.
(continued)

(continued)
Shape Definition Properties
Rectangle A rectangle is a parallelogram • Diagonals are equal.
whose interior angles are right • Diagonals bisect each other.
angles.
Square A square is a parallelogram • All angles are right angles.

whose interior angles are right • All side lengths are equal.
angles with four equal sides. • Diagonals are equal in length and bisect each
other at right angles.
• Diagonals bisect the vertex through which
they pass (45°).
10.4.3 The midpoint theorem

eles-4905
• Now that the properties of quadrilaterals have been explored, the midpoint theorem can be tackled.
Theorem 12
• The interval joining the midpoints of two sides of a triangle is parallel to the third side and half its length.
D
C
Given: ΔABC in which AD = DB and AE = EC

1
To prove: DE || BC and DE = BC
2
Construction: Draw a line through C parallel to AB. Extend DE to F on the parallel line.
A
F
D
C

Proof: In ΔADE and ΔCEF,

AE = EC (E is the midpoint of AC, given)
∠AED = ∠CEF (vertically opposite angles)
∠EAD = ∠ECF (alternate angles)
⇒ ΔADE ≅ ΔCEF (ASA)
∴ AD = CF and DE = EF (corresponding sides in congruent triangles)
So, AD = DB = CF.
We have AB ‖ CF (by construction)
So BDFC is a parallelogram.
⇒ DE ‖ BC (opposite sides in parallelogram)
Also, BC = DF
But DE = DF (sides in congruent triangles)
1
⇒ DE = BC
2
1
Therefore, DE ‖ BC and DE = BC.
2
• Conversely, if a line interval is drawn parallel to a side of a triangle and half the length of that side, then the
line interval bisects each of the other two sides of the triangle.
WORKED EXAMPLE 7 Applying midpoint theorem to determine the unknown length
In triangle ABC, the midpoints of AC and AB are D and E respectively. A

Determine the value of DE, if BC = 18 cm.
D E
B C
THINK WRITE
1. Determine the midpoints on the line AB and AC. D is midpoint of AB and E is midpoint of AC.
1
2. Apply the midpoint theorem to determine the DE = BC
length of DE. 2
1
3. Substitute the value of BC = 18 cm into the DE = × 18
formula. 2
4. Simplify and determine the length of DE. DE = 9 cm
Resources
Resourceseses
Digital document SkillSHEET Identifying quadrilaterals (doc-5279)
Interactivities Individual pathway interactivity: Quadrilaterals (int-4614)
Quadrilateral definitions (int-2786)
Angles in a quadrilateral (int-3967)
Opposite angles of a parallelogram (int-6160)
Opposite sides of a parallelogram (int-6161)
Diagonals of a parallelogram (int-6162)
Diagonals of a rectangle (int-6163)
Diagonals of a rhombus (int-6164)
The midpoint theorem (int-6165)
Quadrilaterals (int-3756)

Exercise 10.4 Quadrilaterals

Individual pathways
1, 3, 7, 9, 12, 13, 18 2, 4, 8, 10, 14, 15, 19, 20 5, 6, 11, 16, 17, 21, 22
Fluency
1. Use the definitions of the five special quadrilaterals to decide if the following statements are true or false.
a. A square is a rectangle. b. A rhombus is a parallelogram.
c. A square is a rhombus. d. A rhombus is a square.
2. Use the definitions of the five special quadrilaterals to decide if the following statements are true or false.
a. A square is a trapezium. b. A parallelogram is a rectangle.
c. A trapezium is a rhombus. d. A rectangle is a square.
3. WE6 Determine the value of the pronumeral in each of the following quadrilaterals.
a. b.
t° 97°
90°
41° 48°
80°
45°
x°
c. m° d.
114° 98°
121°
q°
66° 114°
53°
4. Determine the values of the pronumerals in the following diagrams.

a. b.
35° e° 28°
c°
80°
b° a° d°
c. d.
g° 105° h°
40°
f°
i°
5. Determine the values of the pronumerals in each of the following figures.

a. b.
2x° (x + 15)° 80°
150°
x° y°
3x° 2x°
x°

6. Determine the values of x and y in each of the following figures.

a. b.
(3x + 10)° y°
x
3 cm
(2x − 10)° 4 cm
y°
c. d.
9x° 11x°
2x°
y° x°
3x°
y°
Understanding
7. Draw three different trapeziums. Using your ruler, compass and protractor, decide which of the following
properties are true in a trapezium.
a. Opposite sides are equal. b. All sides are equal.
c. Opposite angles are equal. d. All angles are equal.
e. Diagonals are equal in length. f. Diagonals bisect each other.
g. Diagonals are perpendicular. h. Diagonals bisect the angles they pass through.
8. Draw three different parallelograms. Using your ruler and protractor to measure, decide which of the
following properties are true in a parallelogram.
9. Choose which of the following properties are true in a rectangle.
10. Name four quadrilaterals that have at least one pair of opposite sides that are parallel and equal.
11. Name a quadrilateral that has equal diagonals that bisect each other and bisect the angles they pass through.
Reasoning
12. Prove that the diagonals of a rhombus bisect each other.
13. Give reasons why a square is a rhombus, but a rhombus is not necessarily a square.
14. WE7 ABCD is a parallelogram. X is the midpoint of AB and Y is the midpoint X

A B
of DC. Prove that AXYD is also a parallelogram.
15. The diagonals of a parallelogram meet at right angles. Prove that the
parallelogram is a rhombus.
D Y C

16. ABCD is a parallelogram. P, Q, R and S are all midpoints of their respective A P

B
sides of ABCD.
a. Prove ΔPAS ≅ ΔRCQ. S Q
b. Prove ΔSDR ≅ ΔPBQ.
c. Hence, prove that PQRS is also a parallelogram.
D R C
17. Two congruent right‐angled triangles are arranged as shown. Show that P Q
PQRS is a parallelogram.
S R
Problem solving
18. ABCD is a trapezium.
A B
(x + 4)° (x + 15)°
(x – 4)° y°
D C
a. Describe a fact about a trapezium.

b. Determine the values of x and y.
19. ABCD is a kite where AC = 8 cm, BE = 5 cm and ED = 9 cm.
E
D B
x
y
a. Determine the exact values of:
i. x
ii. y.
b. Evaluate angle BAD and hence angle BCD. Write your answer in degrees and minutes, correct to the
nearest minute.

20. Pool is played on a rectangular table. Balls are hit with a cue and bounce off the
sides of the table until they land in one of the holes or pockets.
a. Draw a rectangular pool table measuring 5 cm by 3 cm on graph paper.
Mark the four holes, one in each corner.
b. A ball starts at A. It is hit so that it travels at a 45° diagonal across
the grid. When it hits the side of the table, it bounces off at a 45°
diagonal as well. Determine how many sides the ball bounces off
before it goes in a hole.
c. A different size table is 7 cm by 2 cm. Determine how many sides a
ball bounces off before it goes in a hole when hit from A in the
same way.
d. Complete the following table.
A
Table size Number of sides hit
5 cm × 3 cm
7 cm × 2 cm
4 cm × 3 cm
4 cm × 2 cm
6 cm × 3 cm
9 cm × 3 cm
12 cm × 4 cm
e. Can you see a pattern? Determine how many sides a ball would
bounce off before going in a hole when hit from A on an m × n table.
f. The ball is now hit from B on a 5 cm × 3 cm pool table. Determine
how many different paths a ball can take when hit along 45°
diagonals. Do these paths all hit the same number of sides before
going in a hole? Does the ball end up in the same hole each time?
Justify your answer.
B
g. The ball is now hit from C along the path shown. Determine what
type of triangles and quadrilaterals are formed by the path of the ball
with itself and the sides of the table. Determine if any of the triangles
are congruent.
21. ABCD is called a cyclic quadrilateral because it is inscribed

A B
inside a circle.
A characteristic of a cyclic quadrilateral is that the opposite (3x – 35)°
angles are supplementary.
Determine the value of x.
(2x + 35)°
C D E

22. The perimeter of this kite is 80 cm. Determine the exact value of x.
9x x
3x
10.5 Polygons
LEARNING INTENTION
• identify regular and irregular polygons
• calculate the sum of the interior angles of a polygon
• determine the exterior angles of a regular polygon.
10.5.1 Polygons
eles-4906
• Polygons are closed shapes that have three or more straight sides.
Irregular Not a Not a

polygon polygon polygon
All sides are straight, Shape is Some sides

shape is closed not closed are curved,
not straight
• Regular polygons are polygons with sides of the same length and interior angles of the same size, like the
hexagon shown below.
• Convex polygons are polygons with no interior reflex angles.
• Concave polygons are polygons with at least one reflex interior angle.
Regular polygon Convex polygon Concave polygon

Interior angles of a polygon

• The sum of the interior angles of a polygon is given by the formula shown below.
Sum of interior angles of a polygon
Sum of interior angles = 180° × (n − 2)

where n = the number of sides of the polygon.
WORKED EXAMPLE 8 Calculating the values of angles in a given diagram
Calculate the value of the pronumerals in the figure shown.
80°
110° a b
150°
THINK WRITE
1. Angles a and 110° form a straight line and so a + 110° = 180°
are supplementary (add to 180°). a + 110° − 110° = 180° − 110°
a = 70°
2. The interior angles of a triangle sum to 180°. b + a + 80° = 180

3. Substitute 70° for a and solve for b. b + 70° + 80° = 180°
b + 150° = 180°
b = 30°
4. Write the value of the pronumerals. a = 70°, b = 30°
Exterior angles of a polygon

• The exterior angles of a polygon are formed by the side of the polygon and an extension of its adjacent
side. For example, x, y and z are exterior angles for the polygon (triangle) below and q, r, s and t are the
exterior angles of the quadrilateral.
y q
b
s
x a c
z
t
• The exterior angle and interior angle at that vertex are supplementary (add to 180°). For example, in the
triangle above, x + a = 180°.
• Exterior angles of polygons can be measured in a clockwise or anticlockwise direction.
• In a regular polygon, the size of the exterior angle can be found by dividing 360° by the number of sides.

Exterior angles of a regular polygon
360°
Exterior angles of a regular polygon =
n
where n = the number of sides of the regular polygon.
• The sum of the exterior angles of a polygon equals 360°.

• The exterior angle of a triangle is equal to the sum of the opposite interior angles.
Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivities Individual pathway interactivity: Polygons (int-4615)
Interior angles of a polygon (int-6166)
Exterior angles of a polygon (int-6167)
Exercise 10.5 Polygons

Individual pathways
1, 3, 6, 7, 11, 14 2, 4, 8, 12, 15, 17 5, 9, 10, 13, 16, 18
Fluency
1. WE8 Calculate the values of the pronumerals in the diagrams shown.
a. b.
b
m
120° a
c. d.
(t – 10)° 160°
15° 10°
70° 5x

2. Determine the value of the pronumeral in each of the following polygons.

a. b.
130° f
b 70°
40°
d
c e
95° a
135°
c. d.
g k j
i
h
20° l 50°
m
3. For the triangles shown, evaluate the pronumerals and determine the size of the interior angles.
a. b. 15° c. n n
y 160°
55° l
18°
d. e. 20°
4x
t
105° (t + 8)°
x
92°
(2t – 2)°
4. For the five quadrilaterals shown:

i. label the quadrilaterals as regular or irregular
ii. determine the value of the pronumeral for each shape.
a. b. c.
x 120° 70° t
80° 65° p 4t
20°
d. e.
y 3m
2y 2m
60°

5. For the four polygons:

i. calculate the sum of the interior angles of the polygon
ii. determine the value of the pronumeral for each shape.
a. b.
b c 110°
125° 125° 148°

148°
c. d.
d h
145° 145°
240°
55°
179°
257°
55° 255°
45° 45°
6. Explain how the interior and exterior angles of a polygon are related to the number of sides in a polygon.
Understanding
7. The photograph shows a house built on the side of a hill. Use your knowledge of angles to determine the
values of the pronumerals. Show full working.
yº
133º
zº
105º
xº wº

8. Determine the values of the four interior angles of the front face of the building in the photograph shown.
Show full working.
x + 15
9. Determine the values of the pronumerals for the irregular polygons shown. Show full working.
a. f b.
n
b
c m
120°o
a d e
350°
10. Calculate the size of the exterior angle of a regular hexagon (6 sides).
Reasoning
11. State whether the following polygons are regular or irregular. Give a reason for your answer.
a. b. c.
d. e. f.

12. A diagonal of a polygon joins two vertices.

a. Calculate the number of diagonals in a regular polygon with:
i. 4 sides ii. 5 sides iii. 6 sides iv. 7 sides.

1
b. Using your results from part a, show that the number of diagonals for an n-sided polygon is n (n − 3).
2
13. The exterior angle of a polygon can be calculated using the formula:
360°
Exterior angle =
n
Use the relationship between interior and exterior angles of a polygon to write a formula for the internal
angle of a regular polygon.
Problem solving
14. a. Name the polygon that best describes the road sign shown.
b. Determine the value of the pronumeral m.
15. The diagram shows a regular octagon with centre O. B C

A
a. Calculate the size of ∠CBD.
b. Calculate the size of ∠CBO. D
O
c. Calculate the size of the exterior angle of the octagon, ∠ABD.
d. Calculate the size of ∠BOC.
16. ABCDEFGH is an eight-sided polygon.
(3x – 10)°
A C
2x° 3x°
H 3x° (3x + 5)° D
(3x – 10)° 4x°

G E
(4x + 20)°
F
a. Evaluate the sum of the interior angles of an eight-sided polygon.
b. Determine the value of the pronumeral x.

17. Answer the following questions for the given shape.
3x
–
6
8x + 10
6x – 10
5x 3x + 11
a. Evaluate the sum of the interior angles of this shape.

18. Answer the following questions for the given shape.
6x – 25 3x + 3
6x
+
6
7x + 2
15x – 25
14x + 2
4x – 14 5x – 9
a. Evaluate the sum of the interior angles of this shape.


10.6 Review
Polygons Supplementary and complementary angles
• Polygons are closed shapes with straight sides. • Supplementary angles are angles that add up to 180°.
• The number of sides a polygon has is denoted n. • Complementary angles are angles that add up to 90°.
• The sum of the interior angles is given by the formula:
Interior angle sum = 180˚(n – 2)
• Regular polygons have all sides the same b a b
a
length and all interior angles equal.
• Convex polygons have no Regular Supplementary angles Complementary angles
polygon
• Concave polygons have at least
Convex
• The exterior angles of a regular polygon
polygon are given by the formula: • The symbol for congruence is ≌.
Concave
360˚ • The following tests can be used to determine whether
Exterior angles = – polygon
n two triangles are congruent:
SSS
DEDUCTIVE GEOMETRY
SAS
Quadrilaterals
• Quadrilaterals are four sided polygons.
• The interior angles sum to 360°. ASA
• There are many types of quadrilaterals:
• Trapeziums have 1 pair of parallel sides.
• Parallelograms have 2 pairs of parallel sides. RHS
• Rhombuses are parallelograms which have
4 equal sides.
• A rectangle is a parallelogram whose interior
angles are right angles.
• A square is a rectangle with 4 equal sides.
• The symbol for similarity is ~.
image side length
Parallel lines • Scale factor = –
object side length
• If parallel lines are cut by a transversal, then: • The following tests can be used to determine whether
two triangles are similar:
Alternate angles
are equal: a S
B β
a=b b β AAA
α γ α γ
A C R T
Corresponding angles S
are equal: a B
a=b 6 cm 7 cm 9 cm 10.5 cm SSS
b
A 10 cm C R 15 cm T
Co-interior angles are S
supplementary: a B
6 cm 9 cm SAS
a + b = 180˚ b α α
A 10 cm C R 15 cm T


10.2 I can apply properties of straight lines and triangles to determine the value
of an unknown angle.
I can construct simple geometric proofs for angles in triangles or around
intersecting lines.
I can prove that triangles are congruent by applying the appropriate
congruency test.
10.3 I can identify similar figures.
I can calculate the scale factor in similar figures.
I can show that two triangles are similar using the appropriate similarity
test.
10.4 I can identify the different types of quadrilaterals.
I can construct simple geometric proofs for angles, sides and diagonals in
quadrilaterals.
10.5 I can identify regular and irregular polygons.
I can calculate the sum of the interior angles of a polygon.
I can determine the exterior angles of a regular polygon.
10.6.3 Project
Enlargement activity
Enlargement is the construction of a bigger picture from a small
one. The picture is identical to the other except that it is bigger.
The new picture is often called the image. This can also be called
creating a similar figure.
The geometrical properties shared by a shape and its image under
enlargement can be listed as:
• lines are enlarged as lines
• sides are enlarged to corresponding sides by the
same factor
• matching angles on the two shapes are equal.

In this activity, we will start with a small cartoon character, and then
‘blow it up’ to almost life-size.
Equipment: ruler, pencil, cartoon print, butcher’s paper or some other
large piece of paper.
1. Do some research on the internet and select a cartoon character or any
character of your choice.
2. Draw a grid of 2-cm squares over the small cartoon character.
Example: The cat is 9 squares wide and 7 squares tall.

3. Label the grids with letters across the top row and numbers down the
first column.
4. Get a large piece of paper and draw the same number of squares. You will
have to work out the ratio of similitude (e.g. 2 cm : 8 cm).
5. If your small cartoon character stretches from one side of the ‘small’ paper
(the paper the image is printed on) to the other, your ‘large’ cat must stretch from one side of the ‘big’
paper to the other. Your large grid squares may have to be 8 cm by 8 cm or larger, depending on the
paper size.
6. Draw this enlarged grid on your large paper. Use a metre ruler or some other long straight-edged tool. Be
sure to keep all of your squares the same size.
• At this point, you are ready to draw. Remember, you do NOT have to be an artist to produce an
impressive enlargement.
• All you do is draw EXACTLY what you see in each small cell into its corresponding large cell.
• For example, in cell B3 of the cat enlargement, you see the tip of his ear, so draw this in the
big grid.
• If you take your time and are very careful, you will produce an extremely impressive enlargement.
• What you have used is called a ‘ratio of similitude’. This ratio controls how large the new picture
will be.
A 2 ∶ 5 ratio will give you a smaller enlargement than a 2 ∶ 7 ratio, because for every 2 units on the original
you are generating only 5 units of enlargement instead of 7.
If the cat ratio is 1 ∶ 4, it produces a figure that has a linear measure that is four times bigger.
The big cat’s overall area, however, will be 16 times larger than the small cat’s. This is because area is
found by taking length times width.
The length is 4 times longer and the width is 4 times longer. Thus the area is 4 × 4 = 16 times larger than
the original cat.
The overall volume will be 4 × 4 × 4 or 64 times larger! This means that the big cat will weigh 64 times
more than the small cat.
Resources
Resourceseses


Fluency
1. Select a pair of congruent triangles in each of the following sets of triangles, giving a reason for your
answer. All angles are in degrees and side lengths in cm. (The figures are not drawn to scale.)
a. 4 4
75°
40° 75°
II III
4 6 6
I 6 65°
75°
b.
I
6 8 8
6 6
10
II III
2. Determine the value of the pronumeral in each pair of congruent triangles. All angles are given in
degrees and side lengths in cm.
a.
2 2
8 x
b. x
70°
c.
y z 60°
30°
x

3. a. Prove that the two triangles shown in the diagram are congruent.
A B C
b. Prove that ΔPQR is congruent to ΔQPS.
S R
P Q
4. Test whether the following pairs of triangles are similar. For similar triangles, determine the scale
factor. All angles are in degrees and side lengths in cm.
a.
47° 47°
2 3
110°
110°
5
7.5
b.
3 5
50° 50°
1 2
c.

5. Determine the value of the pronumeral in each pair of similar triangles. All angles are given in degrees
and side lengths in cm.
a. 5
A B
48°
y
2
D x E
C
b. A
1 50°
C z E
B 1.5 44° x
8
y
D
c. P A
9 y 5
3
Q R 30°
z C B
4
6. Prove that ΔABC ~ ΔEDC.
A D
C
B
E
7. Prove that ΔPST ~ ΔPRQ.
P R
T
8. State the definition of a rhombus.
9. MC Two corresponding sides in a pair of similar octagons have lengths of 4 cm and 60 mm. The
respective scale factor in length is:
A. 1 ∶ 15 B. 3 ∶ 20 C. 2 ∶ 3 D. 3 ∶ 2 E. 20 ∶ 3

x+1
10. A regular nonagon has side length x cm. Use a scale factor of to calculate the side length of a
x
similar nonagon.
Problem solving
11. ABC is a triangle. D is the midpoint of AB, E is the midpoint of AC and F is the midpoint of BC
DG ⊥ AB, EG ⊥ AC and FG ⊥ BC.
a. Prove that ΔGDA ≅ ΔGDB.
b. Prove that ΔGDE ≅ ΔGCE.
c. Prove that ΔGBF ≅ ΔGCF.
d. State what this means about AG, BG and CG.
e. A circle centred at G is drawn through A.
Determine what other points it must pass through.
D E
B F C
12. PR is the perpendicular bisector of QS. Prove that ΔPQS is isosceles.
Q S
R
13. Name any quadrilaterals that have diagonals that bisect the angles they pass through.
14. State three tests that can be used to show that a quadrilateral is a rhombus.
15. Prove that WXYZ is a parallelogram.
W X
130° 50°
Z Y
16. Prove that the diagonals in a rhombus bisect the angles they pass through.

17. Explain why the triangles shown are not congruent.
5 cm
25° 80° 80° 25°

5 cm
18. Prove that the angles opposite the equal sides in an isosceles triangle are equal.
19. Name any quadrilaterals that have equal diagonals.
20. This 8 cm by 12 cm rectangle is cut into two sections as shown.
6 cm 6 cm
8 cm 10 cm
12 cm
a. Draw labelled diagrams to show how the two sections can be rearranged to form:
i. a parallelogram
ii. a right-angled triangle
iii. a trapezium.
b. Comment on the perimeters of the figures.

eWorkbook Angle-angle-angle condition of similarity (AAA)

(int-6042) ⃞
Download the workbook for this topic, which includes Side-angle-side condition of similarity (SAS) (int-6447) ⃞
worksheets, a code puzzle and a project (ewbk-2036) ⃞ Side-side-side condition of similarity (SSS) (int-6448) ⃞
10.4 Individual pathway interactivity: Quadrilaterals
Solutions (int-4614) ⃞
Download a copy of the fully worked solutions to every Quadrilateral definitions (int-2786) ⃞
question in this topic (sol-0744) ⃞ Angles in a quadrilateral (int-3967) ⃞
Opposite angles of a parallelogram (int-6160) ⃞
Digital documents Opposite sides of a parallelogram (int-6161) ⃞
Diagonals of a parallelogram (int-6162) ⃞
10.2 SkillSHEET Naming angles, lines and figures Diagonals of a rectangle (int-6163) ⃞
(doc-5276) ⃞ Diagonals of a rhombus (int-6164) ⃞
SkillSHEET Corresponding sides and angles of The midpoint theorem (int-6165) ⃞
congruent triangles (doc-5277) ⃞ Quadrilaterals (int-3756) ⃞
SkillSHEET Angles and parallel lines (doc-5280) ⃞ 10.5 Individual pathway interactivity: Polygons (int-4615) ⃞
10.3 SkillSHEET Writing similarity statements (doc-5278) ⃞ Interior angles of a polygon (int-6166) ⃞
SkillSHEET Calculating unknown side lengths in a Exterior angles of a polygon (int-6167) ⃞
pair of similar triangles (doc-5281) ⃞ 10.6 Crossword (int-2854) ⃞
10.4 SkillSHEET Identifying quadrilaterals (doc-5279) ⃞ Sudoku puzzle (int-3597) ⃞
Video eLessons
Teacher resources
10.2 Proofs and theorems of angles (eles-4892) ⃞
Angle properties of triangles (eles-5353) ⃞ There are many resources available exclusively for teachers
Congruent triangles (eles-4897) ⃞ online.
Isosceles triangles (eles-4898) ⃞
10.3 Similar figures (eles-4899) ⃞
Testing triangles for similarity (eles-4900) ⃞
Similar triangles (eles-1925) ⃞
10.4 Quadrilaterals (eles-4901) ⃞
Parallelograms (eles-5354) ⃞
Rectangles (eles-5355) ⃞
Rhombuses (eles-5356) ⃞
The midpoint theorem (eles-4905) ⃞
10.5 Polygons (eles-4906) ⃞
Interactivities
10.2 Individual pathway interactivity: Angles, triangles and
congruence (int-4612) ⃞
Angles at a point (int-6157) ⃞
Supplementary angles (int-6158) ⃞
Angles in a triangle (int-3965) ⃞
Interior and exterior angles of a triangle (int-3966) ⃞
Vertically opposite and adjacent angles (int-3968) ⃞
Corresponding angles (int-3969) ⃞
Co-interior angles (int-3970) ⃞
Alternate angles (int-3971) ⃞
Congruency tests (int-3755) ⃞
Congruent triangles (int-3754) ⃞
Angles in an isosceles triangle (int-6159) ⃞
10.3 Individual pathway interactivity: Similar triangles
(int-4613) ⃞
Scale factors (int-6041) ⃞

Answers 17.
18.
x = 20°, y = 10° and z = 40°
Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions in
Topic 10 Deductive geometry the online resources.
Exercise 10.1 Pre-test Exercise 10.3 Similar triangles

1. 17.5° 1. a. i and iii, RHS b. i and ii, SAS
2. 69° c. i and iii, SSS d. i and iii, AAA
3. Congruent triangles e. i and ii, SSS
4. x = 12, y = 11 2. a. Triangles PQR and ABC
5. x = 58, y = –76, z = 308 b. Triangles ADB and ADC.
6. A c. Triangles PQR and TSR.
7. Whether they are similar or not d. Triangles ABC and DEC.
8. 95° e. Triangles ABC and DEC.

AB BC AC
9. 45° 3. a. = = b. f = 9, g = 8
AD DE AE
10. 72° 4. x=4
11. 1080° 1
5. x = 20°, y = 2
12. C 4
13. 151° 6. a. AAA b. x = 3, y = 4
14. A 7. a. x = 12
15. A b. x = 4 cm
c. x = 16
Exercise 10.2 Angles, triangles and congruence d. x = 8 cm, n = 60°, m = 70°
1. a. a = 56° b. b = 30° c. c = 60° 8. a. x = 7.5, y = 6.4 b. x = 8
d. d = 120° e. e = 68°
9. x = 27 √
2. a. x = 115°
10. a. x = 1, y = 7 2 b. x = 2.5, y = 3.91
b. y = 80°
c. a = 120°, b = 60°, c = 120°, d = 60° the online resources.
d. x = 30° 12. a. ∠ABD = ∠ABC (common angle)
3. a. I and III, SAS b. I and II, AAS ∠ADB = ∠BAC = 90°
c. II and III, RHS d. I and II, SSS ∆ABD ~ ∆ACB (AAA)
4. a. x = 6, y = 60° b. x = 80°, y = 50° b. ∠ACD = ∠BCA (common angle)
c. x = 32°, y = 67° d. x = 45°, y = 45° ∠ADC = ∠CAB = 90°
5. a. b = 65°, c = 10°, d = 50°, e = 130° ∆ACD ~ ∆ACB (AAA)
b. f = 60°, g = 60°, h = 20°, i = 36° 13. Congruent triangles must be identical; that is, the angles
6. a. x = 3 cm
must be equal and the side lengths must be equal.
Therefore, it is not enough just to prove that the angles
b. x = 85°
are equal.
c. x = 80°, y = 30°, z = 70°
14. The taller student’s shadow is 3.12 metres long.
d. x = 30°, y = 7 cm
15. The slide is 7.23 m long.
e. x = 40°, y = 50°, z = 50°, m = 90°, n = 90°
16. ∠FEO = ∠OGH (alternate angles equal as EF ∥ HG)
7. C, D ∠EFO = ∠OHG (alternate angles equal as EF ∥ HG)
8. x = 110°, y = 110°, z = 4 cm, w = 7 cm ∠EOF = ∠HOG (vertically opposite angles equal)
9. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions in ∴ ∆EFO ~∆GHO (equiangular)
the online resources. 17. Radius = 0.625 m
10. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions in 18. x = 6 or x = 11
a. Use SAS. b. Use SAS. c. Use ASA. Exercise 10.4 Quadrilaterals
d. Use ASA. e. Use SSS. 1. a. True b. True
11. x = 70° c. True d. False
12. The third sides are not necessarily the same. 2. a. False b. False
13. x = 30°, y = 65° c. False d. False
14. Corresponding sides are not the same. 3. a. x = 145° b. t = 174°
15. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions in c. m = 66° d. q = 88°
the online resources. 4. a. a = 35°, b = 65°
16. Use SSS. Sample responses can be found in the worked b. c = 62°, d = 28°, e = 90°

f = 40°, g = 140°
c. e.If the ratio of the sides is written in simplest form, then
h = 75°, i = 75°
d. the pattern is m + n − 2.
5. a. x = 69° b. x = 26°, y = 128° f. There are two routes for the ball when hit from B. Either
2 or 3 sides are hit. The ball does not end up in the same
6. a. x = 36°, y = 62° b. x = 5 cm, y = 90°
hole each time.
c. x = 10°, y = 70° d. x = 40°, y = 60°
A suitable justification would be a diagram — student
7. None are true, unless the trapezium is a regular trapezium, to draw.
then e is true. g. Isosceles triangles and parallelograms. The triangles
8. a, c, f are congruent.
9. a, c, d, e, f 21. 70°
√
10. Parallelogram, rhombus, rectangle, square 22. x = 10 cm
11. Square
12. Use AAS. Sample responses can be found in the worked Exercise 10.5 Polygons
solutions in the online resources. 1. a. m = 60° b. a = 45°, b = 45°
13. All the sides of a square are equal, so a square is a special c. t = 35° d. x = 10°
rhombus. But the angles of a rhombus are not equal, so 2. a. a = 85°, b = 50°, c = 45°
can’t be a square. b. d = 140°, e = 110°, f = 110°
14. AX ‖ DY because ABCD is a parallelogram c. g = 90°, h = 110°, i = 70°
AX = DY (given)
d. j = 100°, k = 100°, l = 130°, m = 130°
∴ AXYD is a parallelogram since opposite sides are equal
and parallel. 3. a. y = 35° b. t = 5° c. n = 81°
d. x = 15° e. t = 30°
15. Use SAS. Sample responses can be found in the worked
solutions in the online resources. 4. a. i. Irregular ii. x = 95°
16. a. Use SAS. Sample responses can be found in the worked b. i. Irregular ii. p = 135°
solutions in the online resources. c. i. Irregular ii. t = 36°
b. Use SAS. Sample responses can be found in the worked d. i. Irregular ii. y = 70°
e. i. Irregular ii. p = 36°
c. Opposite sides are equal. Sample responses can be found
in the worked solutions in the online resources. 5. a. i. 540° ii. b = 110°
17. PS = QR (corresponding sides in congruent triangles b. i. 720° ii. c = 134°
are equal) c. i. 900° ii. d = 24°
PS ‖ QR (alternate angles are equal) d. i. 720° ii. h = 85°
∴ PQRS is a parallelogram since one pair of opposite sides
are parallel and equal. 6. The sum of the interior angles is based on the number of
sides of the polygon. The size of the exterior angle can be
18. a. One pair of opposite sides are parallel.
found by dividing 360° by the number of sides.
b. x = 90°, y = 75°
√ √ 7. w = 75°, x = 105°, y = 94°, z = 133°
19. a. i. x = 41 ii. y = 97
8. 82.5°, 82.5°, 97.5°, 97.5°
b. ∠BAD = ∠BCD = 117°23′ 9. a. a = 120°, b = 120°, c = 60°, d = 60°, e = 120°, f = 240°
20. a. b. m = 10°, n = 270°, o = 50°
10. 60°
11. a. Regular: all sides and interior angles are equal.
b. Irregular: all sides and interior angles are not equal.
c. Regular: all sides and interior angles are equal.
b. 6 d. Regular: all sides and interior angles are equal.
c. 7 e. Irregular: the sides are all equal, but the interior angles
are not equal.
d.
Table size Number of sides hit f. Regular: all sides and interior angles are equal.
5 cm × 3 cm 6 12. a. i. 2 ii. 5 iii. 9 iv. 14
7 cm × 2 cm 7 b. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions
4 cm × 3 cm 5 in the online resources.
4 cm × 2 cm 1 360°
6 cm × 3 cm 1 13. Internal angle = 180° −
n
9 cm × 3 cm 2 14. a. Equilateral triangle
12 cm × 4 cm 2 m = 150°
b.
15. a. 135° b. 67.5° c. 45° d. 45°


16. a. 1080° b. 43° the online resources.
17. a. 720° b. x = 25° 17. Corresponding sides are not the same.
18. a. 1080° b. x = 17° 18. A B
Project
Students will apply the knowledge of deductive geometry
to enlarge a cartoon character to almost life-size. Sample
responses can be found in the worked solutions in the online
D C
resources.
Bisect ∠BAC
Exercise 10.6 Review questions AB = AC (given)
1. a. I and III, ASA or SAS ∠BAD = ∠DAC
AD is common.
I and II, RHS
b.
∴ ∆ABD ≅ ∆ACD (SAS)
2. a. x = 8 cm ∴ ∠ABD = ∠ACD (corresponding sides in
b. x = 70° congruent triangles are equal)
c. x = 30°, y = 60°, z = 90° 19. Rectangle, square.
3. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions in 20. a. i. 6 cm
a. Use SAS. b. Use ASA.
4. a. Similar, scale factor = 1.5
b. Not similar 10 cm 8 cm 10 cm
c. Similar, scale factor = 2
5. a. x = 48°, y = 4.5 cm
b. x = 86°, y = 50°, z = 12 cm 12 cm
c. x = 60°, y = 15 cm, z = 12 cm ii.
6. Use the equiangular test. Sample responses can be found in
the worked solutions in the online resources. 10 cm 8 cm
7. Use the equiangular test. Sample responses can be found in
the worked solutions in the online resources.
8. A rhombus is a parallelogram with two adjacent sides equal
in length. 10 cm 8 cm
9. C
10. x+1 12 cm
11. a. Use SAS. Sample responses can be found in the worked
iii. 6 cm
b. Use SAS. Sample responses can be found in the worked
c. Use SAS. Sample responses can be found in the worked 10 cm 8 cm 10 cm
d. They are all the same length.
e. B and C 12 cm 6 cm
12. Use SAS. Sample responses can be found in the worked
b. Perimeter of rectangle = 40 cm
Perimeter of parallelogram = 44 cm
PQ = PS (corresponding sides in congruent triangles
Perimeter of triangle = 48 cm
are equal)
Perimeter of trapezium = 44 cm
13. Rhombus, square. The triangle has the largest perimeter, while the
14. A quadrilateral is a rhombus if: rectangle has the smallest.
1 all sides are equal
2 the diagonals bisect each other at right angles
3 the diagonals bisect the angles they pass through.
15. WZ || XY (co-interior angles are supplementary) and
WZ = XY (given)
∴ WXYZ is a parallelogram since one pair of sides is
parallel and equal.

“c11Probability_PrintPDF” — 2021/9/2 — 7:55 — page 673 — #1
11 Probability
LEARNING SEQUENCE
11.1 Overview ...............................................................................................................................................................674
11.2 Review of probability ....................................................................................................................................... 677
11.3 Tree diagrams ..................................................................................................................................................... 693
11.4 Independent and dependent events ..........................................................................................................701
11.5 Conditional probability .................................................................................................................................... 707
11.6 Review ................................................................................................................................................................... 713
11.1 Overview
Why learn this?
Probability is a broad and interesting area of mathematics that affects
our day-to-day lives far more than we can imagine. Here is a fun fact:
did you know
( there are so many ) possible arrangements of the 52 cards
in a deck 52! = 8.0658 × 1067 that the probability of ever getting the
same arrangement after shuffling is virtually zero? This means every
time you shuffle a deck of cards, you are almost certainly producing
an arrangement that has never been seen before. Probability is also a
big part of computer and board games; letters X and Q in Scrabble are
worth more points because you are less likely to be able to form a word
using those letters. It goes without saying that probability is a big part
of any casino game and of the odds and payouts when gambling on the
outcome of racing or sports.
While it is handy to know probability factoids and understand
gambling, this isn’t the reason we spend time learning probability.
Probability helps us build critical thinking skills, which are required for
success in almost any career and even just for navigating our own lives.
For example, if you were told your chance of catching a rare disease
had doubled you probably wouldn’t need to worry, as a 1-in-a-million-
chance becoming a 2-in-a-million chance isn’t a significant increase in
the probability of you developing the disease. On the other hand, if a disease has a 1% mortality rate that may
seem fairly low, but it means that if a billion people developed that disease, then 10 million would die. Using
probability to understand risk helps us steer clear of manipulation by advertising, politicians and the media.
Building on this understanding helps us as individuals make wise decisions in our day-to-day life, whether it
be investing in the stock market, avoiding habits that increase our risk of sickness, or building our career.
Where to get help

Fully worked
solutions
eLessons
to every
question
Digital
eWorkbook
documents


1. Calculate Pr(A ∩ B) if Pr(A = 0.4), Pr(B = 0.3) and Pr(A ∪ B) = 0.5.
2. If events A and B are mutually exclusive, and Pr(B) = 0.38 and Pr(A ∪ B) = 0.89, calculate Pr(A).
3. State whether the events A = {drawing a red marble from a bag} and B = {rolling a 1 on a die} are
independent or dependent.
4. The Venn diagram shows the number of university students in a

Tablet Computer
group of 25 who own a computer and/or tablet.
In simplest form, calculate the probability that a university student
selected at random will own only a tablet. 5 13 7
5. MC Two unbiased four-sided dice are rolled. Determine the probability that the total sum of two
face-down numbers obtained is 6.
1 1 3 1 3
A. B. C. D. E.
8 16 16 4 8
6. MC Identify which Venn diagram best illustrates Pr(A ∪ B)′.

A. B.
A B A B
C. D.
A B A B
E.
A B
TOPIC 11 Probability 675

7. MC From a group of 25 people, 12 use Facebook (F), 14 use Facebook Snapchat

Snapchat (S), and 6 use both Facebook and Snapchat applications.
Determine the probability that a person selected will use neither
application.
6 6 8
1 6 8
A. B. C.
5 25 25
12 14
D. E. 5
25 25
8. The probability that a student will catch a bus to school is 0.7 and the independent probability that a
student will be late to school is 0.2.
Determine the probability, in simplest form, that a student catches a bus and is not late to school.
9. MC From events A and B in the Venn diagram, calculate Pr(A|B). A B

4 4 2
A. B. C.
7 9 5
1 7
D. E. 2 4 3
3 9
10. In the Venn diagram, events A and B are independent. A B

State whether this statement is true or false.
7 20 13
10
11. If Pr(A) = 0.5, Pr(B) = 0.4 and Pr(A ∪ B) = 0.8, calculate Pr(B|A), correct to 1 decimal place.
12. MC From 20 students, 10 play soccer, while 15 play Aussie Rules and 8 play both soccer and
Aussie Rules. Calculate the probability that a student randomly selected plays soccer given that he or
she plays Aussie Rules.
8 2 2 10 4
A. B. C. D. E.
15 5 3 23 5
13. MC Two cards are drawn successively without replacement from a pack of playing cards. Calculate the
probability of drawing 2 spades.
1 2 1 1 2
A. B. C. D. E.
17 2652 2652 2704 2704
14. A survey of a school of 800 students found that 100 used a bus (B) to get to school, 75 used a train (T)
and 650 used neither.
In simplest form, determine the probability that a student uses both a bus and a train to get to school.

15. MC On the first day at school, students are asked to tell the class about their holidays. There are
30 students in the class and all have spent part or all of their holidays at one of the following: a coastal
resort, interstate, or overseas.
The teacher finds that:
• 5 students went to a coastal resort only
• 2 students went interstate only
• 2 students holidayed in all three ways
• 8 students went to a coastal resort and travelled overseas only
• 20 students went to a coastal resort
• no less than 4 students went overseas only
• no less than 13 students travelled interstate
Determine the probability that a student travelled overseas and interstate only.
2 5 3 1 4
A. B. C. D. E.
15 6 15 3 15
11.2 Review of probability

LEARNING INTENTION
• use key probability terminology such as: trials, frequency, sample space, likely and unlikely events
• use two-way tables to represent sample spaces
• calculate experimental and theoretical probabilities
• determine the probability of complementary events and mutually exclusive events
• use the addition rule to calculate the probability of event ‘A or B’.
11.2.1 The language of probability

eles-4922
• Probability measures the chance of an event taking place and ranges from 0 for an impossible event to
1 for a certain event.
Chances decrease
Highly Unlikely Even Likely Highly

unlikely chance likely
Impossible Very Less than Better than Very Certain
unlikely even chance even chance likely
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1

0% 50% 100%
Chances increase
• The experimental probability of an event is based on the outcomes of experiments, simulations

or surveys.
• A trial is a single experiment, for example, a single flip of a coin.

Experimental probability
number of successful trials

Experimental probability =
total number of trials
• The experimental probability of an event is also known as the relative frequency.

• The list of all possible outcomes of an experiment is known as the event space or sample space. For
example, when flipping a coin there are two possible outcomes: Heads or Tails. The event space can be
written, using set notation, as {H, T} .
WORKED EXAMPLE 1 Sample space and calculating relative frequency
The spinner shown here is made up of 4 equal-sized segments. It is known that the
probability that the spinner will land on any one of the four segments from one spin II I
1
is . To test if the spinner shown here is fair, a student spun the spinner 20 times
4 III IV
and each time recorded the segment in which the spinner stopped. The spinner
landed as follows.
Segment I II III IV
Tally 5 4 8 3
a. List the sample space.

b. Given the experimental results, determine the experimental probability of each segment.
c. Compare the experimental probabilities with the known probabilities and suggest how the
experiment could be changed to ensure that the results give a better estimate of the true probability.
THINK WRITE
a. The sample space lists all possible a. Sample space = {I, II, III, IV}
outcomes from one spin of the spinner.
There are four possible outcomes.
number of successful trials
b. 1. For segment I there were 5 successful b. Experimental probabilityI =
trials out of the 20. Substitute these total number of trials
values into the experimental 5
=
probability formula. 20
= 0.25
4
2. Repeat for segments: Experimental probabilityII =
• II (4 successes) 20
• III (8 successes) = 0.2
• IV (3 successes). 8
Experimental probabilityIII =
20
= 0.4
3
Experimental probabilityIV =
20
= 0.15

c. Compare the experimental frequency c. The experimental probability of segment I was the
1 only segment that mirrored the known value. To
values with the known value of (0.25).
4 ensure that experimental probability gives a better
Answer the question. estimate of the true probability, the spinner should be
spun many more times.
Two-way tables
• The sample space can be displayed using a two-way table.
• A two-way table represents two of the outcomes of events in a two-dimensional table. A two-way table for
the experiment of tossing a coin and rolling a die simultaneously is shown below.
Die outcomes
1 2 3 4 5 6
Coin H H, 1 H, 2 H, 3 H, 4 H, 5 H, 6
outcomes T T, 1 T, 2 T, 3 T, 4 T, 5 T, 6
WORKED EXAMPLE 2 Representing sample space with a two-way table
Two dice are rolled, and the values on the two uppermost faces are multiplied together. Draw a
diagram to illustrate the sample space.
THINK WRITE
The sample space for rolling 1 die is {1, 2, 3, First die
4, 5, 6}. When two dice are rolled and the two
× 1 2 3 4 5 6
uppermost faces are multiplied, the sample
space is made up of 36 products. This is best 1 1 2 3 4 5 6
represented with the use of a two-way table. 2 2 4 6 8 10 12
Second
• Draw a 7 × 7 grid. die 3 3 6 9 12 15 18
• In the first row and column list the outcomes 4 4 8 12 16 20 24
of each die. 5 5 10 15 20 25 30
• At the intersection of a column and row, 6 6 12 18 24 30 36
write the product of the relevant die
outcomes.
Theoretical probability
• Theoretical probability is the probability of an event occurring, based on the number of possible
favourable outcomes, n(E), and the total number of possible outcomes, n(𝜉).
Theoretical probability
When all outcomes are equally likely, the theoretical probability of an event can be calculated using
the formula:
number of favourable outcomes n(E)
Pr(event) = or Pr(event) =
total number of possible outcomes n(𝜉)
where n(E) is the number of favourable events and n(𝜉) is the total number of possible outcomes.

WORKED EXAMPLE 3 Calculating theoretical probability
A fair die is rolled and the value of the uppermost side is recorded. Calculate the theoretical
probability that a 4 is uppermost.
THINK WRITE
1. Write the number of favourable outcomes and the n(E) = 1
total number of possible outcomes. The number of n(𝜉) = 6
4s on a fair die is 1. There are 6 possible outcomes.
n(E)
2. Substitute the values found in part 1 to calculate the Pr(a 4) =
probability of the event that a 4 is uppermost when n(𝜉)
a die is rolled. 1
=
6
3. Write the answer in a sentence. The probability that a 4 is uppermost when a

1
fair die is rolled is .
6
11.2.2 Properties of probability events

eles-4923
Complementary events
( )
• The complement of the set A is the set of all elements that belong to the universal set 𝜉 but that do not
belong to A.
• The complement of A is written as A′ and is read as ‘A dashed’ or ‘A prime’.
• On a Venn diagram, complementary events appear as separate regions that together occupy the whole
universal set.
Complementary events
Since complementary events fill the entire sample space:

Pr(A) + Pr(A′ ) = 1
• As an example, the complement of {drawing a diamond} from a deck of cards is {not drawing a diamond},
which can also be described as {drawing a heart, spade or club}. This is shown in the Venn diagram.
ξ A'
A

WORKED EXAMPLE 4 Determining complementary events
A player is chosen from a cricket team. Are the events

‘selecting a batter’ and ‘selecting a bowler’
complementary events if a player can have more than one
role? Give a reason for your answer.
THINK WRITE
Explain the composition of a cricket team. Players No, the events ‘selecting a batter’ and ‘selecting
who can bat and bowl are not necessarily the only a bowler’ are not complementary events. These
players in a cricket team. There is a wicket-keeper events may have common elements, that is, the all
as well. Some players (all rounders) can bat and rounders in the team who can bat and bowl. The
bowl. cricket team also includes a wicket-keeper.
The intersection and union of A and B

• The intersection of two events A and B is written A ∩ B. These are the outcomes that are in A ‘and’ in B and
so the intersection is often referred to as the event ‘A and B’.
• The union of two events A and B is written A ∪ B. These are the outcomes that are in A ‘or’ in B and so the
union of often referred to as the event ‘A or B’.
ξ A B ξ A B
A∩B A∩B
= A∩B = A∪B
• When calculating the probability of A ∪ B we cannot simply add the probabilities of A and B, as A ∩ B
would be counted twice.
• The formula for the probability of A ∪ B is therefore given by the following equation, which is known as the
Addition Law of probability.
The Addition Law of probability
For intersecting events A and B:

Pr(A ∪ B) = Pr(A) + Pr(B) − Pr(A ∩ B)

Mutually exclusive events

• Two events are mutually exclusive if one event happening excludes ξ
the other from happening. These events may not encompass all
possible events. For example, when selecting a card from a deck of A B
cards, selecting a black card excludes the possibility that the card is
a heart.
• On a Venn diagram, mutually exclusive events appear as disjointed
sets within the universal set.
• For mutually exclusive events A and B, Pr(A ∩ B) = 0. Therefore the
formula for Pr(A ∪ B) is simplified to the following.
Mutually exclusive probabilities
For mutually exclusive events A and B:

Pr(A ∪ B) = Pr(A) + Pr(B)
WORKED EXAMPLE 5 Determining the probability of the union of two events
A card is drawn from a pack of 52 playing cards. Determine the probability that the card is a heart
or a club.
THINK WRITE
1. Determine whether the given events are The two events are mutually exclusive as they have
mutually exclusive. no common elements.
2. Determine the probability of drawing a heart 13 13

Pr(heart) = Pr(club) =
and of drawing a club. 52 52
1 1
= =
4 4
3. Write the Addition Law for two mutually Pr(A or B) = Pr(A) + Pr(B)
exclusive events. where A = drawing a heart
and B = drawing a club
4. Substitute the known values into the rule. Pr(heart or club) = Pr(heart) + Pr(club)
1 1
= +
4 4
2
=
4
1
5. Evaluate and simplify. =
2
1
6. Write your answer. The probability of drawing a heart or a club is .
2

n(heart or club)
Note: Alternatively, we can use the formula for Pr(heart or club) =
theoretical probability. n(𝜉)
26
=
52
1
=
2
WORKED EXAMPLE 6 Determining probabilities
A die is rolled. Determine:

a. Pr(an odd number) b. Pr(a number less than 4)
c. Pr(an odd number or a number less than 4).
THINK WRITE
3
a. 1. Determine the probability of a. Pr(odd) =
obtaining an odd number, that is, 6
{1, 3, 5}. 1
=
2
1
2. Write your answer. The probability of obtaining an odd number is .
2
3
b. 1. Determine the probability of b. Pr(less than 4) =
obtaining a number less than 4, that 6
is, {1, 2, 3}. 1
=
2
1
2. Write your answer. The probability of obtaining a number less than 4 is .
2
c. 1. Determine which numbers are odd or c. Less than 4 = {1, 2, 3}
less than 4. Odd = {1, 3, 5}
The numbers {1, 2, 3, 5} are odd or less than 4.
4
2. Determine the probability of Pr(odd or less than 4) =
obtaining a number that is odd or 6
less than 4. 2
=
3
3. Write your answer. The probability of obtaining an odd number or a number
2
less than 4 is .
3
WORKED EXAMPLE 7 Using the Addition Law to determine the intersection of two events
Given Pr(A) = 0.6, Pr(B) = 0.4 and Pr(A ∪ B) = 0.9:

a. use the Addition Law of probability to calculate the value of Pr(A ∩ B)
b. draw a Venn diagram to represent the universal set
c. calculate Pr(A ∩ B′).
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Write the Addition Law of probability and a. Pr(A ∪ B) = Pr(A) + Pr(B) − Pr(A ∩ B)
substitute given values. 0.9 = 0.6 + 0.4 − Pr(A ∩ B)

2. Collect like terms and rearrange to make Pr(A ∩ B) 0.9 = 1.0 − Pr(A ∩ B)
the subject. Solve the equation. Pr(A ∩ B) = 1.0 − 0.9
= 0.1
b. 1. Draw intersecting sets A and B within the universal b.
set and write Pr(A ∩ B) = 0.1 inside the overlapping A B
section, as shown.
0.1
2. • As Pr(A) = 0.6, 0.1 of this belongs in the overlap,

the remainder of set A is 0.5 (0.6 − 0.1). A B
• Since Pr(B) = 0.4, 0.1 of this belongs in the
0.5 0.1 0.3
overlap, the remainder of set B is 0.3 (0.4 − 0.1).
3. The total probability for the universal set is 1. That

means Pr(A ∪ B)′ = 0.1. Write 0.1 outside sets A and A B
B to form the remainder of the universal set.
0.5 0.1 0.3
0.1
c. Pr(A ∩ B′) is the overlapping region of Pr(A) c.
and Pr(B′). Shade the region and write down the A B
corresponding probability value for this area.
0.5 0.1 0.3
0.1
′
Pr(A ∩ B ) = 0.5
WORKED EXAMPLE 8 Using a Venn diagram to represent sets and find probabilities
a. Draw a Venn diagram representing the relationship between the following sets. Show the position of
all the elements in the Venn diagram.
𝜉 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20}
A = {3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18}
B = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20}
b. Determine:
i. Pr(A) ii. Pr(B) iii. Pr(A ∩ B) iv. Pr(A ∪ B) v. Pr(A′ ∩ B′ )
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a. 1. Draw a rectangle with two partly intersecting circles a. n( ) = 20
labelled A and B. A B
2. Analyse sets A and B and place any common
elements in the central overlap. 2 4
6
3. Place the remaining elements of set A in circle A. 3 9
12 8 10
15
4. Place the remaining elements of set B in circle B. 18 14 16
5. Place the remaining elements of the universal set 𝜉 20
in the rectangle. 11 13
1 5 7 17 19

b. i. 1. Write the number of elements that belong b. i. n(A) = 6, n(𝜉) = 20

to set A and the total number of elements.
n(A)
2. Write the rule for probability. Pr(A) =
n(𝜉)
6
3. Substitute the known values into the rule. Pr(A) =
20
3
10
ii. 1. Write the number of elements that belong ii. n(B) = 10, n(𝜉) = 20
to set B and the total number of elements.
n(B)
2. Repeat steps 2 to 4 of part b i. Pr(B) =
n(𝜉)
10
Pr(B) =
20
1
=
2
iii. 1. Write the number of elements that belong iii. n(A ∩ B) = 3, n(𝜉) = 20
to set (A ∩ B) and the total number of
elements.
n(A ∩ B)
2. Repeat steps 2 to 4 of part b i. Pr(A ∩ B) =
n(𝜉)
3
Pr(A ∩ B) =
20
iv. 1. Write the number of elements that belong iv. n(A ∪ B) = 13, n(𝜉) = 20
to set (A ∪ B) and the total number of
elements.
n(A ∪ B)
2. Repeat steps 2 to 4 of part b i. n(A ∪ B) =
n(𝜉)
13
n(A ∪ B) =
20
v. 1. Write the number of elements that belong v. n(A′ ∩ B′ ) = 7, n(𝜉) = 20

′ ′
to set A ∩ B and the total number of
elements.
n(A′ ∩ B′ )
2. Repeat steps 2 to 4 of part b i. Pr(A′ ∩ B′ ) =
n(𝜉)
7
Pr(A′ ∩ B′ ) =
20

WORKED EXAMPLE 9 Creating a Venn diagram for three intersecting events
In a class of 35 students, 6 students like all three subjects: PE, Science and Music. Eight of the
students like PE and Science, 10 students like PE and Music, and 12 students like Science and Music.
Also, 22 students like PE, 18 students like Science and 17 like Music. Two students don’t like any of
the subjects.
a. Display this information on a Venn diagram.
b. Determine the probability of selecting a student who:
i. likes PE only
ii. does not like Music.
′
c. Find Pr[(Science ∪ Music) ∩ PE ].
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a. 1. Draw a rectangle with three partly a. n(ξ) = 35
intersecting circles, labelled PE, Science
PE Science
and Music.
Music
2. Extract the information relating to n(ξ) = 35

students liking all three subjects. PE Science
Note: The central overlap is the key to
solving these problems. Six students like
all three subjects, so place the number
6
6 into the section corresponding to the
intersection of the three circles.
Music
3. Extract the relevant information from n(ξ) = 35

the second sentence and place it into the PE Science
appropriate position.
Note: Eight students like PE and Science; 2
however, 6 of these students have already
6
been accounted for in step 2. Therefore, 4 6
2 will fill the intersection of only PE and
Science. Similarly, 4 of the 10 who like
PE and Music will fill the intersection Music
of only PE and Music, and 6 of the 12
students will fill the intersection of only
Science and Music.


the third sentence and place it into the PE Science
Note: Twenty-two students like PE and 10 2 4
12 have already been accounted for in the
6
set. Therefore, 10 students are needed 4 6
to fill the circle corresponding to PE
only. Similarly, 4 students are needed to 1
fill the circle corresponding to Science Music
only to make a total of 18 for Science.
One student is needed to fill the circle
corresponding to Music only to make a
total of 17 for Music.

the final sentence and place it into the PE Science
Note: Two students do not like any of 10 2 4
the subjects, so they are placed in the 6
rectangle outside the three circles. 4 6
1
Music 2
6. Check that the total number in all 10 + 2 + 4 + 4 + 6 + 6 + 1 + 2 = 35

positions is equal to the number in the
universal set.
b. i. 1. Write the number of students who b. i. n(students who like PE only) = 10

like PE only and the total number of n(𝜉) = 35
students in the class.
n(likes PE only)
2. Write the rule for probability. Pr(likes PE only) =
n(𝜉)
10
3. Substitute the known values into Pr(likes PE only) =
the rule. 35
2
7
5. Write your answer. The probability of selecting a student who likes PE
2
only is .
7
ii. 1. Write the number of students who do ii. n(students who do not like Music) = 18
not like Music and the total number n(𝜉) = 35
of students in the class.
Note: Add all the values that do not
appear in the Music circle as well
as the two that sit in the rectangle
outside the circles.

n(does not like Music)

2. Write the rule for probability. Pr(does not like Music) =
n(𝜉)
18
3. Substitute the known values into the Pr(does not like Music) =
rule. 35
4. Write your answer. The probability of selecting a student who does not
18
like Music is .
35
c. 1. Write the number of students who like c. n[(Science ∪ Music) ∩ PE′] = 11
Science and Music but not PE. n(𝜉) = 35
Note: Add the values that appear in the
Science and Music circles but do not
overlap with the PE circle.
2. Repeat steps 2 to 4 of part b ii. Pr[(Science ∪ Music) ∩ PE′]

n[(Science ∪ Music) ∩ PE′]
=
n(𝜉)
11
Pr[(Science ∪ Music) ∩ PE′] = .
35
The probability of selecting a student who likes
11
Science or Music but not PE is .
35
Resources
Resourceseses
Digital documents SkillSHEET Set notation (doc-5286)
SkillSHEET Simplifying fractions (doc-5287)
SkillSHEET Determining complementary events (doc-5288)
SkillSHEET Addition and subtraction of fractions (doc-5289)
SkillSHEET Working with Venn diagrams (doc-5291)
SkillSHEET Distinguishing between complementary and mutually exclusive events (doc-5294)
Video eLesson Venn diagrams (eles-1934)
Interactivities Individual pathway interactivity: Review of probability (int-4616)
Experimental probability (int-3825)
Two-way tables (int-6082)
Theoretical probability (int-6081)
Venn diagrams (int-3828)
Addition Law of probability (int-6168)

Exercise 11.2 Review of probability

Individual pathways
1, 2, 4, 7, 11, 12, 16, 19 3, 5, 8, 13, 14, 17, 20 6, 9, 10, 15, 18, 21
Fluency
1. Explain the difference between experimental and theoretical probability.
2. WE1 The spinner shown was spun 50 times and the outcome each time was recorded in
the table. II
III I
Segment I II III IV V VI
IV VI
Tally 10 6 8 7 12 7 V
a. List the event space.

b. Given the experimental results, determine the relative frequency for each segment.
1
c. The theoretical probability of the spinner landing on any particular segment with one spin is . State how
6
the experiment could be changed to give a better estimate of the true probabilities.
3. A laptop company conducted a survey to see what were the most appealing colours for laptop computers
among 15–18-year-old students. The results were as follows:
Colour Black Sizzling Power Blazing Gooey Glamour

Black Silver Pink Blue Green Gold
Number 102 80 52 140 56 70
a. Calculate the number of students who were surveyed.

b. Calculate the relative frequency of students who found silver the most appealing laptop colour.
c. Calculate the relative frequency of students who found black and green to be their most
appealing colours.
d. State which colour was found to be most appealing.
4. WE2 Two dice are rolled and the values on the two uppermost faces are added together.
a. Construct a table to illustrate the sample space.
b. Calculate the most likely outcome.
c. Calculate the least likely outcome.
5. WE7 Given Pr(A) = 0.5, Pr(B) = 0.4 and Pr(A ∪ B) = 0.8:

a. use the Addition Law of probability to calculate the value of Pr(A ∩ B)
b. draw a Venn diagram to represent the universal set
c. calculate Pr(A ∩ B′ ).
6. Let Pr(A) = 0.25, Pr(B) = 0.65 and Pr(A ∩ B) = 0.05.

a. Calculate:
′
i. Pr(A ∪ B) ii. Pr(A ∩ B) .

b. MC Choose which Venn diagram below best illustrates Pr(A ∩ B)′ .

A. B. C.
ξ ξ ξ
A B A B A B
D. E.
ξ ξ
A B A B
7. WE3 A die is rolled. Calculate the probability that the outcome is an even number or a 5.
8. WE6 A card is drawn from a well-shuffled pack of 52 playing cards. Calculate:

a. Pr(a king is drawn) b. Pr(a heart is drawn)
c. Pr(a king or a heart is drawn).
9. WE4 For each of the following pairs of events:

i. state, giving justification, if the pair are complementary events
ii. alter the statements, where applicable, so that the events
become complementary events.
a. Having Weet Bix or having Strawberry Pops for breakfast
b. Walking to a friend’s place or driving there
c. Watching TV or reading as a leisure activity
d. Rolling a number less than 5 or rolling a number greater
than 5 with a ten-sided die with faces numbered 1 to 10
e. Passing a maths test or failing a maths test
10. a. WE8 Draw a Venn diagram representing the relationship between the following sets. Show the position
of all the elements in the Venn diagram.
𝜉 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20}
A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, 17, 19}
B = {1, 4, 9, 16}
b. Calculate:
i. Pr(A) ii. Pr(B) iii. Pr(A ∩ B)

iv. Pr(A ∪ B) v. Pr(A′ ∩ B′ ).
Understanding
11. You and a friend are playing a dice game. You have an eight-sided die (with faces numbered 1 to 8 inclusive)
and your friend has a six-sided die (with faces numbered 1 to 6 inclusive). You each roll your own die.
a. The person who rolls the number 4 wins. Determine if this game is fair.
b. The person who rolls an odd number wins. Determine if this game is fair.
12. A six-sided die has three faces numbered 5; the other faces are numbered 6. Determine if the events ‘rolling
a 5’ and ‘rolling a 6’ are equally likely.

13. WE5 A card is drawn from a shuffled pack of 52 cards. Calculate the probability that the card drawn is:
a. an ace b. a club c. a red card
d. not a jack e. a green card f. not a red card.
14. A bag contains 4 blue marbles, 7 red marbles and 9 yellow marbles. All marbles are the same size. A marble
is selected at random. Calculate the probability that the marble is:
a. blue b. red c. not yellow d. black.
15. WE9 Thirty students were asked which lunchtime sports they enjoyed — volleyball, soccer or tennis. Five
students chose all three sports. Six students chose volleyball and soccer, 7 students chose volleyball and
tennis, and 9 chose soccer and tennis. Fifteen students chose volleyball, 14 students chose soccer and 18
students chose tennis.
a. Copy the Venn diagram shown and enter the given information.
n(ξ) = 30
Volleyball Soccer
Tennis
b. If a student is selected at random, determine the probability of

selecting a student who:
i. chose volleyball
ii. chose all three sports
iii. chose both volleyball and soccer but not tennis
iv. did not choose tennis
v. chose soccer.
c. Determine:
i. Pr[(soccer ∪ tennis) ∩ volleyball′] ii. Pr[(volleyball ∪ tennis) ∩ soccer′].
Reasoning
16. A six-sided die has three faces numbered 1 and the other three faces numbered 2. Determine if the events
‘rolling a 1’ and ‘rolling a 2’ are equally likely.
17. With the use of diagrams, show that Pr(A′ ∩ B′ ) = Pr(A ∪ B)′ .
18. A drawer contains purple socks and red socks. The chance of obtaining a
red sock is 2 in 9. There are 10 red socks in the drawer.
Determine the smallest number of socks that need to be added to the
drawer so that the probability of drawing a red sock increases to 3 in 7.

Problem solving
19. Ninety students were asked which lunchtime sports on offer, basketball, netball and soccer, they had
participated in on at least one occasion in the last week. The results are shown in the following table.
Sport Basketball Netball Soccer Basketball Basketball Netball and All three
and netball and soccer soccer
Number of
35 25 39 5 18 8 3
students
a. Copy and complete the Venn diagram shown below to illustrate the sample space.
ξ B N
15
3
5
b. Determine how many students did not play basketball, netball or soccer at lunchtime.
c. Determine how many students played basketball and/or netball but not soccer.
d. Determine how many students are represented by the region (basketball ∩ not netball ∩ soccer).
e. Calculate the relative frequency of the region described in part d above.
f. Estimate the probability that a student will play three of the sports offered.
20. The Venn diagram shows the results of a survey completed by a Chinese ξ
Fried
restaurateur to find out the food preferences of his regular customers. rice
7 5 12
a. Determine the number of customers:
i. surveyed 3
10 5
ii. showing a preference for fried rice only Chicken
iii. showing a preference for fried rice wings
8
iv. showing a preference for chicken wings and dim sims.
Dim sims
b. A customer from this group won the draw for a lucky door prize.
Determine the probability that this customer:
i. likes fried rice
ii. likes all three — fried rice, chicken wings and dim sims
iii. prefers chicken wings only.
c. A similar survey was conducted a month later with another group of 50 customers. This survey yielded
the following results: 2 customers liked all three foods; 6 preferred fried rice and chicken wings only;
7 preferred chicken wings and dim sims only; 8 preferred fried rice and dim sims only; 22 preferred fried
rice; 23 preferred chicken wings; and 24 preferred dim sims.
i. Display this information on a Venn diagram.
ii. Determine the probability of selecting a customer who prefers all three foods, if a random selection
is made.

21. A pair of dice is rolled and the sum of the numbers shown is noted.
a. Show the sample space in a two-way table.
b. Determine how many different ways the sum of 7 can be obtained.
c. Determine if all outcomes are equally likely.
d. Complete the given table.
Sum 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 11 12
Frequency
e. Determine the relative frequencies of the following sums.

i. 2 ii. 7 iii. 11
f. Determine the probability of obtaining the following sums.
i. 2 ii. 7 iii. 11
g. If a pair of dice is rolled 300 times, calculate how many times you would expect the sum of 7.
11.3 Tree diagrams

LEARNING INTENTION
• create tree diagrams to represent two- and three-step chance experiments
• use tree diagrams to solve probability problems involving two or more trials or events.
11.3.1 Two-step chance experiments

eles-4924
• In two-step chance experiments the result is obtained after performing two trials. Two-step chance
experiments are often represented using tree diagrams.
• Tree diagrams are used to list all possible outcomes of two or more events that are not necessarily
equally likely.
• The probability of obtaining the result for a particular event is listed on the branches.
• The probability for each outcome in the sample space is the product of the probabilities associated with the
respective branches. For example, the tree diagram shown here represents the sample space for flipping a
coin, then choosing a marble from a bag containing three red marbles and one black marble.
Coin Marble Outcomes Probability

toss pick
R HR Pr(HR) = 1 × 3 = 3
2 4 8
3
4
H
1
1 4
2 B HB Pr(HB) = 1 × 1 = 1
2 4 8
1 R TR Pr(TR) = 1 × 3 = 3
2 3 2 4 8
4
T
1
4
B TB Pr(TB) = 1 × 1 = 1
2 4 8
4 possible
outcomes

• When added together, all the probabilities for the outcomes should sum to 1. They are complementary
events. For example,
3 1 3 1
Pr(HR) + Pr(HB) + Pr(TR) + Pr(TB) = + + +
8 8 8 8
=1
• Other probabilities can also be calculated from the tree diagram. For example, the probability of getting an
outcome that contains a red marble can be calculated by summing the probabilities of each of the possible
outcomes that include a red marble.
Outcomes that contain a red marble are HR and TR, therefore:
Pr(red marble) = Pr(HR) + Pr(TR)

3 3
= +
8 8
6
=
8
3
=
4
WORKED EXAMPLE 10 Using a tree diagrams for a two-step chance experiment
A three-sided die is rolled and a name is picked out of a hat that contains 3 girls’ names and
7 boys’ names.
a. Construct a tree diagram to display the sample space.
b. Calculate the probability of:
i. rolling a 3, then choosing a boy’s name
ii. choosing a boy’s name after rolling an odd number.
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Draw 3 branches from the starting a.
point to show the 3 possible
Die Name Outcomes
outcomes of rolling a three-sided
die (shown in blue), and then draw 3 G 1G
–
2 branches off each of these to show 10
1
the 2 possible outcomes of choosing 7
–
a name out of a hat (shown in red). 1– 10 B 1B
3
2. Write probabilities on the branches to
show the individual probabilities of 3 G 2G
–
rolling a 1, 2 or 3 on a three-sided die. 1–
2
10
As these are equally likely outcomes, 3 7
–
1 10 B 2B
Pr(1) = Pr(2) = Pr(3) = .
3 1–
3. Write probabilities on the branches to 3 3 G 3G
–
show the individual probabilities of 10
3
choosing a name. Since there are 3 girls’ –
7
names and 7 boys’ names in the hat, 10 B 3B
3 7
Pr(G) = and Pr(B) = .
10 10

b. i. 1. Follow
[ the ]pathway of rolling a 3 b. i. Pr(3B) = Pr(3) × Pr(B)
1
Pr(3) = and choosing a boy’s 1 7
[ 3 ] = ×
7 3 10
name Pr(B) = , and multiply 7
10 =
the probabilities. 30
2. Write the answer. The probability of rolling a 3,

7
then choosing a boy’s name is .
30
ii. 1. To roll an odd number (1 or 3) then ii. Pr(odd B) = Pr(1B) + Pr(3B)
choose a boy’s name:
• roll a 1, then choose a boy’s name or = Pr(1) × Pr(B) + Pr(3) × Pr(B)
• roll a 3, then choose a boy’s name.
1 7 1 7
Calculate the probability of each of = × + ×
3 10 3 10
these and add them together to calculate
7 7
the total probability. Simplify the result = +
if possible. 30 30
14
=
30
7
=
15
2. Write the answer. The probability of choosing a boy’s name after

7
rolling an odd number is .
15
11.3.2 Three-step chance experiments

eles-4925
• Outcomes are often made up of combinations of events. For
example, when a coin is flipped three times, three of the
possible outcomes are HHT, HTH and THH. These outcomes
all contain 2 Heads and 1 Tail.
• The probability of an outcome with a particular order is written
such that the order required is shown. For example, Pr(HHT) is
the probability of H on the first coin, H on the second coin and
T on the third coin.
• The probability of an outcome with a particular combination of
events in which the order is not important is written describing
the particular combination required. For example, Pr(2 Heads
and 1 Tail).

WORKED EXAMPLE 11 Using a tree diagram for a three-step chance experiment
A coin is biased so that the chance of it falling as a Head when flipped is 0.75.
a. Construct a tree diagram to represent the coin being flipped three times.
b. Calculate the following probabilities, correct to 3 decimal places:
i. Pr(HTT)
ii. Pr(1H and 2T)
iii. Pr(at least 2 Tails).
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Tossing a coin has a.
1st 2nd 3rd Outcomes
two outcomes. Draw toss toss toss
2 branches from the
starting point to show H HHH
0.75
the first toss, 2 branches H
0.25
off each of these to show 0.75 T HHT
the second toss and then H
2 branches off each of 0.25 H HTH
0.75
these to show the third 0.75 T
0.25
toss. T HTT
2. Write probabilities on
the branches to show the H THH
0.75
individual probabilities of 0.25 H
tossing a Head (0.75) and 0.25
0.75 T THT
a Tail. Because tossing a T
Head and tossing a Tail 0.25 H TTH
0.75
are mutually exclusive,
T
Pr(T) = 1 − Pr(H) = 0.25. 0.25
T TTT
b. i. 1. Pr(HTT) implies the b. i. Pr(HTT) = Pr(H) × Pr(T) × Pr(T)

order: H(0.75), = (0.75) × (0.25)2
T (0.25), T (0.25). = 0.046875
2. Multiply the ≈ 0.047
probabilities and
round.
ii. 1. Pr(1H and 2T) ii. Pr(1H and 2T) = Pr(HTT) + Pr(THT) + Pr(TTH)
implies: Pr(HTT), = 3(0.75 × 0.252 )
Pr(THT), Pr(TTH). = 0.140625
2. Multiply the
≈ 0.141
probabilities and
round.
iii. 1. Pr(at least 2 Tails) iii. Pr(at least 2T) = Pr(HTT) + Pr(THT) + Pr(TTH) + Pr(TTT)
implies: Pr(HTT), = 3(0.75 × 0.252 ) + 0.253
Pr(THT), Pr(TTH) = 0.15625
and Pr(TTT). ≈ 0.156
2. Add these
probabilities and
round.


a. i. a. i. a. i. a. i.
In a new document, on On the Main screen, to
a Calculator page, to calculate the probability
calculate the probability of an exact number of
of an exact number of successes from a set
successes from a set number of trials tap:
number of trials press: • Interactive
• MENU • Distribution/Inv. Dist
• 5: Probability • Discrete
• 5: Distributions • binomialPDF
• A: BinomialPdf Enter the values:
Enter the values: • X: 1
• Num Trials, n: 3 • Numtrial: 3
• Prob Success, p: 0.75 • pos: 0.75
• X Value: 1 Then tap OK.
Then tap OK.
Pr(1H and 2T) = 0.141 (correct to

3 decimal places)
Pr(1H and 2T) = 0.141

(correct to 3 decimal places)
ii. ii. ii. ii.
In a new document, on On the Main screen, to
a Calculator page, to calculate the probability
calculate the probability of at least x successes
of at least x successes from from a set number of
a set number of trials press: trials tap:
• MENU • Interactive
• 5: Probability • Distribution/Inv. Dist
• 5: Distributions • Discrete
• B: BinomialCdf • binomialCDF
Enter the values: Enter the values:
• Num Trials, n: 3 • Lower: 2
• Prob Success, p: 0.25 • Upper: 3
• Lower Bound: 2 • Numtrial: 3
• Upper Bound: 3 • pos: 0.25
Then tap OK. Then tap OK.
Note: In situations Note: In situations
with repeated trials of with repeated trials of
independent events, independent events,
such as flipping a coin, such as flipping a coin,
Pr(at least 2T) = 0.156 (correct to
it becomes unfeasible to it becomes unfeasible to
3 decimal places)
draw a tree diagram when draw a tree diagram when
the number of trials is 4 the number of trials is 4
or more. BinomicalPdf or more. BinomicalPDF
and BinomialCdf are very and BinomialCDF are
helpful in these cases. very helpful in these
cases.
Pr(at least 2T) = 0.156

Resources
Resourceseses
Digital document SkillSHEET Multiplying fractions for calculating probabilities (doc-5290)
Video eLesson Tree diagrams (eles-1894)
Interactivities Individual pathway interactivity: Tree diagrams (int-4617)
Tree diagrams (int-6171)
Exercise 11.3 Tree diagrams

Individual pathways
1, 2, 6, 9, 12 3, 5, 7, 10, 13 4, 8, 11, 14
Fluency
1. Explain how a tree diagram can be used to calculate 1 Fish
–
probabilities of events that are not equally likely. 10
1–
Blue Donkey
2. Use this tree diagram to answer the following questions. 5
–7
a. Identify how many different outcomes there are. 10 Elephant
1
b. Explain whether all outcomes are equally likely. – 1 Fish
4 –
c. State whether getting a red fish is more, less or equally 10
1–
likely than getting a green elephant. Red Donkey
5
3
d. Determine the most likely outcome. – 7
20 –
10 Elephant
e. Calculate the following probabilities.
1 Fish
1 –
i. Pr(blue elephant) – 10
10
1–
ii. Pr(indigo elephant) Green Donkey
5
iii. Pr(donkey) 1 7
– –
2 10 Elephant
3. a. Copy the tree diagram shown here and complete the
Fish
labelling for tossing a biased coin three times when the –1
10
chance of tossing one Head in one toss is 0.7. 1–
Indigo Donkey
5
1st 2nd 3rd Outcome P(outcome) –7
toss toss toss 10 Elephant
H
H
T
H
H
T
T
H
H
T
T
H
T
T

b. Calculate the probability of tossing three Heads.

c. Determine the probability of getting at least one Tail.
d. Calculate the probability of getting exactly two Tails.
4. The questions below relate to rolling a fair die.

a. Calculate the probability of each of the following outcomes from one roll of a die.
i. Pr(rolling number < 4)

ii. Pr(rolling a 4)
iii. Pr(rolling a number other than a 6) 1st roll 2nd roll
6
b. The tree diagram shown has been condensed to depict rolling a die twice, <4
noting the number relative to 4 on the first roll and 6 on the second. Complete a 6′
labelled tree diagram, showing probabilities on the branches and all outcomes,
similar to that shown. 6
c. Determine the probability of rolling the following with 2 rolls of the die. 4
6′
i. Pr(a 4 then a 6)
ii. Pr(a number less than 4 then a 6) 6
iii. Pr(a 4 then 6′) >4
iv. Pr(a number > 4 and then a number < 6) 6′
5. WE10 The spinner shown at right is divided into 3 equal-sized wedges labelled 1, 2 and 3. It
is spun three times, and it is noted whether the spinner lands on a prime number,
Pr = {2, 3} = ‘prime’, or not a prime number, Pr′ = {1} = ‘not prime’. 3 1
a. Construct a labelled tree diagram for 3 spins of the spinner, showing probabilities on the
branches and all possible outcomes. 2
b. Calculate the following probabilities.
i. Pr(3 prime numbers) ii. Pr(PPP′ in this order)
iii. Pr(PPP′ in any order)
Understanding
6. WE11 A coin is biased so that the chance of it falling as a Tail when tossed is 0.2.
a. Construct a tree diagram to represent the coin being tossed 3 times.
b. Determine the probability of getting the same outcome on each toss.
7. A die is tossed twice and each time it is recorded whether or not the number is a multiple of 3.
If M = the event of getting a multiple of 3 on any one toss and M′ = the event of not getting a multiple of 3
on any one toss:
a. construct a tree diagram to represent the 2 tosses
b. calculate the probability of getting two multiples of 3.
8. The biased spinner illustrated is spun three times.

a. Construct a completely labelled tree diagram for 3 spins of the spinner, showing 1 2
probabilities on the branches and all possible outcomes and associated probabilities.
b. Calculate the probability of getting exactly two 1s. 3 1
c. Calculate the probability of getting at most two 1s.
Reasoning
9. Each morning when Ahmed gets dressed for work he has the following choices:
• three suits that are grey, blue and white
• four shirts that are white, blue, pink and grey
• two ties that are grey and blue.

a. Construct a fully labelled tree diagram showing all possible clothing choices.
b. Calculate the probability of picking a grey suit, a pink shirt and a blue tie.
c. Calculate the probability of picking the same colour for all three options.
d. Ahmed works five days a week for 48 weeks of the year. Determine how many times each
combination would get repeated over the course of one year at work.
e. Determine how many more combinations of clothing he would have if he bought another tie and
another shirt.
10. A restaurant offers its customers a three-course dinner, where
they choose between two entrées, three main meals and two
desserts. The managers find that 30% choose soup and 70%
choose prawn cocktail for the entrée; 20% choose vegetarian,
50% chicken, and the rest have beef for their main meal;
and 75% have sticky date pudding while the rest have apple
crumble for dessert.
a. Construct a fully labelled tree diagram showing all
possible choices.
b. Determine the probability that a customer will choose the
soup, chicken and sticky date pudding.
c. If there are 210 people booked for the following week at the
restaurant, determine how many you would expect to have
the meal combination referred to in part b.
11. A bag contains 7 red and 3 white balls. A ball is taken at random, its colour noted and it is then placed back
in the bag before a second ball is chosen at random and its colour noted.
a. Show the possible outcomes with a fully labelled tree diagram.
i.
As the first ball was chosen, determine how many balls were in the bag.
ii.
As the second ball was chosen, determine how many balls were in the bag.
iii.
Explain whether the probability of choosing a red or white ball changes from the first selection to
iv.
the second.
v. Calculate the probability of choosing a red ball twice.
b. Suppose that after the first ball had been chosen it was not placed back in the bag.
i. As the second ball is chosen, determine how many balls are in the bag.
ii. Explain if the probability of choosing a red or white ball changes from the first selection to
the second.
iii. Construct a fully labelled tree diagram to show all possible outcomes.
iv. Evaluate the probability of choosing two red balls.
Problem solving
12. An eight-sided die is rolled three times to see whether 5 occurs.
a. Construct a tree diagram to show the sample space.
b. Calculate:
i. Pr(three 5s) ii. Pr(no 5s)

iii. Pr(two 5s) iv. Pr(at least two 5s).
13. A tetrahedral die (four faces labelled 1, 2, 3 and 4) is rolled and a coin is tossed simultaneously.
a. Show all the outcomes on a two-way table.
b. Construct a tree diagram and list all outcomes and their respective probabilities.
c. Determine the probability of getting a Head on the coin and an even number on the die.

14. A biased coin that has an 80% chance of getting a Head is flipped four times. Use a tree diagram to answer to
the following.
a. Calculate the probability of getting 4 Heads.
b. Determine the probability of getting 2 Heads then 2 Tails in that order.
c. Calculate the probability of getting 2 Heads and 2 Tails in any order.
d. Determine the probability of getting more Tails than Heads.
11.4 Independent and dependent events

LEARNING INTENTION
• determine whether two events are independent or dependent
• calculate the probability of outcomes from two-step chance experiments involving independent and
dependent events.
11.4.1 Independent events

eles-4926
• Independent events are events that have no effect on each other. The outcome of the first event does not
influence the outcome of the second.
• An example of independent events are successive coin tosses. The outcome of the first toss has no effect on
the second coin toss. Similarly, the outcome of the roll on a die will not affect the outcome of the next roll.
• If events A and B are independent, then the Multiplication Law of probability states that:
Pr(A and B) = Pr(A) × Pr(B) or Pr(A ∩ B) = Pr(A) × Pr(B)
• The reverse is also true. If:
Pr(A and B) = Pr(A) × Pr(B) or Pr(A ∩ B) = Pr(A) × Pr(B)
then event A and event B are independent events.
Independent events
For independent events A and B:
Pr(A ∩ B) = Pr(A) × Pr(B)
WORKED EXAMPLE 12 Determining whether events are independent or dependent
Adam is one of the 10 young golfers to represent his state. Paz is one of the 12 netball players to
represent her state. All the players in their respective teams have an equal chance of being nominated
as captains.
a. Explain whether the events ‘Adam is nominated as captain’ and ‘Paz is nominated as captain’
are independent.
b. Calculate:
i. Pr(Adam is nominated as captain)
ii. Pr(Paz is nominated as captain).
c. Determine the probability that both Adam and Paz are nominated as captains of their
respective teams.

THINK WRITE
a. Determine whether the given a. Adam’s nomination has nothing to do with Paz’s nomination
events are independent and write and vice versa. Therefore, the events are independent.
your answer.
b. i. 1. Determine the probability of b. i. Pr(Adam is nominated) = Pr(A)

Adam being nominated as n(Adam is nominated)
captain. He is one of 10 players. =
n(𝜉)
1
Pr(Adam is nominated) =
10
1
2. Write your answer. The probability that Adam is nominated as captain is .
10
ii. 1. Determine the probability of Paz ii. Pr(Paz is nominated) = Pr(P)
being nominated as captain. She n(Paz is nominated)
is one of 12 players. =
n(𝜉)
1
Pr(Paz is nominated) =
12
1
2. Write your answer. The probability that Paz is nominated as captain is .
12
c. 1. Write the Multiplication Law of c. Pr(A and P)
probability for independent events. = Pr(A ∩ P)
= Pr(A) × Pr(P)
Pr(Adam and Paz are nominated)
= Pr(Adam is nominated) × Pr(Paz is nominated)
1 1
2. Substitute the known values into = ×
the rule. 10 12
1
3. Evaluate. =
120
4. Write your answer. The probability that both Adam and Paz are nominated
1
as captains is .
120
11.4.2 Dependent events

eles-4927
• Dependent events are events where the outcome of one event affects the outcome of the other event.
• An example of dependent events is drawing a card from a deck of playing cards. The probability that the
13 1
first card drawn is a heart, Pr(hearts), is(or ). If this card is a heart and is not replaced, then this will
52 4
12
affect the probability of subsequent draws. The probability that the second card drawn is a heart will be ,
51
39
while the probability that the second card is not a heart will be .
51
• If two events are dependent, then the probability of occurrence of one event affects that of the
subsequent event.

WORKED EXAMPLE 13 Calculating the probability of outcomes of dependent events
A bag contains 5 blue, 6 green and 4 yellow marbles. The marbles are identical in all respects except
their colours. Two marbles are picked in succession without replacement. Calculate the probability of
picking 2 blue marbles.
THINK WRITE
n(B)
1. Determine the probability of picking the first Pr(picking a blue marble) =
blue marble. n(𝜉)
5
Pr(picking a blue marble) =
15
1
=
3
n(B)
2. Determine the probability of picking the Pr(picking second blue marble) =
second blue marble. n(𝜉)
Note: The two events are dependent since 4
Pr(picking second blue marble) =
marbles are not being replaced. Since we have 14
picked a blue marble this leaves 4 blue marbles 2
=
remaining out of a total of 14 marbles. 7
3. Calculate the probability of obtaining Pr(2 blue marbles) = Pr(1st blue) × Pr(2nd blue)
2 blue marbles.
1 2
= ×
3 7
2
=
21
2
4. Write your answer. The probability of obtaining 2 blue marbles is .
21
Note: Alternatively, a tree diagram could be 4
– Blue
used to solve this question. 14
The probability of selecting 2 blue marbles –
5 Blue
successively can be read directly from the first 15 10
– Not blue
branch of the tree diagram. 14
5
– Blue
14
10
– Not blue
15
9 Not blue
–
14
5 4
Pr(2 blue marbles) = ×
15 14
1 2
= ×
3 7
2
=
21

Resources
Resourceseses
eWorkbook Toipc 11 Workbook (code puzzle and project) (ewbk-2037)
Interactivities Individual pathway interactivity: Independent and dependent events (int-4618)
Independent and dependent events (int-2787)
Multiplication Law of probability (int-6172)
Dependent events (int-6173)
Exercise 11.4 Independent and dependent events

Individual pathways
1, 4, 8, 11, 14, 16, 20 2, 5, 9, 12, 15, 17, 21 3, 6, 7, 10, 13, 18, 19, 22
Fluency
1. If A and B are independent events and Pr(A) = 0.7 and Pr(B) = 0.4, calculate:
a. Pr(A and B) b. Pr(A′ and B) where A′ is the complement of A
c. Pr(A and B′) where B′ is the complement of B d. Pr(A′ and B′).
2. Determine whether two events A and B with Pr(A) = 0.6, Pr(B′ ) = 0.84 and Pr(A ∩ B) = 0.96 are independent
or dependent.
3. Determine whether two events A and B with Pr(A) = 0.25, Pr(B) = 0.72 and Pr(A ∪ B) = 0.79 are independent
or dependent.
Understanding
4. WE12 A die is rolled and a coin is tossed.
a. Explain whether the outcomes are independent.
b. Calculate:
i. Pr(Head) on the coin ii. Pr(6) on the die.
c. Calculate Pr(6 on the die and Head on the coin).
5. A tetrahedron (4-faced) die and a 10-sided die are rolled simultaneously. Calculate the probability of getting
a 3 on the tetrahedral die and an 8 on the 10-sided die.
6. A blue die and a green die are rolled. Calculate the probability of getting a 5 on the blue die and not a 5 on
the green die.
7. Dean is an archer. The experimental probability that Dean will hit
4
the target is .
5
a. Calculate the probability that Dean will hit the target on two
successive attempts.
b. Calculate the probability that Dean will hit the target on three
c. Calculate the probability that Dean will not hit the target on two
d. Calculate the probability that Dean will hit the target on the first
attempt but miss on the second attempt.

8. MC A bag contains 20 apples, of which 5 are bruised. Peter picks an apple

and realises that it is bruised. He puts the apple back in the bag and picks
another one.
a. The probability that Peter picks 2 bruised apples is:
1 1 1 3 15
A. B. C. D. E.
4 2 16 4 16
b. The probability that Peter picks a bruised apple first but a good one on his
second attempt is:
1 1 3 3 1
A. B. C. D. E.
4 2 4 16 16
1
9. The probability that John will be late for a meeting is and the probability that Phil will be late for a
7
3
meeting is . Calculate the probability that:
11
a. John and Phil are both late
b. neither of them is late
c. John is late but Phil is not late
d. Phil is late but John is not late.
10. On the roulette wheel at the casino there are 37 numbers,
0 to 36 inclusive. Bidesi puts his chip on number 8 in
game 20 and on number 13 in game 21.
a. Calculate the probability that he will win in game 20.
b. Calculate the probability that he will win in both
games.
c. Calculate the probability that he wins at least one of
the games.
11. Based on her progress through the year, Karen was given
a probability of 0.8 of passing the Physics exam. If the
probability of passing both Maths and Physics is 0.72,
determine her probability of passing the Maths exam.
12. Suresh found that, on average, he is delayed 2 times out of
7 at Melbourne airport. Rakesh made similar observations
at Brisbane airport, but found he was delayed 1 out of
every 4 times. Determine the probability that both Suresh
and Rakesh will be delayed if they are flying out of their
respective airports.

13. Bronwyn has 3 pairs of Reebok and 2 pairs of Adidas

running shoes. She has 2 pairs of Reebok, 3 pairs of Rio
and a pair of Red Robin socks. Preparing for an early
morning run, she grabs at random for a pair of socks and a
pair of shoes. Calculate the probability that she chooses:
a. Reebok shoes and Reebok socks
b. Rio socks and Adidas shoes
c. Reebok shoes and Red Robin socks
d. Adidas shoes and socks that are not Red Robin.
14. WE13 Two cards are drawn successively and without replacement from a pack of playing cards. Calculate
the probability of drawing:
a. 2 hearts
b. 2 kings
c. 2 red cards.
15. In a class of 30 students there are 17 students who study Music. Two students are picked randomly to
represent the class in the Student Representative Council. Calculate the probability that:
a. both students don’t study Music
b. both students do study Music
c. one of the students doesn’t study Music.
Reasoning
16. Greg has tossed a Tail on each of 9 successive coin tosses. He believes that his chances of tossing a Head on
his next toss must be very high. Explain whether Greg is correct.
17. The Multiplication Law of probability relates to independent events. Tree diagrams can illustrate the sample
space of successive dependent events and the probability of any one combination of events can be calculated
by multiplying the stated probabilities along the branches. Explain whether this a contradiction to the
Multiplication Law of probability.
18. Explain whether it is possible for two events, A and B, to be mutually exclusive and independent.
19. Consider the following sets:

𝜉 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20}
A = {evens in ξ}
B = {multiples of 3 in ξ}
a. Explain whether the events A and B are independent.

b. If 𝜉 is changed to the integers from 1 to 10 only, explain whether the result from part a changes.
Problem solving
20. There are three coins in a box. One coin is a fair coin, one coin is biased with an 80% chance of landing
Heads, and the third is a biased coin with a 40% chance of landing Heads. A coin is selected at random
and flipped.
If the result is a Head, determine the probability that the fair coin was selected.

21. A game at a carnival requires blindfolded contestants to throw

balls at numbered ducks sitting on 3 shelves. The game ends 1 2 3 1 3
when 3 ducks have been knocked off the shelves. Assume that
the probability of hitting each duck is equal.
1 1 2 1 3
a. Explain whether the events described in the game are
dependent or independent.
b. Determine the initial probabilities of hitting each number. 2 2 1 1 2
c. Draw a labelled tree diagram to show the possible outcomes
for a contestant.
d. Calculate the probabilities of hitting the following:
i. Pr(1, 1, 1) ii. Pr(2, 2, 2) iii. Pr(3, 3, 3) iv. Pr(at least one 3).
22. Question 21 described a game at a carnival. A contestant pays $3 to play and must make 3 direct hits to be
eligible for a prize. The numbers on the ducks hit are then summed and the contestant wins a prize according
to the winners’ table.
Winners’ table
Total score Prize
9 Major prize ($30 value)
7–8 Minor prize ($10 value)
5–6 $2 prize
3–4 No prize
a. Determine the probability of winning each prize listed.

b. Suppose 1000 games are played on an average show day. Evaluate the profit that could be expected to be
made by the sideshow owner on any average show day.
11.5 Conditional probability

LEARNING INTENTION
• determine from the language in a question whether it involves conditional probability
• use the rule for conditional probability to calculate other probabilities.
11.5.1 Recognising conditional probability

eles-4928
• Conditional probability is when the probability of an event is conditional (depends) on another event
occurring first.
• The effect of conditional probability is to reduce the sample space and thus increase the probability of the
desired outcome.
• For two events, A and B, the conditional probability of event B, given that event A occurs, is denoted by
Pr(B|A) and can be calculated using the following formula.
Probability of B given A
Pr(A ∩ B)
Pr(B|A) = , Pr(A) ≠ 0
Pr(A)

• Conditional probability can be expressed using a variety of language. Some examples of conditional
probability statements follow. The key words to look for in a conditional probability statement have been
highlighted in each instance.
• If a student receives a B+ or better in their first Maths test, then the chance of them receiving a B+ or
better in their second Maths test is 75%.
• Given that a red marble was picked out of the bag with the first pick, the probability of a blue marble
being picked out with the second pick is 0.35.
• Knowing that the favourite food of a student is hot chips, the probability of their favourite condiment
being tomato sauce is 68%.
WORKED EXAMPLE 14 Using a Venn diagram to find conditional probabilities
A group of students was asked whether they like spaghetti (S) or lasagne
ξ
(L). The results are illustrated in the Venn diagram shown. Use the Venn S L
diagram to calculate the following probabilities relating to a student’s
preferred food. 11 9 15
a. Calculate the probability that a randomly selected student
likes spaghetti. 5
b. Determine the probability that a randomly selected student likes
lasagne given that they also like spaghetti.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a. 1. Determine how many students were surveyed a. Total number of students = 11 + 9 + 15 + 5 = 40
to identify the total number of possible
ξ
outcomes. Add each of the numbers shown S L
on the Venn diagram.
11 9 15
2. There are 20 students that like ‘spaghetti’ or
‘spaghetti and lasagne’, as shown in pink. 5
3. The probability that a randomly selected

student likes spaghetti is found by number of favourable outcomes
Pr(event) =
substituting these values into the probability total number of possible outcomes
formula. 20
Pr(spaghetti) =
40
1
=
2
b. 1. The condition imposed ‘given they also like b.
ξ
spaghetti’ alters the sample space to the S L
20 students described in part a, as shaded in
11 9 15
blue. Of these 20 students, 9 stated that they
liked lasagne and spaghetti, as shown in pink.
5
Pr(A ∩ B)
2. The probability that a randomly selected Pr(B|A) =
student likes lasagne, given that they like Pr(A)
9
spaghetti, is found by substituting these 40
Pr(L|S) =
values into the probability formula for 1
2
conditional probability.
9
=
20

WORKED EXAMPLE 15 Using the rule for conditional probability
If Pr(A) = 0.3, Pr(B) = 0.5 and Pr(A ∪ B) = 0.6, calculate:

a. Pr(A ∩ B) b. Pr(B| A)
THINK WRITE
a. 1. State the Addition Law for probability to a. Pr(A ∪ B) = Pr(A) + Pr(B) − Pr(A ∩ B)
determine Pr(A ∪ B).
2. Substitute the values given in the question 0.6 = 0.3 + 0.5 − Pr(A ∩ B)
into this formula and simplify. Pr(A ∩ B) = 0.3 + 0.5 − 0.6
= 0.2
Pr(A ∩ B)
b. 1. State the formula for conditional probability. b. Pr(B|A) = , Pr(A) ≠ 0
Pr(A)
0.2
2. Substitute the values given in the question Pr(B|A) =
into this formula and simplify. 0.3
2
=
3
• It is possible to transpose the formula for conditional probability to calculate Pr(A ∩ B):
Pr(A ∩ B)
Pr(B|A) = , Pr(A) ≠ 0
Pr(A)
Pr(A ∩ B) = Pr(A) × Pr(B|A)
Resources
Resourceseses
Video eLesson Conditional probability (eles-1928)
Interactivities Individual pathway interactivity: Conditional probability (int-4619)
Conditional probability (int-6085)
Exercise 11.5 Conditional probability

Individual pathways
1, 3, 5, 9, 12, 15 2, 6, 10, 13, 16 4, 7, 8, 11, 14, 17
Fluency
1. WE14 A group of students was asked whether they liked the following forms ξ
of dance: hip hop (H) or jazz (J). The results are illustrated in the Venn H J
diagram. Use the Venn diagram to calculate the following probabilities relating
35 12 29
to a student’s favourite form of dance.
a. Calculate the probability that a randomly selected student likes jazz.
14
b. Determine the probability that a randomly selected student likes hip hop,
given that they like jazz.

2. A group of students was asked which seats they liked: the seats in the computer
ξ
lab or the science lab. The results are illustrated in the Venn diagram. Use C S
the Venn diagram to calculate the following probabilities relating to the most
comfortable seats. 15 8 5
a. Calculate the probability that a randomly selected student likes the seats in
2
the science lab.
b. Determine the probability that a randomly selected student likes the seats
in the science lab, given that they like the seats in the computer lab or the
science lab.
3. WE15 If Pr(A) = 0.7, Pr(B) = 0.5 and Pr(A ∪ B) = 0.9, calculate:

a. Pr(A ∩ B) b. Pr(B|A).
4. If Pr(A) = 0.65, Pr(B) = 0.75 and Pr(A ∩ B) = 0.45, calculate:

a. Pr(B|A) b. Pr(A|B).
Understanding
5. A medical degree requires applicants to participate in two tests: an aptitude test and an emotional maturity
test. This year 52% passed the aptitude test and 30% passed both tests. Use the conditional probability
formula to calculate the probability that a student who passed the aptitude test also passed the emotional
maturity test.
6. At a school classified as a ‘Music school for
excellence’, the probability that a student
elects to study Music and Physics is 0.2. The
probability that a student takes Music is 0.92.
Determine the probability that a student takes
Physics, given that the student is taking Music.
7. The probability that a student is well and misses
a work shift the night before an exam is 0.045,
and the probability that a student misses a work
shift is 0.05. Determine the probability that a
student is well, given they miss a work shift the
night before an exam.
8. Two marbles are chosen, without replacement, from

a jar containing only red and green marbles. The
probability of selecting a green marble and then a red
marble is 0.67. The probability of selecting a green
marble on the first draw is 0.8.
Determine the probability of selecting a red marble on
the second draw, given the first marble drawn
was green.

9. Consider rolling a red and a black die and the probabilities of the following events:
Event A the red die lands on 5

Event B the black die lands on 2
Event C the sum of the dice is 10
a. The initial probability of each event described is:

MC
1 5 5 1 1
A. Pr(A) = B. Pr(A) = C. Pr(A) = D. Pr(A) = E. Pr(A) =
6 6 6 6 6
1 2 2 1 2
Pr(B) = Pr(B) = Pr(B) = Pr(B) = Pr(B) =
6 6 6 6 6
1 7 5 1 1
Pr(C) = Pr(C) = Pr(C) = Pr(C) = Pr(C) =
6 36 18 12 12
b. Calculate the following probabilities.
i. Pr(A|B) ii. Pr(B|A) iii. Pr(C|A) iv. Pr(C|B)
10. MC A group of 80 schoolgirls consists of 54 dancers and 35 singers. Each member of the group is either
a dancer, a singer, or both. The probability that a randomly selected student is a singer given that she is a
dancer is:
A. 0.17 B. 0.44 C. 0.68 D. 0.11 E. 0.78
11. The following is the blood pressure data from 232 adult patients admitted to a hospital over a week. The
results are displayed in a two-way frequency table.
Blood pressure
Age Total
Low Medium High
Under 60 years 92 44 10 146
60 years or above 17 46 23 86
Total 109 90 33 232
a. Calculate the probability that a randomly chosen patient has low blood pressure.
b. Determine the probability that a randomly chosen patient is under 60 years of age.
c. Calculate the probability that a randomly chosen patient has high blood pressure, given they are aged 60
years or above.
d. Determine the probability that a randomly chosen patient is under the age of 60, given they have medium
blood pressure.
Reasoning
12. Explain how imposing a condition alters probability calculations.
13. At a school, 65% of the students are male and 35% are female. Of
the male students, 10% report that dancing is their favourite activity;
of the female students, 25% report that dancing is their favourite
activity.
Determine the probability that:
a. a student selected at random prefers dancing and is female
b. a student selected at random prefers dancing and is male.
c. Construct a tree diagram to present the information given, and
use it to calculate:
i. the probability that a student is male and does not prefer
dancing
ii. the overall percentage of students who prefer dancing.

14. Consider the following sets of numbers.
𝜉 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20}
A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}
B = {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19}
a. Calculate the following:
i. Pr(A)
ii. Pr(B)
iii. Pr(A ∩ B)
iv. Pr(A|B)
v. Pr(B|A)
b. Explain whether the events A and B are independent.
c. Write a statement that connects Pr(A), Pr(A ∩ B), Pr(A|B) and independent events.
Problem solving
15. The rapid test used to determine whether a person is infected with COVID-19 is not perfect. For one type of
rapid test, the probability of a person with the disease returning a positive result is 0.98, while the probability
of a person without the disease returning a positive result is 0.04.
At its peak in a certain country, the probability that a randomly selected person has COVID-19 is 0.05.
Determine the probability that a randomly selected person will return a positive result.
16. Two marbles are chosen, without replacement, from a jar containing only red and
green marbles. The probability of selecting a green marble and then a red marble is
0.72. The probability of selecting a green marble on the first draw is 0.85.
Determine the probability of selecting a red marble on the second draw if the first
marble drawn was green.
17. When walking home from school during the summer months, Harold buys either
an ice-cream or a drink from the corner shop. If Harold bought an ice-cream the
previous day, there is a 30% chance that he will buy a drink the next day.
If he bought a drink the previous day, there is a 40% chance that he will buy an ice-
cream the next day. On Monday, Harold bought an ice-cream.
Determine the probability that he buys an ice-cream on Wednesday.

11.6 Review
Review of probability Independent, dependent events and

conditional probability
• The sample space is the set of all possible outcomes. It is
denoted ξ. For example, the sample space of rolling a die is: • Two events are independent if the outcome of one
ξ = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}. event does not affect the outcome of the other event.
• An event is a set of favourable outcomes. For example, if A is • If A and B are independent then:
the event {rolling an even number on a die}, A = {2, 4, 6}. Pr(A∩B) = Pr(A) × Pr(B)
• The probability of an outcome or event is always between 0 and 1. • Two events are dependent if the outcome of one
• The sum of all probabilities in a sample space is 1. event affects the outcome of the other event.
• An event that is certain has a probability of 1. • Conditional probability applies to dependent events.
• An event that is impossible has a probability of 0. • The probability of A given that B has already
• When all outcomes are equally likely the theoretical probability occurred is given by:
of an event is given by the following formula: Pr(A∩B)
Pr(A | B) = –
number of favourable outcomes n(E) Pr(B)
Pr(event) = – = – • This can be rearranged into:
total number of outcomes n(ξ)
Pr(A∩B) = Pr(A | B) × Pr(B)
• The experimental probability is given by the following formula:
n(Successful trials)
Experimental Pr = –
n(trials) Mutually exclusive events
• The complement of an event A is denoted A' and is the set of
outcomes that are not in A. • Mutually exclusive events have no elements
• n(A) + n(A') = n(ξ) in common.
• Pr(A) + Pr(A') = 1 • Venn diagrams show mutually exclusive events
having no intersection. In the Venn diagram below
A and B are mutually exclusive.
PROBABILITY ξ
A B
Intersection and union

• The intersection of A B
ξ
two events A and B is
• For mutually exclusive events A and B:
written A∩B. These are
• Pr(A∩B) = 0
the outcomes that are in
A∩B • Pr(A∪B) = Pr(A) + Pr(B)
A ‘and’ in B.
Multiple-step chance experiments

• The union of two events ξ A B • Some chance experiments involve multiple trials
A and B is written A∪B. performed separately.
These are the outcomes • Two-way tables can be used to
that are in A ‘or’ in B. Coin 1
show the sample space of
two-step experiments. H T
• Tree diagrams can be used
Coin 2
to show the sample space H HH TH

A∪B and probabilities of
T HT TT
• A Venn diagram can multi-step experiments.
be split into four distinct ξ
A B
sections as shown First selection Second selection Sample space
at right. A ∩ B' A ∩ B A'∩ B R BR
B G BG
Y BY
A'∩ B' R WR
• The Addition Law of probability states that: W G WG
Pr(A∪B) = Pr(A) + Pr(B) – Pr(A∩B) Y WY


11.2 I can use key probability terminology such as: trials, frequency, sample
space, likely and unlikely events.
I can use two-way tables to represent sample spaces.
I can calculate experimental and theoretical probabilities.
I can determine the probability of complimentary events and mutually

exclusive events.
I can use the addition rule to calculate the probability of event ‘A or B’.
11.3 I can create a tree diagrams to represent two- and three-step chance
experiments.
I can use a tree diagram to solve probability problems involving two or
more trials or events.
11.4 I can determine whether two events are dependent or independent.
I can calculate the probability of outcomes from two-step chance

experiments involving independent or dependent events.
11.5 I can determine from the language in a question whether it involves
conditional probability.
I can use the rule for conditional probability to calculate other probabilities.
11.6.3 Project
Tricky dice
Dice games have been played throughout the world for many years.
Professional gamblers resort to all types of devious measures in order to win.
Often the other players are unaware of the tricks employed.
Imagine you are playing a game that involves rolling two dice. Instead of
having each die marked with the numbers 1 to 6, let the first die have only
the numbers 1, 2 and 3 (two of each) and the second die the numbers 4, 5
and 6 (two of each). If you were an observer to this game, you would see the
numbers 1 to 6 occurring and probably not realise that the dice were not the
regular type.

1. Complete the grid below to show the sample space on rolling these two dice.
2. Identify how many different outcomes there are. Compare this with the number of different outcomes
using two regular dice.
Die 1
1 2 3 1 2 3
4
5
6
Die 2
4
5
6
3. Calculate the chance of rolling a double using these dice.

4. The numbers on the two dice are added after rolling. Complete the table below to show the
totals possible.
Die 1
1 2 3 1 2 3
4
5
6
Die 2
4
5
6
5. Identify how many different totals are possible and list them.
6. State which total you have the greatest chance of rolling. State which total you have the least chance
of rolling.
7. If you played a game in which you had to bet on rolling a total of less than 7, equal to 7 or greater than
7, explain which option would you be best to take.
8. If you had to bet on an even-number outcome or an odd-number outcome, explain which would be the
better option.
9. The rules are changed to subtracting the numbers on the two dice instead of adding them. Complete the
following table to show the outcomes possible.
Die 1
1 2 3 1 2 3
4
5
6
Die 2
4
5
6
10. Identify how many different outcomes are possible in this case and list them.
11. State the most frequently occurring outcome and how many times it occurs.
12. Devise a game of your own using these dice. On a separate sheet of paper, write out rules for your game
and provide a solution, indicating the best options for winning.

Resources
Resourceseses

Fluency
1. MC Choose which of the following is always true for an event, M, and its complementary event, M′.
A. Pr(M) + Pr(M′) = 1 B. Pr(M) − Pr(M′) = 1 C. Pr(M) + Pr(M′) = 0
D. Pr(M) − Pr(M′) = 0 E. Pr(M) × Pr(M′) = 1
2. MC A number is chosen from the set {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}. Select which of the following pairs
of events is mutually exclusive.
A. {2, 4, 6} and {4, 6, 7, 8} B. {1, 2, 3, 5} and {4, 6, 7, 8}
C. {0, 1, 2, 3} and {3, 4, 5, 6} D. {multiples of 2} and {factors of 8}
E. {even numbers} and {multiples of 3}
3. MC Choose which of the following states the Multiplication Law of probability correctly.
A. Pr(A ∩ B) = Pr(A) + Pr(B) B. Pr(A ∩ B) = Pr(A) × Pr(B) C. Pr(A ∪ B) = Pr(A) × Pr(B)
D. Pr(A ∪ B) = Pr(A) + Pr(B) E. Pr(A) = Pr(A ∪ B) + Pr(B)
4. MC Given 𝜉 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10} and A = {2, 3, 4} and B = {3, 4, 5, 8}, A ∩ B is:

A. {2, 3, 3, 4, 4, 5, 8} B. {3, 4} C. {2, 3, 4}
D. {2, 3, 4, 5, 8} E. {2, 5, 8}
5. MC Given 𝜉 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10} and A = {2, 3, 4} and B = {3, 4, 5, 8}, A ∩ B′ is:

A. {3, 4} B. {2} C. {2, 3, 4, 5, 8} D. {2, 3, 4} E. {1, 2, 6, 7, 9, 10}
6. Shade the region stated for each of the following Venn diagrams.
a. A′ ∪ B b. A′ ∩ B′ c. A′ ∩ B′ ∩ C
A B ξ A B ξ A ξ
B
Problem solving
7. MC From past experience, it is concluded that there is a 99% probability that July will be a wet month
in Launceston (it has an average rainfall of approximately 80 mm). The probability that July will not be
a wet month next year in Launceston is:
1
A. 99% B. 0.99 C. D. 1 E. 0
100

8. MC A card is drawn from a well-shuffled deck of 52 cards. Select the theoretical probability of not
selecting a red card.
3 1 1 1
A. B. C. D. E. 0
4 4 13 2
9. MC Choose which of the following events is not equally likely.

A. Obtaining a 5 or obtaining a 1 when a die is rolled
B. Obtaining a club or obtaining a diamond when a card is drawn from a pack of cards
C. Obtaining 2 Heads or obtaining 2 Tails when a coin is tossed twice
D. Obtaining 2 Heads or obtaining 1 Head when a coin is tossed twice
E. Obtaining a 3 or obtaining a 6 when a die is rolled
10. MC The Australian cricket team has won 12 of the last 15 Test matches. Select the experimental
probability of Australia not winning its next Test match.
4 1 1 3
A. B. C. D. E. 1
5 5 4 4
11. A card is drawn from a well-shuffled pack of 52 cards. Calculate the theoretical probability of drawing:
a. an ace b. a spade c. a queen or a king d. not a heart.
12. A die is rolled five times.

a. Calculate the probability of rolling five 6s. b. Calculate the probability of not rolling five 6s.
13. Alan and Mary own 3 of the 8 dogs in a race. Evaluate the probability that:
a. one of Alan’s or Mary’s dogs will win b. none of Alan’s or Mary’s dogs will win.
14. A die is rolled. Event A is obtaining an even number. Event B is obtaining a 3.

a. Explain if events A and B are mutually exclusive.
b. Calculate Pr(A) and Pr(B).
c. Calculate Pr(A ∪ B).
15. A card is drawn from a shuffled pack of 52 playing cards. Event A is drawing a club and event B is
drawing an ace.
a. Explain if events A and B are mutually exclusive.
b. Calculate Pr(A), Pr(B) and Pr(A ∩ B).
c. Calculate Pr(A ∪ B).
16. A tetrahedral die is numbered 0, 1, 2 and 3. Two of these dice are rolled and the sum of the numbers
(the number on the face that the die sits on) is taken.
a. Show the possible outcomes in a two-way table.
b. Determine if all the outcomes are equally likely.
c. Determine which total has the least chance of being rolled.
d. Determine which total has the best chance of being rolled.
e. Determine which sums have the same chance of being rolled.
17. A bag contains 20 pears, of which 5 are bad. Cathy picks 2 pears (without replacement) from the bag.
Evaluate the probability that:
a. both pears are bad b. both pears are good c. one of the two pears is good.
18. Determine the probability of drawing 2 aces from a pack of cards if:
a. the first card is replaced before the second one is drawn
b. the first card drawn is not replaced.

19. On grandparents day at a school, a group of grandparents was asked where

they most like to take their grandchildren — the beach (B) or shopping B S
(S). The results are illustrated in the Venn diagram. Use the Venn diagram
to calculate the following probabilities relating to the place grandparents 5 8 2
most like to take their grandchildren.
a. Determine the probability that a randomly selected grandparent preferred 10
to take their grandchildren to the beach or shopping.
b. Determine the probability that a randomly selected grandparent liked to take their grandchildren to
the beach, given that they liked to take their grandchildren shopping.
20. When all of Saphron’s team players turn up for their twice weekly netball training the chance that they
then win their Saturday game is 0.65. If not all players are at the training session, then the chance of
winning their Saturday game is 0.40. Over a four-week period, Saphron’s players all turn up for training
three times.
a. Using a tree diagram, with T to represent all players training and W to represent a win, represent the
winning chance of Saphron’s netball team.
b. Using the tree diagram constructed in part a, determine the probability of Saphron’s team winning
their Saturday game. Write your answer correct to 4 decimal places.
c. Determine the exact probability that Saphron’s team did not train given that they won their
Saturday game.
21. Andrew does not know the answer to two questions on a multiple-choice exam. The first question has
four choices and the second question he does not know has five choices.
a. Determine the probability that he will get both questions wrong.
b. If he is certain that one of the choices cannot be the answer in the first question, determine how this
will change the probability that he will get both questions wrong.
22. Mariah the Mathematics teacher wanted to give her students a chance to win a reward at the end of the
term. She placed 20 cards into a box, and wrote the word ON on 16 cards, and OFF on 4 cards. After a
student chooses a card, that card is replaced into the box for the next student to draw. If a student
chooses an OFF card, then they do not have to attend school on a specified day. If they choose an ON
card, then they do not receive a day off.
a. Mick, a student, chose a random card from the box. Calculate the probability he received a day off.
b. Juanita, a student, chose a random card from the box after Mick. Calculate the probability that she
did not receive a day off.
c. Determine the probability that Mick and Juanita both received a day off.
23. In the game of draw poker, a player is dealt 5 cards from a deck of 52. To obtain a flush, all 5 cards
must be of the same suit.
a. Determine the probability of getting a diamond flush.
b. Determine the probability of getting any flush.
24. a. A Year 10 boy is talking with a Year 10 girl and asks her if she has any brothers or sisters. She says,
‘Yes, I have one’. Determine the probability that she has at least one sister.
b. A Year 10 boy is talking with a Year 10 girl and asks her if she has any brothers or sisters. She says,
‘Yes, I have three’. Determine the probability that she has at least one sister.

eWorkbook 11.5 Individual pathway interactivity: Conditional probability

(int-4619) ⃞
Download the workbook for this topic, which includes Conditional probability (int-6085) ⃞
worksheets, a code puzzle and a project (ewbk-2037) ⃞ 11.6 Crossword (int-2857) ⃞
Solutions
Download a copy of the fully worked solutions to every Teacher resources
Digital documents online.
11.2 SkillSHEET Set notation (doc-5286) ⃞

SkillSHEET Simplifying fractions (doc-5287) ⃞
SkillSHEET Determining complementary events
(doc-5288) ⃞
SkillSHEET Addition and subtraction of fractions
(doc-5289) ⃞
SkillSHEET Working with Venn diagrams (doc-5291) ⃞
SkillSHEET Distinguishing between complementary
and mutually exclusive events (doc-5294) ⃞
11.3 SkillSHEET Multiplying fractions for calculating
probabilities (doc-5290) ⃞
Video eLessons
11.2 The language of probability (eles-4922) ⃞
Properties of probability events (eles-4923) ⃞
Venn diagrams (eles-1934) ⃞
11.3 Two-step chance experiments (eles-4924) ⃞
Three-step chance experiments (eles-4925) ⃞
Tree diagrams (eles-1894) ⃞
11.4 Independent events (eles-4926) ⃞
Dependent events (eles-4927) ⃞
11.5 Recognising conditional probability (eles-4928) ⃞
Conditional probability (eles-1928) ⃞
Interactivities
11.2 Individual pathway interactivity: Review of probability
(int-4616) ⃞
Experimental probability (int-3825) ⃞
Two-way tables (int-6082) ⃞
Theoretical probability (int-6081) ⃞
Venn diagrams (int-3828) ⃞
Addition Law of probability (int-6168) ⃞
11.3 Individual pathway interactivity: Tree diagrams
(int-4617) ⃞
Tree diagrams (int-6171) ⃞
11.4 Individual pathway interactivity: Independent and
dependent events (int-4618) ⃞
Independent and dependent events (int-2787) ⃞
Multiplication Law of probability (int-6172) ⃞
Dependent events (int-6173) ⃞

Answers 5. a.
b.
Pr(A ∩ B) = 0.1
Topic 11 Probability A B
Exercise 11.1 Pre-test 0.4 0.1 0.3

1. Pr(A ∩ B) = 0.2
2. Pr(A) = 0.51 0.2
3. Independent ′
c. Pr(A ∩ B ) = 0.4
1
4. 6. a. i. Pr(A ∪ B) = 0.85 ii. Pr(A ∩ B)′ = 0.95
5
b. C
5. C
2
6. E 7.
3
7. A 1 1 4
8. 0.56 8. a. b. c.
13 4 13
9. A 9. Sample responses are given for part ii.
10. False a. i. No. There are many others foods one could have.
11. Pr(B|A) = 0.2 ii. Having Weet Bix and not having Weet Bix
12. A b. i. No. There are other means of transport, for example,
13. A catching a bus.
14. 0.03125 ii. Walking to a friend’s place and not walking to a
15. A friend’s place
c. i. No. There are other possible leisure activities.
Exercise 11.2 Review of probability ii. Watching TV and not watching TV
1. Experimental probability is based on the outcomes of d. i. No. The number 5 can be rolled too.
experiments, simulations or surveys. Theoretical probability ii. Rolling a number less than 5 and rolling a number 5
is based on the number of possible favourable outcomes and or greater
the total possible outcomes. e. i. Yes. There are only two possible outcomes: passing
2. a. {I, II, III, IV, V, VI} or failing.
b. Relative frequency for I = 0.2 ii. No change is required to make these events
Relative frequency for II = 0.12 complementary.
Relative frequency for III = 0.16 10. a.
Relative frequency for IV = 0.14 A B
Relative frequency for V = 0.24 3
5
Relative frequency for VI = 0.14 11 1 20
7 13 4
c. The spinner should be spun a larger number of times. 15 9
16
17
3. a. 500 students 19 14
2 12
b. Frequency for silver = 0.16 6 8 10 18
c. Frequency for black and green = 0.316
10 1 4 1 2 1
d. Blazing Blue b. i. = ii. = iii. =
20 2 20 5 20 10
12 3 8 2
4. a. iv. = v. =
+ 1 2 3 4 5 6 20 5 20 5
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1
11. a. No. For a 6-sided die, Pr(4) = ; for an 8-sided die,
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 6
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1
Pr(4) = .
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 8
5 6 7 8 9 10 11 1
b. Yes; Pr(odd) = for both 6-sided and 8-sided dice
6 7 8 9 10 11 12 2
1 1
12. Yes; Pr(5) = , Pr(6) = .
b. The sum of 7 2 2
c. The sum of 2 or 12 1 1 1 12
13. a. b. c. d.
13 4 2 13
1
e. 0 f.
2

21. a. Die 2 outcomes

1 7 11
14. a. b. c. d. 0
5 20 20 1 2 3 4 5 6
15. a. ξ = 30 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Volleyball Soccer
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Die 1 outcomes
7 1 4
3 4 5 6 7 8 9
5
2 4
4 5 6 7 8 9 10
7
Tennis 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
1 1 1 2 7 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
b. i. ii. iii. iv. v.
2 6 30 5 15 b. 6
1 8 c. No. The frequency of the numbers is different.
c. i. ii.
2 15
1 d.
Sum 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
16. .
Yes. Both have a probability of
2 Frequency 1 2 3 4 5 6 5 4 3 2 1
the online resources. 1 1 1
e. i. ii. iii.
18. 17 red and 1 purple, i.e. 18 socks more 36 6 18
19. a. 1 1 1
ξ B N f. i. ii. iii.
36 6 6
2 g. 50
15 15
3 Exercise 11.3 Tree diagrams
15 5
1. If the probabilities of two events are different, the first
column of branches indicates the probabilities for the
16 first event and the second column of branches indicates
S 19 the probabilities for the second event. The product of each
branch gives the probability. All probabilities add to 1.
b. 19 students 2. a. 12 different outcomes
c. 32 students b. No. Each branch is a product of different probabilities.
d. 15 students c. Less likely
15 1 d. Indigo elephant
e. Frequency = or
90 6 7
e. i. Pr(Blue elephant) =
3 1 40
f. Probability = =
90 30 7
ii. Pr(Indigo elephant) =
20. a. i. 50 ii. 7 iii. 25 iv. 8 20
1 3 6 1
b. i. ii. iii. iii. Pr(Donkey) =
2 50 25 5
c. i. 3. a. 1st 2nd 3rd Outcome Pr(outcome)
n(ξ) = 50
toss toss toss
Fried Chicken
rice wings 0.7 H HHH 0.343
10 4 12 0.7 H
0.3 T HHT 0.147
2 H
6 5 0.7 H HTH 0.147
0.7 0.3 T
11 0.3 T HTT 0.063
Dim sims
0.7 H THH 0.147
1 0.7 H
ii. 0.3 T THT 0.063
25 0.3
T
0.7 H TTH 0.063
0.3 T
0.3 T TTT 0.027
b. Pr(HHH) = 0.343

c. Pr(at least 1 Tail) = 0.657 8. a. 1

2 1
d. Pr(exactly 2 Tails) = 0.189 1
1 4
2
1 1 5 1 1 3
4. a. i. ii. iii. 2 4
2 6 6 1
1
1
2
4 1
b. 1 1 2 2
1 4
6 6 1 3
12 4
1
<4 1
2 1
1 5 4
5 6′ 1 2
2 12 3 4
1 1 6 1 1 3
6 4
6 6 36 1
4 2
1
5 5 2 1
6′ 1
6 1 36 1 4
2
1 1 1 1 3
6 6 2
3 18 4
>4 1
1 1
2
1
5 4 4 1
2
5 6′ 2 2 4
18 1
6 3
4
1
1 1 5 5 1
2 1
c. i. ii. iii. iv. 4
1
36 12 36 18 3 4
2
5. a. 1 1 3
1 1 4 4
3 P′ P′P′P′
1 P′ 27 1
3 2 2 1
2 P P′P′P 27 1 1
2
1 P′ 1 4
3 P′ P′PP′ 2 1 1 3
3 3 2
2 P 27 4
1
4 1 1
3 2
2 P P′PP 27 3
4
2 1
2
1 3 P′ PP′P′ 4
2 1 3
3 4
1 P′ 27 1
3 4 1
2 2 1
P 2 P PP′P 27
4
1
3 1 3 2
3 P′ PPP′ 4 4
3 1 3
2 P 27 4
3 P PPP 8
2 27 3
3 b.
8
8 4 12
b. i. ii. iii. 7
27 27 27 c.
8
6. a. 0.8 T′ T′T′T′ 9. a.
0.512 Outcomes
0.8 T′ GWB
0.2 T T′T′T 0.128 B
W GWG
T′ G GPB
0.8 T′ T′TT′ 0.128
0.8 0.2 B GPG
T P GBB
G
0.2 T T′TT 0.032 G GBG
B
0.8 T′ TT′T′ 0.128 B G GGB
G B GGG
0.8 T′
0.2 T TT′T 0.032 G BWB
0.2
T B BWG
0.8 T′ TTT′ 0.032 W G BPB
0.2 T B BPG
P G
0.2 T TTT 0.008 B B BBB
B G BBG
b. 0.520 B BGB
G G BGG
7. a. 2 B
4 W WWB
3 M′ M′M′ 9 G WWG
2 M′ B
2 P G WPB
3 1 W
M M′M 9 B WPG
3 2 B WBB
3 M′ MM′ 2 G
1 9 WBG
M B WGB
3 1 1 G
M MM G WGG
3 9
1 1
b. b.
9 24

1 12. a.
c. Outcomes Probability
12 1 1
8 f fff 512
d. Each combination would be worn 10 times in a year.
1 f fffʹ 7
e. 21 new combinations. 7 1 fʹ 512
8
8 8 ffʹf 7
10. a. 0.75 Pudding 1 f f 512
8 7 fʹ
Vegetarian 8 7 fʹ ffʹfʹ 49
8 1 512
0.25 Apple 1 8 f fʹff 7
0.2
7 8 f 512
0.75 Pudding 8 fʹ 7 fʹ fʹffʹ 49
0.5
Chicken 7 8 81 512
Soup f fʹfʹf 49
Apple 8 fʹ 512
0.25 7 fʹ fʹfʹfʹ
8 343
0.3 0.75 Pudding 512
0.3
Beef f = outcome of 5
0.25 Apple 1 343 21 11
b. i. ii. iii. iv.
512 512 512 256
0.75 Pudding 13. a. Die outcomes
Vegetarian
0.7
0.25 Apple 1 2 3 4
0.2
outcomes
0.75 Pudding (H, 1) (H, 2) (H, 3) (H, 4)
0.5 H
Coin
Prawn Chicken
0.25 Apple T (T, 1) (T, 2) (T, 3) (T, 4)
0.3 0.75 Pudding
b. Outcomes Probability
Beef
1– 1– 1–
0.25 Apple 1 H1 2 × 4 = 8
1– 1–
4 4 2 1– 1– 1–
b. 0.1125 H2 2 × 4 = 8
1–
c. 24 people H 4 1– 1– 1–
11. a. i.
3 H3 2 × 4 = 8
0.7 Red 1– 1–
2 4 1– 1– 1–
Red 4 H4 2 × 4 = 8
0.7 0.3 White
1– × 1– 1–
1–
1 T1 2 4 = 8
0.7 Red 1– 1–
4 4 2 1– 1– 1–
0.3 2 T2 2 × 4 = 8
White
1–
0.3 White T 4 1– 1– 1–
3 T3 2 × 4 = 8
ii. 10 balls 1–
4 1– × 1– = 1–
iii. 10 balls 4 T4 2 4 8
—
iv. No; the events are independent. 1
v. Pr(RR) = 0.49 1
c.
b. i. 9 balls 4
ii. Yes. One ball has been removed from the bag. 256 16 96 17
14. a. b. c. d.
iii. 0.67 Red 625 625 256 256
Red
0.7
Exercise 11.4 Independent and dependent
0.33 White
events
1. a. 0.28 b. 0.12 c. 0.42 d. 0.18
0.78 Red
0.3 2. Dependent
White
White 3. Independent
0.22
4. a. Yes, the outcome is independent.
7
iv. Pr(RR) = or 0.469 using the rounded values 1 1
12 b. i. ii.
from iii. 2 6
1
c.
12
1
5.
40

5 c. 5
6. 13 1
36 5
1 2
16 64 13
7. a. b. 6
3 3
25 125 14
13
6
1 4 5 1
13
c. d. 14 4
25 25 1 2
13
2
3 3
8. a. C b. D 13 6
3 48 3 13 1
9. a. b. 14
5
77 77 3 13 2
8 18 2 3
c. d. 13
77 77
7
1 1 73 15 6
10. a. b. c. 13 1
37 1369 1369 1 4 2
13
11. 0.9 7
14 3 3
12.
1
4 7 13
5 1
14 14 13
15 3
2 2 2
1 1 13
13. a. b. 3 3
5 5 13
3 7
1 1 14 13 1
c. d. 4
10 3 3 13 2
1 1 25 2 3
3
14. a. b. c. 13
17 221 102 15
6
26 136 221 13 1
15. a. b. c. 5
145 435 435 1 2
13
16. No. Coin tosses are independent events. No one toss affects 7
14 2 3
the outcome of the next. The probability of a Head or Tail 13
5 7
on a fair coin is always 0.5. Greg has a 50% chance of 1
14 13
tossing a Head on the next coin toss as was the chance in 3 2 4 2
13
each of the previous 9 tosses. 2 3
13
17. No. As events are illustrated on a tree diagram, the 2 7
individual probability of each outcome is recorded. The 14 13 1
5
probability of a dependent event is calculated (altered 3 13 2
according to the previous event) and can be considered as if 1 3
it was an independent event. As such, the multiplication law 13
of probability can be applied along the branches to calculate 1 2
the probability of successive events. d. i. Pr(1, 1, 1) = ii. Pr(2, 2, 2) =
13 91
18. Only if Pr(A) = 0 or Pr(B) = 0 can two events be 1 47
independent and mutually exclusive. For an event to have iii. Pr(3, 3, 3) = iv. Pr(at least one 3) =
455 91
a probability of 0 means that it is impossible, so it is a
trivial scenario. 1
22. a. Pr(9) =
19. a. A and B are independent. 455
b. A and B are not independent in this situation. 66
Pr(7 − 8) =
5 455
20.
17 248
21. a. Dependent Pr(5 − 6) =
455
7
b. Pr(1) = 4
15 Pr(3 − 4) =
13
5 1
Pr(2) = = b. $393.40
15 3
3 1
Pr(3) = =
15 5

Exercise 11.5 Conditional probability 4. Die 1

41 12
1. a. Pr(J) = b. Pr(z|J) = 1 2 3 1 2 3
90 41
13 13 4 5 6 7 5 6 7
2. a. Pr(S) = b. Pr(S|(C ∪ S)) =
30 28
5 6 7 8 6 7 8
3
3. a. 0.3 b.
7 6 7 8 9 7 8 9
Die 2
9 3
4. a. b. 4 5 6 7 5 6 7
13 5
15 5 6 7 8 6 7 8
5. 0.58 or
26 6 7 8 9 7 8 9
5
6. 0.22 or
23 5. 5; 5, 6, 7, 8, 9
7. 0.9 6. 7; 5, 9
8. 0.8375 7. Equal to 7; probability is the highest.
9. a. D 8. Odd-number outcome; probability is higher.
1 1
b. i. Pr(A|B) = ii. Pr(B|A) = Die
6 6
1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
iii. Pr(C|A) = iv. Pr(C|B) = 0
6 Head (H, 1) (H, 2) (H, 3) (H, 4) (H, 5) (H, 6) (H, 7) (H, 8)
Coin
10. A
109 73 23 22 Tail (T, 1) (T, 2) (T, 3) (T, 4) (T, 5) (T, 6) (T, 7) (T, 8)
11. a. b. c. d.
232 116 86 45 9. Die 1
12. Conditional probability is when the probability of one event
depends on the outcome of another event. 1 2 3 1 2 3
13. a. 0.0875
4 3 2 1 3 2 1
b. 0.065
c. i. 0.585 ii. 0.1525 or 15.25%. 5 4 3 2 4 3 2
1 2 1 1 2 6 5 4 3 5 4 3
Die 2
14. a. i. ii. iii. iv. v.

2 5 5 2 5
b. Yes, A and B are independent.
4 3 2 1 3 2 1
Pr(A ∩ B) 5 4 3 2 4 3 2
c. If Pr(A|B) = = Pr(A) then A and B will be
Pr(B)
independent events. This is because the probability 6 5 4 3 5 4 3
of A given B occurs is the same as the probability of
10. 5; 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
A, meaning the probability of A is independent of B
occurring. 11. 3; 12
15. 0.087 or 8.7% chance. 12. Students need to apply the knowledge of probability and
create a new game using dice given. They also need to
16. 0.847
provide rules for the game and solution, indicating the best
17. 0.61 options for winning.
Project Exercise 11.6 Review questions
1. Die 1 1. A
1 2 3 1 2 3 2. B
3. B
4 (1, 4) (2, 4) (3, 4) (1, 4) (2, 4) (3, 4)
4. B
5 (1, 5) (2, 5) (3, 5) (1, 5) (2, 5) (3, 5) 5. B
6. a. ξ
6 (1, 6) (2, 6) (3, 6) (1, 6) (2, 6) (3, 6) A B
Die 2
4 (1, 4) (2, 4) (3, 4) (1, 4) (2, 4) (3, 4)

5 (1, 5) (2, 5) (3, 5) (1, 5) (2, 5) (3, 5)
6 (1, 6) (2, 6) (3, 6) (1, 6) (2, 6) (3, 6)
2. 9
3. 0

b.
15 3 8 4
A B ξ 19. a. = b. =
25 5 10 5
20. a. 0.65 W
T
0.75 0.35 Wʹ
0.40 W
c. 0.25
ξ Tʹ
A B 0.60 Wʹ
b. 0.5875
8
c.
47
3 8
21. a. b.
C 5 15
1 4 1
7. C 22. a. b. c.
5 5 25
8. D
23. a. 0.000 495 b. 0.001 981
9. D
1 7
10. B 24. a. b.
1 1 2 3 2 8
11. a. b. c. d.
13 4 13 4
1 7775
12. a. b.
7776 7776
3 5
13. a. b.
8 8
14. a. Yes. It is not possible to roll an even number and for that
number to be a 3.
1 1
b. Pr(A) = and Pr(B) =
2 6
2
c.
3
15. a. No. It is possible to draw a card that is a club and an ace.
1 1 1
b. Pr(A) = and Pr(B) = , Pr(A ∩ B) =
4 13 52
4
c.
13
16. a. Die 2 outcomes
0 1 2 3
0 0 1 2 3
Die 1 outcomes
1 1 2 3 4
2 2 3 4 5
3 3 4 5 6
b. No
c. 0 and 6
d. 3
e. 0 and 6, 1 and 5, 2 and 4
1 21 15
17. a. b. c.
19 38 38
1 1
18. a. b.
169 221

“c12UnivariateData_PrintPDF” — 2021/9/6 — 8:28 — page 727 — #1
12 Univariate data
LEARNING SEQUENCE
12.1 Overview ...............................................................................................................................................................728
12.2 Measures of central tendency ......................................................................................................................733
12.3 Measures of spread ......................................................................................................................................... 747
12.4 Box plots .............................................................................................................................................................. 754
12.5 The standard deviation (10A) ........................................................................................................................765
12.6 Comparing data sets ....................................................................................................................................... 776
12.7 Populations and samples .............................................................................................................................. 784
12.8 Evaluating inquiry methods and statistical reports .............................................................................. 792
12.9 Review ................................................................................................................................................................... 806
12.1 Overview
Why learn this?
According to the novelist Mark Twain, ‘There are three kinds of lies: lies,
damned lies and statistics.’ Statistics can easily be used to manipulate
people unless they have an understanding of the basic concepts involved.
Statistics, when used properly, can be an invaluable aid to good
decision-making. However, deliberate distortion of the data or
meaningless pictures can be used to support almost any claim or point
of view. Whenever you read an advertisement, hear a news report or
are given some data by a friend, you need to have a healthy degree of
scepticism about the reliability of the source and nature of the data
presented. A solid understanding of statistics is crucially important, as
it is very easy to fall prey to statistics that are designed to confuse and
mislead.
In 2020 when the COVID19 pandemic hit, news and all forms of
media were flooded with statistics. These statistics were used to inform
governments worldwide about infection rates, recovery rates and
all sorts of other important information. These statistics guided the
decision-making process in determining the restrictions that were
imposed or relaxed to maintain a safe community.
Statistics are also used to provide more information about a population in order to inform government policies.
For example, the results of a census might indicate that the people in a particular city are fed up with traffic
congestion. With this information now known, the government might prioritise works on public roads, or
increase funding of public transport to try to create a more viable alternative to driving.
Where to get help

Fully worked
solutions
eLessons
to every
question
Digital
eWorkbook
documents


1. The following data show the number of cars in each of the 12 houses along a street.
2, 3, 3, 2, 2, 3, 2, 4, 3, 1, 1, 0
Calculate the median number of cars.
2. Calculate the range of the following data set: 5, 15, 23, 6, 31, 24, 26, 14, 12, 34, 18, 9, 17, 32.
3. The frequency table shows the scores obtained by 100 professional golfers in the final round of
a tournament.
Score Frequency
67 2
68 6
69 7
70 11
71 16
72 23
73 17
74 11
75 9
Identify the modal score.
4. A sample of 15 people was selected at random from those attending a local swimming pool. Their ages
(in years) were recorded as follows:
19, 7, 83, 41, 17, 23, 62, 55, 15, 25, 32, 29, 11, 18, 10
Calculate the mean age of people attending the swimming pool, correct to one decimal place.
5. Complete the following sentence.

A sample is a _________ of a population.
6. At Einstein Secondary School a Year 10 mathematics class has 22 students. The following were the test
scores for the class.
34, 47, 54, 59, 60, 63, 66, 69, 73, 77, 78, 78, 79, 80, 82, 83, 85, 86, 88, 89, 90, 91
Calculate the interquartile range (IQR).
7. The mean of a set of five scores is 11.8. If four of the scores are 17, 9, 14 and 6, calculate the fifth score.
TOPIC 12 Univariate data 729

8. The box plot below shows the price of a meal for one person from ten fast-food shops.
6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
State whether the data is negatively skewed, positively skewed or symmetrical.
9. A frequency table for the time taken by 20 people to put together an item of flat-pack furniture
is shown.
Time taken (min) Frequency

0 − 40 1
5 − 95 3
10 − 14 5
15 − 19 2
20 − 24 4
25 − 29 2
30 − 34 2
35 − 39 1
Calculate the cumulative frequency to put together an item of flat-pack furniture in less than
20 minutes.
10. MC The frequency table below shows the scores obtained by 100 professional golfers in the final round
of a tournament.
Score Frequency
67 2
68 5
69 8
70 11
71 16
72 22
73 14
74 13
75 9
Select the median score.

A. 71 B. 71.75 C. 72 D. 72.5 E. 73
11. The heights of six basketball players (in cm) are:
178.1 185.6 173.3 193.4 183.1 193.0
Calculate the mean and standard deviation.

12. MC A group of 22 people recorded how many cans of soft drink they drank in a day. The table shows
the number of cans drunk by each person.
0 2 2 2 1 1 3 4 4 2 1
2 4 1 6 3 3 5 4 1 2 5
Select the statement that is not true.

A. The maximum number of soft drinks cans drank is 6.
B. The minimum number of soft drink cans drank is 0.
C. The interquartile range is 3.
D. The median number of soft drink cans is 2.5.
E. The mean number of soft drink cans drank is 2.64.
13. MC Select the approximate median in the cumulative frequency percentage graph shown.
100
90
Cumulative frequency
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Mass (g)
A. 30 B. 32 C. 40 D. 50 E. 92
14. MC The following back-to-back stem-and-leaf plot shows the typing speed in words per minute (wpm)
of 30 Year 8 and Year 10 students.

Key: 2 ∣ 6 = 26 wpm
Leaf: Stem Leaf:
Year 8 Year 10
92 0
986542 1 49
888642100 2 23689
9776410 3 03455788
76520 4 1258899
5 03578
6 001
Calculate the mean typing speed and interquartile range for Year 8 and Year 10. Comment on
your answers.

15. MC A survey was conducted on the favourite take-away foods for university students and the results
were graphed using two bar charts.
Graph 1
Favourite take-away foods
990
985
980
Number of votes
975
970
965
960
955
950
Hamburgers Pizza Chicken
wings
Favourite food
Graph 2
Favourite take-away foods
1200
1000
Number of votes
800
600
400
200
0
Hamburgers Pizza Chicken
wings
Favourite food
Select the statement that best describes these graphs.

A. Graph 1 is misleading as it suggests that students like hamburgers 7 times more than
chicken wings.
B. Graph 1 is misleading as it suggests that students like pizza 3 times more than hamburgers.
C. Graph 1 is misleading as it suggests that students like pizza four times more than chicken wings.
D. Graph 2 is misleading as it suggests that students like all take-away foods evenly.
E. Graph 1 is misleading as the vertical axis does not start at zero.

12.2 Measures of central tendency

LEARNING INTENTION
• calculate the mean, median and mode of data presented as ungrouped data (in a single list), frequency
distribution tables and grouped data.
12.2.1 Mean, median and mode of univariate data

eles-4949
• Univariate data are data with one variable; for example, the heights of Year 10 students.
• Measures of central tendency are summary statistics that measure the middle (or centre) of the data.
These are known as the mean, median and mode.
• The mean is the average of all observations in a set of data.
• The median is the middle observation in an ordered set of data.
• The mode is the most frequent observation in a data set.
The mean
• The mean of a set of data is what is referred to in everyday language as the average.
• The mean of a set of values is the sum of all the values divided by the number of values.
• The symbol we use to represent the mean is x; that is, a lower-case x with a bar on top.
Calculating the mean
The formal definition of the mean is:
sum of data values

Mean =
total number of data values
Using mathematical notation, this is written as:
x
x= ∑
n
The median
• The median represents the middle score when the data values are in ascending or descending order such
that an equal number of data values will lie below the median and above it.
Calculating the median
When calculating the median:

1. Arrange the data values in order (usually
( in ascending order).
)
n+1
2. The position of the median is the th data value, where n is the total number of data values.
2
Note: If there are an even number of data values then there will be two middle values. In this case the
median is the average of those data values.

• When there are an odd number of data values, the median is the middle value.
1 1 3 4 6 7 8
median = 4
• When there are an even number of data values, the median is the average of the two middle values.
2 3 3 5 6 6 7 9
5+6
median = = 5.5
2
The mode
• The mode is the score that occurs most often.
• The data set can have no modes, one mode, two modes (bimodal) or more than two modes (multi modal).
Calculating the mode
When determining the mode:

1. Arrange the data values in ascending order (smallest to largest). This step is optional but does help.
2. Look for the number that occurs most often (has the highest frequency).
• If no value in a data set appears more than once then there is no mode.
• If a data set has multiple values that appear the most then it has multiple modes. All values that appear the
most are modes.
For example, the set 1, 2, 2, 4, 5, 5, 7 has two modes, 2 and 5.
WORKED EXAMPLE 1 Calculating mean, median and mode
For the data 6, 2, 4, 3, 4, 5, 4, 5, calculate the:

a. mean b. median c. mode.
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Calculate the sum of the scores; that is, ∑ x. a. ∑ x = 6 + 2 + 4 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 4 + 5
= 33
2. Count the number of scores; that is, n. n=8
∑x
3. Write the rule for the mean. x=
n
33
4. Substitute the known values into the rule. =
8
5. Evaluate. = 4.125
6. Write the answer. The mean is 4.125.

b. 1. Write the scores in ascending numerical order. b. 2 3 4 4 4 5 5 6

n+1
2. Locate the position of the median using Median = th score
n+1 2
the rule , where n = 8. This places the 8+1
2 = th score
median as the 4.5th score; that is, between the 2
4th and 5th score. = 4.5 th score
23444556
4+4
3. Obtain the average of the two middle scores. Median =
2
8
=
2
=4
4. Write the answer The median is 4.
c. 1. Systematically work through the set and make c. ↓ ↓
note of any repeated values (scores). 2 3 4 4 4 5 5 6
↑ ↑ ↑
2. Write the answer. The mode is 4.

1. In a new document, on 1. On the Statistics screen,
a Lists & Spreadsheet label list1 as ‘x’ and enter
page, label column A as the values as shown in the
‘xvalues’, and enter the table.
values in the data set. Press EXE after entering
Press ENTER after each value.
entering each value.
2. Although you can find 2. To calculate the mean,

many summary statistics, median and mode, tap:
to find the • Calc
mean only, open a • One-Variable
Calculator page and press:
Set values as:
• MENU
• XList: main\x
• 6: Statistics
• Freq: 1
• 3: List Math
• 3: Mean Tap OK. ( )
The mean is 4.125 and the The mean is at the top x .
Press VAR and select
median is 4. Scroll down to find the
‘xvalues’, then press
The mode is 4. median and mode.
ENTER. To calculate the
median only, press: The mean is 4.125 and the
median is 4.
• MENU
The mode is 4.
• 6: Statistics
• 3: List Math
• 4: Median
‘xvalues’, then press
ENTER.

12.2.2 Calculating mean, median and mode from a frequency

eles-4950
distribution table
• If data is provided in the form of a frequency distribution table we can determine the mean, median and
mode using slightly different methods.
• The mode is the score with the highest frequency.
• To calculate the median, add a cumulative frequency column to the table and use it to determine the score
( )
n+1
that is the th data value.
2
• To calculate the mean, add a column that is the score multiplied by its frequency f × x. The following
formula can then be used to calculate the mean, where ∑ ( f × x) is the sum of the ( f × x) column. ∑ is
the uppercase Greek letter sigma.
Calculating the mean from a frequency table
( f × x)
x= ∑
n
WORKED EXAMPLE 2 Calculations from a frequency distribution table
Using the frequency distribution table, calculate the:

Score (x) Frequency ( f)

4 1
5 2
6 5
7 4
8 3
Total 15
THINK WRITE
1. Rule up a table with four columns
titled Score (x), Frequency (f), Frequency Cumulative
Frequency × score (f × x) and × score frequency
Cumulative frequency (cf). Score (x) Frequency ( f) ( f × x) (cf)
2. Enter the data and complete both the 4 1 4 1
f × x and cumulative frequency 5 2 10 1+2=3
columns.
6 5 30 3+5=8
7 4 28 8 + 4 = 12
8 3 24 12 + 3 = 15
n = 15 ∑( f × x) = 96

∑ ( f × x)
a. 1. Write the rule for the mean. a. x =
n
96
2. Substitute the known values into the x=
rule and evaluate. 15
= 6.4
3. Write the answer. The mean of the data set is 6.4.
( )
15 + 1
b. 1. Locate the position of the median b. The median is the th or 8th score.
n+1 2
using the rule , where n = 15.
2
This places the median as the 8th
score.
2. Use the cumulative frequency column The median of the data set is 6.
to find the 8th score and write the
answer.
c. 1. The mode is the score with the c. The score with the highest frequency is 6.
highest frequency.
2. Write the answer. The mode of the data set is 6.

1. In a new problem, on a 1. On the Statistics screen,
Lists & Spreadsheet page, label list1 as ‘score’
label column A as ‘score’ and list2 as ‘f’, and enter
and column B as ‘f’. the values as shown in the
Enter the values as shown table.
in the table and press Press EXE after entering
ENTER after entering each each value.
value.
2. To find the summary 2. To find the summary

statistics, press: statistics, tap:
• MENU • Calc
• 4: Statistics • One-Variable
• 1: Stat Calculations
• 1: One-Variable Set values as:
Statistics... • XList: main\score
Select 1 as the number • Freq: main\f
of lists. Then on the
One-Variable Statistics
page select ‘score’ as
the X1 List and ‘f’ as the
Frequency List. Leave the
next fields empty, TAB to
OK and press ENTER.

3. The results are displayed. 3. Tap OK.

The mean x = 6.4 and the The mean is at the top x.
median is 6. Scroll down to find the
The mode is the data set median and mode.
with the highest frequency
value, which in this case
is 6.
The mean is x = 6.4 and the

median is 6. The mode is the data
set with the highest frequency
value, which is 6.
The mean is x = 6.4 and
the median is 6. The mode
is the data set with the
highest frequency value,
which is 6.
Mean, median and mode of grouped data

• When the data are grouped into class intervals, the actual values (or data) are lost. In such cases we have to
approximate the real values with the midpoints of the intervals into which these values fall.
For example, if in a grouped frequency table showing the heights of different students, 4 students had a
height between 180 and 185 cm, we have to assume that each of those 4 students is 182.5 cm tall.
Mean
• The formula for calculating the mean is the same as the formula used when the data is displayed in a
frequency distribution table:
∑( f × x)
x=
n
Here, x represents the midpoint (or class centre) of each class interval, f is the corresponding frequency and
n is the total number of observations in a set.
Median
• The median is found by drawing a cumulative frequency curve (ogive) of the data and estimating the
median from the 50th percentile (see section 12.2.3).
Modal class
• The modal class is the class interval that has the highest frequency.
12.2.3 Cumulative frequency curves (ogives)

eles-4951
Ogives
• Data from a cumulative frequency table can be plotted to form a cumulative frequency curve (sometimes
referred to as cumulative frequency polgons), which is also called an ogive (pronounced ‘oh-jive’).
• To plot an ogive for data that is in class intervals, the maximum value for the class interval is used as the
value against which the cumulative frequency is plotted.

For example, the following table and graph show the mass of cartons of eggs ranging from 55 g to 65 g.
Percentage cumulative
Mass (g) Frequency ( f) Cumulative frequency (cf) frequency (%cf)
55− < 57 2 2 6%
57− < 59 6 2+6=8 22%
59− < 61 12 8 + 12 = 20 56%
61− < 63 11 20 + 11 = 31 86%
63− < 65 5 31 + 5 = 36 100%
Percentage cumulative frequency 100

90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66
Mass (g)
Quantiles
• An ogive can be used to divide the data into any given number of equal parts called quantiles.
• Quantiles are named after the number of parts that the data are divided into.
• Percentiles divide the data into 100 equal-sized parts.
• Quartiles divide the data into 4 equal-sized parts. For example, 25% of the data values lie at or below the
first quartile.
Percentile Quartile and symbol Common name

25th percentile First quartile, Q1 Lower quartile
50th percentile Second quartile, Q2 Median
75th percentile Third quartile, Q3 Upper quartile
100th percentile Fourth quartile, Q4 Maximum
• A percentile is named after the percentage of data that lies at or below that value. For example, 60% of the
data values lie at or below the 60th percentile.
• Percentiles can be read off a percentage cumulative frequency curve.
• A percentage cumulative frequency curve is created by:
• writing the cumulative frequencies as a percentage of the total number of data values
• plotting the percentage cumulative frequencies against the maximum value for each interval.

WORKED EXAMPLE 3 Estimating mean, median and modal class in grouped data
For the given data:

a. estimate the mean b. estimate the median c. determine the modal class.
Class interval Frequency

60 − < 70 5
70 − < 80 7
80 − < 90 10
90 − < 100 12
100 − < 110 8
110 − < 120 3
Total 45
THINK WRITE
1. Draw up a table with 5
columns headed Class Frequency × Cumulative
interval, Class centre (x), Class Class class centre frequency
Frequency (f), Frequency interval centre (x) Freq. ( f) ( f × x) (cf)
× class centre (f × x) and
Cumulative frequency (cf). 60− < 70 65 5 325 5
2. Complete the x, f × x 70− < 80 75 7 525 12
and cf columns. 80− < 90 85 10 850 22
90− < 100 95 12 1140 34
100− < 110 105 8 840 42
110− < 120 115 3 345 45
n = 45 ∑( f × x) = 4025
∑( f × x)
a. 1. Write the rule for the a. x =
mean. n
4025
2. Substitute the known x=
values into the rule and 45
evaluate. ≃ 89.4
3. Write the answer. The mean for the given data is approximately 89.4.
b. 1. Draw a combined b.
cumulative frequency 45
histogram and ogive, 40
labelling class centres 35

on the horizontal axis and 30
cumulative frequency on
25
the vertical axis. Join the
20
end-points of each class
interval with a straight 15
line to form the ogive. 10
5
0
65 75 85 95 105 115
Data

2. Locate the middle of the

cumulative frequency 45
axis, which is 22.5. 40
3. Draw a horizontal line 35
from this point to the
30
ogive and a vertical line
25
to the horizontal axis.
20
15
10
5
0
65 75 85 95 105 115
Data
4. Read off the value of the The median for the given data is approximately 90.
median from the x-axis
and write the answer.
c. 1. The modal class is the c. The class internal 90–100 occurs twelve times, which is the highest
class interval with the frequency.
highest frequency.
2. Write the answer. The modal class is the 90–100 class interval.
Resources
Resourceseses
Digital documents SkillSHEET Finding the mean of a small data set (doc-5299)
SkillSHEET Finding the median of a small data set (doc-5300)
SkillSHEET Finding the mode of a small data set (doc-5301)
SkillSHEET Finding the mean, median and mode from a stem-and-leaf plot (doc-5302)
SkillSHEET Presenting data in a frequency distribution table (doc-5303)
SkillSHEET Drawing statistical graphs (doc-5304)
Video eLesson Mean and median (eles-1905)
Interactivities Individual pathway interactivity: Measures of central tendency (int-4621)
Mean (int-3818)
Median (int-3819)
Mode (int-3820)
Ogives (int-6174)

Exercise 12.2 Measures of central tendency

Individual pathways
1, 2, 7, 10, 14, 17, 18, 23 3, 4, 6, 8, 11, 15, 19, 20, 24 5, 9, 12, 13, 16, 21, 22, 25
Fluency
WE1 For questions 1 to 5, calculate the:
1. 3, 5, 6, 8, 8, 9, 10
2. 4, 6, 7, 4, 8, 9, 7, 10
3. 17, 15, 48, 23, 41, 56, 61, 52
4. 4.5, 4.7, 4.8, 4.8, 4.9, 5.0, 5.3

1 1 1 1 1
5. 7 , 10 , 12, 12 , 13, 13 , 13 , 14
2 4 4 2 2
6. The back-to-back stem-and-leaf plot below shows the test results of
25 Year 10 students in Mathematics and Science. Calculate the
mean, median and mode for each of the two subjects.
Key: 3 ∣ 2 = 32
Leaf: Stem Leaf:
Science Mathematics
873 3 29
96221 4 068
876110 5 135
97432 6 2679
8510 7 3678
73 8 044689
9 258
WE2 Using the frequency distribution tables shown in questions 7 and 8, calculate the:
7.
4 3
5 6
6 9
7 4
8 2
Total 24

8.
12 4
13 5
14 10
15 12
16 9
Total 40
9. The following data show the number of bedrooms in each of

the 10 houses in a particular neighbourhood:
2, 1, 3, 4, 2, 3, 2, 2, 3, 3.
a. Calculate the mean and median number of bedrooms.
b. A local motel contains 20 rooms. Add this observation to
the set of data and recalculate the values of the mean and
median.
c. Compare the answers obtained in parts a and b and
complete the following statement:
When the set of data contains an unusually large value(s),
called an outlier, the ________ (mean/median) is the better
measure of central tendency, as it is less affected by this
extreme value.
10. WE3 For the given data:
a. estimate the mean b. estimate the median c. determine the modal class.

40 − < 50 2
50 − < 60 4
60 − < 70 6
70 − < 80 9
80 − < 90 5
90 − < 100 4
Total 30
11. Calculate the mean of the grouped data shown in the table below.

100–109 3
110–119 7
120–129 10
130–139 6
140–149 4
Total 30

12. Determine the modal class of the data shown in the table below.

50 – < 55 1
55 − < 60 3
60 − < 65 4
65 − < 70 5
70 − < 75 3
75 − < 80 2
Total 18
13. The number of textbooks sold by various bookshops during the second week of December was recorded.
The results are summarised in the table below.
Number of
books sold Frequency
220–229 2
230–239 2
240–249 3
250–259 5
260–269 4
270–279 4
Total 20
a. MC The modal class of the data is given by the class interval(s):

A. 220–229 and 230–239 B. 250–259 C. 260–269 and 270–279
D. of both A and E. none of these
b. MC The class centre of the first class interval is:

A. 224 B. 224.5 C. 224.75 D. 225 E. 227
c. MC The median of the data is in the interval:

A. 230–239 B. 240–249 C. 250–259 D. 260–269 E. 270–279
d. MC The estimated mean of the data is:

A. 251 B. 252 C. 253 D. 254 E. 255
Understanding
14. A random sample was taken, composed of 30 people shopping at a supermarket on a Tuesday night. The
amount of money (to the nearest dollar) spent by each person was recorded as follows:
6 32 66 17 45 1 19 52 36 23 28 20 7 47 39
6 68 28 54 9 10 58 40 12 25 49 74 63 41 13
a. Calculate the mean and median amount of money spent at the checkout by the people in this sample.
b. Group the data into class intervals of 10 and complete the frequency distribution table. Use this table to
estimate the mean amount of money spent.
c. Add the cumulative frequency column to your table and fill it in. Hence, construct the ogive. Use the
ogive to estimate the median.
d. Compare the mean and the median of the original data from part a with the mean and the median
obtained for grouped data in parts b and c. Explain if the estimates obtained in parts b and c were
good enough.

15. Answer the following question and show your working.

a. Add one more number to the set of data 3, 4, 4, 6 so that the mean of a new set is equal to its median.
b. Design a set of five numbers so that mean = median = mode = 5.
c. In the set of numbers 2, 5, 8, 10, 15, change one number so that the median remains unchanged while the
mean increases by 1.
16. Thirty men were asked to reveal the number of hours they spent doing housework each week. The results are
detailed below.
1 5 2 12 2 6 2 8 14 18
0 1 1 8 20 25 3 0 1 2
7 10 12 1 5 1 18 0 2 2
a. Present the data in a frequency distribution table. (Use class intervals of 0–4, 5–9 etc.)
b. Use your table to estimate the mean number of hours that the men spent doing housework.
c. Determine the median class for hours spent by the men at housework.
d. Identify the modal class for hours spent by the men at housework.
Reasoning
17. The data shown give the age of 25 patients admitted to the emergency ward of a hospital.
18 16 6 75 24
23 82 75 25 21
43 19 84 76 31
78 24 20 63 79
80 20 23 17 19
a. Present the data in a frequency distribution table. (Use class intervals of 0 − < 15, 15 − < 30 and so on.)
b. Draw a histogram of the data.
c. Suggest a word to describe the pattern of the data in this distribution.
d. Use your table to estimate the mean age of patients admitted.
e. Determine the median class for age of patients admitted.
f. Identify the modal class for age of patients admitted.
g. Draw an ogive of the data.
h. Use the ogive to determine the median age.
i. Explain if any of your statistics (mean, median or mode) give a clear representation of the typical age of
an emergency ward patient.
j. Give some reasons which could explain the pattern of the distribution of data in this question.
18. MC In a set of data there is one score that is extremely small when compared to all the others. This outlying
value is most likely to:
A. have greatest effect upon the mean of the data
B. have greatest effect upon the median of the data
C. have greatest effect upon the mode of the data
D. have very little effect on any of the statistics as we are told that the number is extremely small
E. none of these

19. The batting scores for two cricket players over 6 innings are as follows:
Player A 31, 34, 42, 28, 30, 41

Player B 0, 0, 1, 0, 250, 0
a. Calculate the mean score for each player.
b. State which player appears to be better, based upon mean result. Justify your answer.
c. Determine the median score for each player.
d. State which player appears to be better when the decision is based on the median result. Justify your
answer.
e. State which player do you think would be the most useful to have in a cricket team. Justify your answer.
Explain how can the mean result sometimes lead to a misleading conclusion.
20. The following frequency table gives the number of employees in different
salary brackets for a small manufacturing plant.
Number of
Position Salary ($) employees
Machine operator 18 000 50
Machine mechanic 20 000 15
Floor steward 24 000 10
Manager 62 000 4
Chief executive officer 80 000 1
a. Workers are arguing for a pay rise but the management of the factory
claims that workers are well paid because the mean salary of the
factory is $22 100.
Explain whether the management is being honest.
b. Suppose that you were representing the factory workers and had to
write a short submission in support of the pay rise. How could you
explain the management’s claim? Quote some other statistics in favour
of your case.
21. The resting pulse rate of 20 female athletes was measured. The results are detailed below.
50 52 48 52 71 61 30 45 42 48
43 47 51 62 34 61 44 54 38 40
a. Construct a frequency distribution table. (Use class sizes of 1 –< 10, 10 –< 20 and so on.)
b. Use your table to estimate the mean of the data.
c. Determine the median class of the data.
d. Identify the modal class of the data.
e. Draw an ogive of the data. (You may like to use a graphics calculator for this.)
f. Use the ogive to determine the median pulse rate.
22. Design a set of five numbers with:
a. mean = median = mode
b. mean > median > mode
c. mean < median = mode.

Problem solving
23. The numbers 15, a, 17, b, 22, c, 10 and d have a mean of 14. Calculate the
mean of a, b, c and d.
24. The numbers m, n, p, q, r, and s have a mean of a while x, y and z have a
mean of b. Calculate the mean of all nine numbers.
25. The mean and median of six two-digit prime numbers is 39 and the mode is
31. The smallest number is 13. Determine the six numbers.
12.3 Measures of spread

LEARNING INTENTION
• calculate the range and interquartile range of a data set.
12.3.1 Measures of spread

eles-4952
• Measures of spread describe how far data values are spread from the centre or from each other.
• A shoe store proprietor has stores in Newcastle and Wollongong. The number of pairs of shoes sold each
day over one week is recorded below.
Newcastle: 45, 60, 50, 55, 48, 40, 52

Wollongong: 20, 85, 50, 15, 30, 60, 90
In each of these data sets consider the measures of central tendency.
Newcastle: Mean = 50 Wollongong: Mean = 50

Median = 50 Median = 50
No mode No mode
With these measures being the same for both data sets we could come to the conclusion that both data sets
are very similar; however, if we look at the data sets, they are very different. We can see that the data for
Newcastle are very clustered around the mean, whereas the Wollongong data are spread out more.
• The data from Newcastle are between 40 and 60, whereas the Wollongong data are between 15 and 90.
• Range and interquartile range (IQR) are both measures of spread.
Range
• The most basic measure of spread is the range.
• The range is defined as the difference between the highest and the lowest values in the set of data.
Calculating the range of a data set

Range = highest score − lowest score
= Xmax − Xmin

WORKED EXAMPLE 4 Calculating the range of a data set
Calculate the range of the given data set: 2.1, 3.5, 3.9, 4.0, 4.7, 4.8, 5.2.
THINK WRITE
1. Identify the lowest score (Xmin ) of the data set. Lowest score = 2.1
2. Identify the highest score (Xmax ) of the data set. Highest score = 5.2
3. Write the rule for the range. Range = Xmax − Xmin
4. Substitute the known values into the rule. = 5.2 − 2.1
5. Evaluate and write the answer. = 3.1
Interquartile range
• The interquartile range (IQR) is the range of the middle 50% of all the scores in an ordered set. When
calculating the interquartile range, the data are first organised into quartiles, each containing 25% of
the data.
• The word ‘quartile’ comes from the word ‘quarter’.
Q2
Minimum Median Maximum
25% 25% 25% 25%
Q1 Q3
Lower quartile Upper quartile
• The lower quartile (Q1 ) is the median of the lower half of the data set.
• The upper quartile (Q3 ) is the median of the upper half of the data set.
Calculating the IQR
Interquartile range (IQR) = upper quartile − lower quartile

= Qupper − Qlower
= Q3 − Q1
• The IQR is not affected by extremely large or extremely small data values (outliers), so in some
circumstances the IQR is a better indicator of the spread of data than the range.
WORKED EXAMPLE 5 Calculating the IQR of a data set
Calculate the interquartile range (IQR) of the following set of data: 3, 2, 8, 6, 1, 5, 3, 7, 6.
THINK WRITE
1. Arrange the scores in order. 1 2 3 3 5 6 6 7 8
2. Locate the median and use it to divide the 1 2 3 3 5 6 6 7 8
data into two halves. Note: The median is
the 5th score in this data set and should not
be included in the lower or upper ends of
the data.

2+3
3. Calculate Q1 , the median of the lower half of Q1 =
the data. 2
5
=
2
= 2.5
6+7
4. Calculate Q3 , the median of the upper half of Q3 =
the data. 2
13
=
2
= 6.5
5. Calculate the interquartile range. IQR = Q3 − Q1
= 6.5 − 2.5
6. Write the answer. =4

1. In a new problem, on 1. On the Statistics screen,
a Lists & Spreadsheet label list1 as ‘x’ and enter the
page, label column A as values as shown in the table.
‘xvalues’. Enter the Press EXE after entering each
values from the data set. value.
Press ENTER after
2. To find the summary 2. To find the summary statistics,

statistics, open a tap:
Calculator page and • Calc
press: • One-Variable
• MENU Set values as:
• 6: Statistics • XList: main\x
• 1: Stat Calculations • Freq: 1
• 1: One-Variable Tap OK.
Statistics Calculate the IQR = Q3 − Q1
Select 1 as the number The IQR = Q3 − Q1 = 6.5 − 2.5 = 4
of lists. Then on the
One-Variable Statistics
page select ‘xvalues’ as
the X1 List and leave the The IQR = Q3 − Q1 =
Frequency as 1. Leave 6.5 − 2.5 = 4
the remaining fields
empty, TAB to OK, and
then press ENTER.
The summary statistics
are shown.

Determining the IQR from a graph

• When data are presented in a frequency distribution table, either ungrouped or grouped, the interquartile
range is found by drawing an ogive.
WORKED EXAMPLE 6 Calculating the IQR from a graph
The following frequency distribution table gives the number of customers who order different
volumes of concrete from a readymix concrete company during the course of a day. Calculate the
interquartile range of the data.
Volume (m3 ) Frequency Volume (m3 ) Frequency

0.0 − < 0.5 15 1.5 − < 2.0 8
0.5 − < 1.0 12 2.0 − < 2.5 2
1.0 − < 1.5 10 2.5 − < 3.0 4
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1. To calculate the 25th and 75th percentiles from
the ogive, first add a class centre column and a
Volume Class centre f cf
cumulative frequency column to the frequency 0.0 − < 0.5 0.25 15 15
distribution table and fill them in. 0.5 − < 1.0 0.75 12 27
1.0 − < 1.5 1.25 10 37
1.5 − < 2.0 1.75 8 45
2.0 − < 2.5 2.25 2 47
2.5 − < 3.0 2.75 4 51
2. Draw the ogive. A percentage axis will

Cumulative frequency (%)

be useful. 50 100%
40 75%
30
50%
20
25%
10
0 5 5 5 5 5 5
0.2 0.7 1.2 1.7 2.2 2.7
Volume (m3)
3. Identify the upper quartile (75th percentile) Q3 = 1.6 m3

and lower quartile (25th percentile) from Q1 = 0.4 m3
the ogive.
4. The interquartile range is the difference IQR = Q3 − Q1
between the upper and lower quartiles. = 1.6 − 0.4
= 1.2 m3

Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivities Individual pathway interactivity: Measures of spread (int-4622)
Range (int-3822)
The interquartile range (int-4813)
Exercise 12.3 Measures of spread

Individual pathways
1, 4, 7, 10, 13 2, 6, 8, 11, 14 3, 5, 9, 12, 15
Fluency
1. WE4 Calculate the range for each of the following sets of data.
a. 4, 3, 9, 12, 8, 17, 2, 16
b. 49.5, 13.7, 12.3, 36.5, 89.4, 27.8, 53.4, 66.8
1 3 1 2 1 3
c. 7 , 12 , 5 , 8 , 9 , 3
2 4 4 3 6 4
2. WE5 Calculate the interquartile range (IQR) for the following sets of data.
a. 3, 5, 8, 9, 12, 14
b. 7, 10, 11, 14, 17, 23
c. 66, 68, 68, 70, 71, 74, 79, 80
d. 19, 25, 72, 44, 68, 24, 51, 59, 36
3. The following stem-and-leaf plot shows the mass of newborn babies (rounded to the nearest 100g).
Calculate the:
a. range of the data b. IQR of the data.
Key: 1∗ ∣ 9 = 1.9 kg
Stem Leaf
1* 9
2 24
2* 6 7 8 9
3 001234
3* 5 5 6 7 8 8 8 9
4 01344
4* 5 6 6 8 9
5 0122

4. Use the ogive shown to calculate the interquartile range of the data.

50 100%
40
30
50%
20
10
0 0
100 120 140 160 180
Height (cm)
5. WE6 The following frequency distribution table gives the amount of time spent by 50 people shopping for
Christmas presents.
Time (h) 0 − < 0.5 0.5 − < 1 1 − < 1.5 1.5 − < 2 2 − < 2.5 2.5 − < 3 3 − < 3.5 3.5 − < 4
Frequency 1 2 7 15 13 8 2 2
Estimate the IQR of the data.

6. MC Calculate the interquartile range of the following data:
17, 18, 18, 19, 20, 21, 21, 23, 25
A. 8 B. 18 C. 4 D. 20 E. 25
Understanding
7. The following frequency distribution table shows the life expectancy in hours of 40 household batteries.
Life (h) 50 − < 55 55 − < 60 60 − < 65 65 − < 70 70 − < 75 75 − < 80

Frequency 4 10 12 8 5 1
a. Draw an ogive curve that represents the data in the table above.
b. Use the ogive to answer the following questions.
i. Calculate the median score.
ii. Determine the upper and lower quartiles.
iii. Calculate the interquartile range.
iv. Identify the number of batteries that lasted less than 60 hours.
v. Identify the number of batteries that lasted 70 hours or more.
8. Calculate the IQR for the following data.

120 − < 130 2
130 − < 140 3
140 − < 150 9
150 − < 160 14
160 − < 170 10
170 − < 180 8
180 − < 190 6
190 − < 200 3

9. For each of the following sets of data, state:

i. the range and
ii. the IQR of each set.
a. 6, 9, 12, 13, 20, 22, 26, 29 b. 7, 15, 2, 26, 47, 19, 9, 33, 38
c. 120, 99, 101, 136, 119, 87, 123, 115, 107, 100
Reasoning
10. Explain what the measures of spread tell us about a set of data.
11. As newly appointed coach of Terrorolo’s Meteors netball team, Kate decided to record each player’s
statistics for the previous season. The number of goals scored by the leading goal shooter was:
1 3 8 18 19 23 25 25 25 26 27 28
28 28 28 29 29 30 30 33 35 36 37 40
a. Calculate the mean of the data.

b. Calculate the median of the data.
c. Calculate the range of the data.
d. Determine the interquartile range of the data.
e. There are three scores that are much lower than most. Explain the effect these scores have on the
summary statistics.
12. The following back-to-back stem-and-leaf plot shows the ages of 30 pairs of men and women when entering
their first marriage.
Key: 1 ∣ 6 = 16 years old

Leaf: Stem Leaf:
Men Women
998 1 67789
99887644320 2 001234567789
9888655432 3 01223479
6300 4 1248
60 5 2
a. Determine the mean, median, range and interquartile range of each set.
b. Write a short paragraph comparing the two distributions.
Problem solving
13. Calculate the mean, median, mode, range and IQR of the following data
collected when the temperature of the soil around 25 germinating seedlings
was recorded:
28.9, 27.4, 23.6, 25.6, 21.1, 22.9, 29.6, 25.7, 27.4, 23.6, 22.4, 24.6, 21.8,
26.4, 24.9, 25.0, 23.5, 26.1, 23.6, 25.3, 29.5, 23.5, 22.0, 27.9, 23.6.
14. Four positive numbers a, b, c and d have a mean of 12, a median and mode
of 9 and a range of 14. Determine the values of a, b, c and d.
15. A set of five positive integer scores have the following summary statistics:
• range = 9
• median = 6
• Q1 = 3 and Q3 = 9.
a. Explain whether the five scores could be 1, 4, 6, 9 and 10.

b. A sixth score is added to the set. Determine whether there is a score that will maintain the summary
statistics given above. Justify your answer.

12.4 Box plots

LEARNING INTENTION
• calculate the five-number summary for a set of data
• draw a box plot showing the five-number summary of a data set
• calculate outliers in a data set
• describe skewness of distributions
• compare box plots to dot plots or histograms
• draw parallel box plots and compare sets of data.
12.4.1 Five-number summary

eles-4953
• A five-number summary is a list consisting of the lowest score (Xmin ), lower quartile (Q1 ), median (Q2 ),
upper quartile (Q3 ) and greatest score (Xmax ) of a set of data.
WORKED EXAMPLE 7 Calculations using the five-number summary
From the following five-number summary, calculate:

a. the interquartile range b. the range.
Xmin Q1 Median (Q2 ) Q3 Xmax

29 37 39 44 48
THINK WRITE
a. The interquartile range is the difference between a. IQR = Q3 − Q1
the upper and lower quartiles. = 44 − 37
=7
b. The range is the difference between the greatest b. Range = Xmax − Xmin
score and the lowest score. = 48 − 29
= 19
12.4.2 Box plots

eles-4954
• A box plot is a graph of the five-number summary.
• Box plots consist of a central divided box with attached whiskers.
• The box spans the interquartile range.
• The median is marked by a vertical line drawn inside the box.
• The whiskers indicate the range of scores:
The lowest score The lower The The upper The greatest score
Xmin quartile median quartile Xmax
Q1 Med. Q3
(Lower extreme) (Upper extreme)

• Box plots are always drawn to scale.

• They are presented either with the five-number summary figures 4 15 21 23 28
attached as labels (diagram at right) or with a scale presented
alongside the box plot like the diagram below. They can also be
drawn vertically.
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Scale
Identification of extreme values or outliers

• If an extreme value or outlier occurs in a set of data, it can be denoted by a small cross on the box plot. The
whisker is then shortened to the next largest (or smallest) figure.
• The box plot below shows that the lowest score was 5. This was an extreme value as the rest of the scores
were located within the range 15 to 42.
• Outliers are still included when calculating the range of the data.
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Scale
• Outliers sit 1.5 × IQR or greater away from Q1 or Q3 .
Identifying outliers
Lower limit = Q1 − 1.5 × IQR

Upper limit = Q3 + 1.5 × IQR
Any scores that sit outside these limits are considered outliers.
Symmetry and skewness in distributions

• A symmetrical plot has data that are evenly spaced around a central point. Examples of a stem-and-leaf
plot and a symmetrical box plot are shown below.
Stem Leaf
26* 6
27 013
27* 5689
28 011124
20 22 24 26 28 30
28* 5788
29 222
29* 5

• A negatively skewed plot has larger amounts of data at the higher end. This is illustrated by the
stem-and-leaf plot below where the leaves increase in length as the data increase in value. It is illustrated on
the box plot when the median is much closer to the maximum value than the minimum value.
Stem Leaf
5 1
6 29
7 1122 x
0 2 4 6 8 10
8 144566
9 534456777
• A positively skewed plot has larger amounts of data at the lower end. This is illustrated on the
stem-and-leaf plot below where the leaves increase in length as the data decrease in value. It is illustrated
on the box plot when the median is much closer to the minimum value than the maximum value.
Stem Leaf
5 134456777
6 244566
7 1122 x
0 2 4 6 8 10
8 16
9 5
WORKED EXAMPLE 8 Drawing a box plot
The following stem-and-leaf plot gives the speed of 25 cars caught by a roadside speed camera.
Key: 8 ∣ 2 = 82 km/h, 8∗ ∣ 6 = 86 km/h

Stem Leaf
8 224444
8∗ 5 5 6 6 7 9 9 9
9 01124
9∗ 5 6 9
10 0 2
10∗
11 4
a. Prepare a five-number summary of the data and draw a box plot to represent it.
b. Identify any outliers and redraw the box plot with outliers marked.
c. Describe the distribution of the data.
THINK WRITE
( )
25 + 1
1. First identify the positions of the median and The median is the th score — that is, the
upper and lower quartiles.( There are 2
) 25 data (
13th score. )
n+1 12 + 1
values. The median is the th score. Q1 is the th score in the lower half — that
2 2
The lower quartile is the median of the lower half is, the 6.5th score. That is, halfway between the 6th
of the data. The upper quartile is the median of and 7th scores.
the upper half of the data (each half contains Q3 is halfway between the 6th and 7th scores in the
12 scores). upper half of the data.

2. Mark the positions of the median and upper and 8 2 = 82 km/h

Key: 8* 6 = 86 km/h
lower quartiles on the stem-and-leaf plot.
Stem Leaf Q1
8 2 2 4 4 44 Median
8* 5 5 6 6 79 9 9
9 01124
9* 569
Q3
10 02
10*
11 4
a. Write the five-number summary: a. Five-number summary:
The lowest score is 82.
The lower quartile is between 84 and 85; Xmin Q1 Q2 Q3 Xmax
that is, 84.5. 82 84.5 89 94.5 114
The median is 89.
The upper quartile is between 94 and 95; ×
that is, 94.5.
The greatest score is 114. 80 90 100 110
Draw the box plot for this summary. Speed (km/h)
b. 1. Calculate the IQR. b. IQR = Q3 − Q1

= 94.5 − 84.5
= 10
2. Calculate the lower and upper limits. Lower limit = 84.5 − 1.5 × 10
= 69.5
Upper limit = 94.5 + 1.5 × 10
= 109.5
3. Identify the outliers. 114 is above the upper limit of 109.5, so it is

an outlier.
4. Redraw the box plot, including the outlier
×
marked as a cross. Draw the whisker to the
next largest figure, 102.
80 90 100 110
Speed (km/h)
c. Describe the distribution. c. The data is positively skewed.


a. a. a. a.
1. In a new problem, on a 1. On the Statistics screen,
Lists & Spreadsheet page, label list1 as ‘cars’ and
label column A as ‘cars’ enter the values from the
and enter the values from stem-and-leaf plot.
the stem-and-leaf plot. Press EXE after entering
Press ENTER after each each value.
value.
2. To find a five-point 2. To find the summary

summary of the data, on statistics, tap:
a Calculator page press: • Calc
• CATALOG • One-Variable
• 1 Set values as:
• F • XList: main\cars
Then use the down • Freq: 1
arrow to scroll down to
FiveNumSummary and
press ENTER.
3. Press VAR and select 3. Tap OK.

‘cars’ Complete the entry Scroll down to find more
line as: FiveNumSummary statistics.
cars and press ENTER. minX = 82
Then press VAR and select Q1 = 84.5
‘stat.results’ and press Med = 89
ENTER. Q3 = 95.5
maxX = 114
b. b. b. b.
To construct the box-and- To construct the box-and-
whisker plot, open a Data whisker plot, tap:
& Statistics page. Press • SetGraph
TAB to locate the label • Setting...
of the horizontal axis and
Set:
select the variable ‘cars’. • Type: MedBox
Then press: • XList: main\cars
• MENU
• Freq: 1
• 1: Plot Type
Then tap the graphing
• 2: Box Plot The box-and-whisker plot is icon.
To change the colour, place displayed. As you scroll over the
the pointer over one of the box-and-whisker plot, the values
data points. Then press of the five-number summary The box-and-whisker plot
CTRL MENU. statistics are displayed. The data is displayed.
Then press: are skewed (positively).
• 6: Color
• 2: Fill Color.
Select whichever colour
you like from the palette.
Press ENTER.

12.4.3 Comparing different graphical representations

eles-4956
Box plots and dot plots
• Box plots are a concise summary of data. A box plot can be directly related to a dot plot.
• Dot plots display each data value represented by a dot placed on a number line.
• The following data are the amount of money (in $) that a group of 27 five-year-olds had with them on a day
visiting the zoo with their parents.
0 0.85 0 1.8 1.65 8.45 3.75 0.55 4.1 2.4 2.15
1.2 1.35 0.9 3.45 1 0 0 1.45 1.25 1.7 2.65
1.85 4.75 3.9 1.15
• The dot plot below and its comparative box plot show the distribution of these data.
0 2 4 6 8 10
Amount of money ($)
Both graphs indicate that the data is positively skewed and both graphs indicate the presence of the outlier.
However, the box plot provides an excellent summary of the centre and spread of the distribution.
Box plots and histograms

• Histograms are graphs that display continuous numerical variables and do not retain all original data.
• The following data are the number of minutes, rounded to the nearest minute, that forty Year 10 students
take to travel to their school on a particular day.
15 22 14 12 21 34 19 11 13 0 16
4 23 8 12 18 24 17 14 3 10 12
9 15 20 5 19 13 17 11 16 19 24
12 7 14 17 10 14 23
The data are displayed in the histogram and box plot shown.
16
14
12
Frequency
10
8
6
4
2
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Number of minutes
Both graphs indicate that the data is slightly positively skewed. The histogram clearly shows the frequencies of
each class interval. Neither graph displays the original values. The histogram does not give precise information
about the centre, but the distribution of the data is visible. However, the box plot shows the presence of an outlier
and provides an excellent summary of the centre and spread of the distribution.
Parallel box plots

• A major reason for developing statistical skills is to be able to make comparisons between sets of data.
WORKED EXAMPLE 9 Comparing two sets of data
Each member of a class was given a jelly snake to stretch. They each
measured the initial length of their snake to the nearest centimetre and
then slowly stretched the snake to make it as long as possible. They then
measured the maximum length of the snake by recording how far it had
stretched at the time it broke. The results were recorded in the
following table.
Initial length Stretched Initial length Stretched
(cm) length (cm) (cm) length (cm)
13 29 14 27
14 28 13 27
17 36 15 36
10 24 16 36
14 35 15 36
16 36 16 34
15 37 17 35
16 37 12 27
14 30 9 17
16 33 16 41
17 36 17 38
16 38 16 36
17 38 17 41
14 31 16 33
17 40 11 21
The above data was drawn on parallel box plots as shown below.
Stretched
Initial
100 200 300 400 500

Length of snake (mm)
Compare the data sets and draw your conclusion for the stretched snake.
THINK WRITE
1. Determine the median in the case of the The change in the length of the snake when stretched
initial and stretched length of the snake. is evidenced by the increased median and spread
shown on the box plots.
The median snake length before being stretched was
15.5 cm, but the median snake length after being
stretched was 35 cm.
2. Draw your conclusion. The range increased after stretching, as did the IQR.

Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivities Individual pathway interactivity: Box-and-whisker plots (int-4623)
Skewness (int-3823)
Box plots (int-6245)
Parallel box plots (int-6248)
Exercise 12.4 Box plots

Individual pathways
1, 4, 6, 9, 12, 13, 16, 19 2, 5, 7, 10, 14, 17, 20 3, 8, 11, 15, 18, 21, 22
Fluency
1. WE7 From the following five-number summary calculate:
Xmin Q1 Median Q3 Xmax

6 11 13 16 32
2. From the following five-number summary calculate:

101 119 122 125 128
3. From the following five-number summary calculate:

39.2 46.5 49.0 52.3 57.8
4. The box plot shows the distribution of final points scored by a football team over a season’s roster.
50 70 90 110 130 150

Points
a. Identify the team’s greatest points score.

b. Identify the team’s least points score.
c. Calculate the team’s median points score.
d. Calculate the range of points scored.
e. Calculate the interquartile range of points scored.

5. The box plot shows the distribution of data formed by counting the
number of gummy bears in each of a large sample of packs.
a. Identify the largest number of gummy bears in any pack.
30 35 40 45 50 55 60
b. Identify the smallest number of gummy bears in any pack. Number of gummy bears
c. Identify the median number of gummy bears in any pack.
d. Calculate the range of numbers of gummy bears per pack.
e. Calculate the interquartile range of gummy bears per pack.
Questions 6 to 8 refer to the following box plot:
5 10 15 20 25 30
Score
6. MC The median of the data is:
A. 20 B. 23 C. 25 D. 31 E. 5
7. MC The interquartile range of the data is:

A. 23 B. 26 C. 5 D. 20 to 25 E. 31
8. MC Select which of the following is not true of the data represented by the box plot.
A. One-quarter of the scores are between 5 and 20.
B. Half of the scores are between 20 and 25.
C. The lowest quarter of the data is spread over a wide range.
D. Most of the data are contained between the scores of 5 and 20.
E. One-third of the scores are between 5 and 20.
Understanding
9. The number of sales made each day by a salesperson is recorded over a 2-week period:
25, 31, 28, 43, 37, 43, 22, 45, 48, 33

a. Prepare a five-number summary of the data. (There is no need to draw a stem-and-
leaf plot of the data. Just arrange them in order of size.)
b. Draw a box plot of the data.
10. The data below show monthly rainfall in millimetres.
J F M A M J J A S O N D
10 12 21 23 39 22 15 11 22 37 45 30
a. Prepare a five-number summary of the data.

11. WE8 The stem-and-leaf plot shown details the age of 25 offenders who
Key: 1|8 = 18 years
were caught during random breath testing.
Stem Leaf
1 88999
c. Describe the distribution of the data.
2 000113469
3 0127
4 25
5 368
6 6
7 4
12. The following stem-and-leaf plot details the price at which 30 blocks of land in a particular suburb sold for.
Key: 12|4 = $124 000
Stem Leaf
12 4 7 9
13 0 0 2 5 5
14 0 0 2 3 5 5 7 9 9
15 0 0 2 3 7 7 8
16 0 2 2 5 8
17 5

13. Prepare comparative box plots for the following dot plots (using the same axis) and describe what each plot
reveals about the data.
a. Number of sick days taken by workers last year at factory A
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
b. Number of sick days taken by workers last year at factory B
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
14. An investigation into the transport needs of an outer suburb community recorded
the number of passengers boarding a bus during each of its journeys, as follows.
12 43 76 24 46 24 21 46 54 109 87 23 78
37 22 139 65 78 89 52 23 30 54 56 32 66 49
Display the data by constructing a histogram using class intervals of 20 and a
comparative box plot on the same axis.
15. WE12 At a weight-loss clinic, the following weights (in kilograms) were recorded before and
after treatment.
Before 75 80 75 140 77 89 97 123 128 95 152 92
After 69 66 72 118 74 83 89 117 105 81 134 85
Before 85 90 95 132 87 109 87 129 135 85 137 102

After 79 84 90 124 83 102 84 115 125 81 123 94
a. Prepare a five-number summary for weight before and after treatment.
b. Draw parallel box plots for weight before and after treatment.
c. Comment on the comparison of weights before and after treatment.
Reasoning
16. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of box plots as a visual form of representing data.

17. The following data detail the number of hamburgers sold by a fast
food outlet every day over a 4-week period.
M T W T F S S
125 144 132 148 187 172 181
134 157 152 126 155 183 188
131 121 165 129 143 182 181
152 163 150 148 152 179 181
a. Prepare a stem-and-leaf plot of the data. (Use a class size of 10.)

c. Comment on what these graphs tell you about hamburger sales.
18. The following data show the ages of 30 mothers upon the birth of their first baby.
22 21 18 33 17 23 22 24 24 20
25 29 32 18 19 22 23 24 28 20
31 22 19 17 23 48 25 18 23 20
a. Prepare a stem-and-leaf plot of the data. (Use a class size of 5.)

b. Draw a box plot of the data. Indicate any extreme values appropriately.
c. Describe the distribution in words. Comment on what the distribution says about the age that mothers
have their first baby.
Problem solving
19. Sketch a histogram for the box plot shown.
20. Consider the box plot below which shows the number of weekly sales of houses by two real estate agencies.
HJ Looker
Hane & Roarne
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Number of weekly sales
a. Determine the median number of weekly sales for each real estate agency.
b. State which agency had the greater range of sales. Justify your answer.
c. State which agency had the greater interquartile range of sales. Justify your answer.
d. State which agency performed better. Explain your answer.
21. Fifteen French restaurants were visited by three newspaper restaurant reviewers. The average price of a meal
for a single person was investigated. The following box plot shows the results.
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160

Price ($)

a. Identify the price of the cheapest meal.

b. Identify the price of the most expensive meal.
c. Identify the median cost of a meal.
d. Calculate the interquartile range for the price of a meal.
e. Determine the percentage of the prices that were below the median.
22. The following data give the box plots for three different age groups in a triathlon for under thirities.
Under 20
20–24
Age
25–29
7000 8000 9000 10 000

Time in seconds
a. Identify the slowest time for the 20–24 year olds.

b. Estimate the difference in time between the fastest triathlete in:
i. the under 20s and the 20–24 group

ii. the under 20s and the 25–29 group
iii. the under 20–24 group and the 25–29 group.
c. Comment on the overall performance of the three groups.
12.5 The standard deviation (10A)

LEARNING INTENTION
• calculate the standard deviation of a small data set by hand
• calculate the standard deviation using technology
• interpret the mean and standard deviation of data
• identify the effect of outliers on the standard deviation.
12.5.1 Standard deviation

eles-4958
• The standard deviation for a set of data is a measure of how far the data values are spread out (deviate)
from the mean. The value of the standard deviation tells you the average deviation of the data from
the mean.
• Deviation is the difference between each data value and the mean (x − x). The standard deviation is
calculated from the square of the deviations.

Standard deviation formula

• Standard deviation is denoted by the lowercase Greek letter sigma, 𝜎, and can be calculated by using
the following formula. √
2
(x − x)
𝜎= ∑
n
where x is the mean of the data values and n is the number of data values.
• A low standard deviation indicates that the data values tend to be close to the mean.
• A high standard deviation indicates that the data values tend to be spread out over a large range, away from
the mean.
• Standard deviation can be calculated using a scientific or graphics calculator, or it can be calculated from a
frequency table by following the steps below.
Step 1 Calculate the mean.
Step 2 Calculate the deviations.
Step 3 Square each deviation.
Step 4 Sum the squares.
Step 5 Divide the sum of the squares by the number of data values.
Step 6 Take the square root of the result.
WORKED EXAMPLE 10 Calculating the standard deviation
The number of lollies in each of 8 packets is 11, 12, 13, 14, 16, 17, 18, 19.
Calculate the mean and standard deviation correct to 2 decimal places.
THINK WRITE
11 + 12 + 13 + 14 + 16 + 17 + 18 + 19
1. Calculate the mean. x=
8
120
=
8
= 15
2. To calculate the deviations (x − x), set up a
No. of lollies (x) (x − x)
frequency table as shown and complete.
11 11 − 15 = −4
12 −3
13 −2
14 −1
16 1
17 2
18 3
19 4
Total

3. Add another column to the table to calculate 2

2
the square of the deviations, (x − x) . Then No. of lollies (x) (x − x) (x − x)
2
sum the results: Σ(x − x) . 11 11 − 15 = −4 16
12 −3 9
13 −2 4
14 −1 1
16 1 1
17 2 4
18 3 9
19 4 16
2
Total ∑(x − x) = 60
√
2
∑ (x − x)
4. To calculate the standard deviation, divide the 𝜎=
sum of the squares by the number of data n
√
values, then take the square root of the result. 60
=
8
≈ 2.74 (correct to 2 decimal places)
5. Check the result using a calculator. The calculator returns an answer of 𝜎n = 2.73861.
Answer confirmed.
6. Interpret the result. The average (mean) number of lollies in each pack
is 15 with a standard deviation of 2.74, which means
that the number of lollies in each pack differs from the
mean by an average of 2.74.

1. In a new problem, on a On the Statistics screen, label
Calculator page, complete list1 as ‘x’ and enter the values
the entry lines as shown. from the question. Press EXE
This stores the data values after entering each value. To find
to the variable ‘lollies’. the summary statistics, tap:
lollies: = {11, 12, 13, • Calc
14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19} • One-Variable
Although we can find Set values as:
many summary statistics, • XList: main\x
to calculate the mean The mean number of lollies is • Freq: 1
only, open a Calculator 15 and the population standard Tap OK.
page and press: deviation is 𝜍 = 2.74. The standard deviation is shown
• MENU as 𝜍x and the mean is shown
• 6: Statistics as x. The mean number of
• 3: List Math lollies is 15 with a standard
• 3: Mean deviation of 2.74.
‘lollies’, then press
ENTER.

2. To calculate the
population standard
deviation only, press:
• MENU
• 6: Statistics
• 3: List Math
• 9: Population standard
deviation
‘lollies’, then press
ENTER. Press CTRL
ENTER to get a decimal
approximation.
• When calculating the standard deviation from a frequency table, the frequencies must be taken into
account. Therefore, the following formula is used.
√
2
∑ f(x − x)
𝜎=
n
WORKED EXAMPLE 11 Calculating standard deviation from a frequency table
Lucy’s scores in her last 12 games of golf were 87, 88, 88, 89, 90, 90, 90, 92, 93, 93, 95 and 97.
Calculate the mean score and the standard deviation correct to 2 decimal places.
THINK WRITE
1. To calculate the mean,
Golf score (x) Frequency (f) fx
first set up a frequency
87 1 87
table.
88 2 176
89 1 89
90 3 270
92 1 92
93 2 186
95 1 95
97 1 97
Total ∑ f = 12 ∑ fx = 1092
∑ fx
∑f
1092
=
12
= 91

3. To calculate the
Golf score (x) Frequency (f) fx (x − x)
deviations (x − x), add
another column to the 87 1 87 87 − 91 = −4
frequency table and 88 8 176 −3
complete. 89 1 89 −2
90 3 270 −1
92 1 92 1
93 2 186 2
95 1 95 4
97 1 97 6
Total ∑ f = 12 ∑ fx = 1092
4. Add another column to 2

the table and multiply Golf score (x) Frequency (f) fx (x − x) f(x − x)
the square of the 87 1 87 87 − 91 = −4 1 × (−4)2 = 16
deviations, (x − x)2 , by 88 8 176 −3 18
2
the frequency f(x − x) . 89 1 89 −2 4
Then sum the results:
2 90 3 270 −1 3
∑ f(x − x) .
92 1 92 1 1
93 2 186 2 8
95 1 95 4 16
97 1 97 6 36
Total ∑ f = 12 ∑ fx = 1092 102
√
2
∑ f(x − x)
5. Calculate the standard 𝜎=
deviation using the n
√
formula. 102
=
12
≈ 2.92
6. Check the result using a The calculator returns an answer of 𝜎n = 2.91548.

calculator. The answer is confirmed.
7. Interpret the result. The average (mean) score for Lucy is 91 with a standard deviation of
2.92, which means that her score differs from the mean by an average
of 2.92.


1. In a new problem, on a 1. On the Statistic screen,
Lists & Spreadsheet page, label list1 as ‘score’ and
label column A as ‘score’ enter the values from the
and label column B as ‘f’. question. Press EXE after
Enter the values and the entering each value. To find
frequency corresponding to the summary statistics, tap:
each score as shown in the • Calc
table. Press ENTER after • One-Variable
each value. Set values as:
• XList: main\score
• Freq: 1
2. To find all the summary 2. Tap OK. The mean is x = 91 and

statistics, open a Calculator The standard deviation is the population standard
page and press: shown as 𝜍x and the mean deviation is 𝜍 = 2.92
• MENU is shown as x. correct to 2 decimal places.
• 6: Statistics
• 1: One Variable
Statistics...
Select 1 as the number
of lists, then on the The mean is x = 91 and the
One-Variable Statistics population standard deviation
page, select ‘score’ as is 𝜍 = 2.92 correct to 2 decimal
the X1 List and ‘f’ as the places.
Frequency List. Leave the
next two fields empty and
TAB to OK, then press
ENTER.
Why the deviations are squared

• When you take an entire data set, the sum of the deviations from the mean is zero, that is, ∑(x − x) = 0.
• When the data value is less than the mean (x < x), the deviation is negative.
• When the data value is greater than the mean (x > x), the deviation is positive.
• The negative and positive deviations cancel each other out; therefore, calculating the sum and average of
the deviations is not useful.
• By squaring all of the deviations, each deviation becomes positive, so the average of the deviations
becomes meaningful. This explains why the standard deviation is calculated using the squares of the
2
deviations, (x − x) , for all data values.
Standard deviations of populations and samples

• So far we have calculated the standard deviation for a population of data, that is, for complete sets of data.
There is another formula for calculating standard deviation for samples of data, that is, data that have been
randomly selected from a larger population.
• The sample standard deviation is more commonly used in day-to-day life, as it is usually impossible to
collect data from an entire population.
• For example, if you wanted to know how much time Year 10 students across the country spend on social
media, you would not be able to collect data from every student in the country. You would have to take a
sample instead.
• The sample standard deviation is denoted by the letter s, and can be calculated using the following formula.

Sample standard deviation formula

√
2
f(x − x)
s= ∑
n−1
• Calculators usually display both values for the standard deviation, so it is important to understand the
difference between them.
12.5.2 Effects on standard deviation

eles-4959
• The standard deviation is affected by extreme values.
WORKED EXAMPLE 12 Interpreting the effects on standard deviation
On a particular day Lucy played golf brilliantly and scored 60.

The scores in her previous 12 games of golf were 87, 88, 88, 89, 90, 90,
90, 92, 93, 93, 95 and 97 (see Worked example 1).
Comment on the effect this latest score has on the standard deviation.
THINK WRITE
1. Use a calculator to calculate the mean and x = 88.6154 𝜎 = 8.7225

the standard deviation. ≈ 88.62 ≈ 8.7225
2. Interpret the result and compare it to the In the first 12 games Lucy’s mean score was 91 with
results found in Worked example 11. a standard deviation of 2.92. This implied that Lucy’s
scores on average were 2.92 either side of her average
of 91. Lucy’s latest performance resulted in a mean
score of 88.62 with a standard deviation of 8.72. This
indicates a slightly lower mean score, but the much
higher standard deviation indicates that the data are
now much more spread out and that the extremely
good score of 60 is an anomaly.
12.5.3 Properties of standard deviation

eles-4961
• If a constant c is added to all data values in a set, the deviations (x − x) will remain unchanged and
consequently the standard deviation remains unchanged.
• If all data values in a set are multiplied by a constant k, the deviations (x − x) will be multiplied by k, that is
k(x − x); consequently the standard deviation is increased by a factor of k.
• The standard deviation can be used to measure consistency.
• When the standard deviation is low we are able to say that the scores in the data set are more consistent
with each other.

WORKED EXAMPLE 13 Calculating numerical changes to the standard deviation
For the data 5, 9, 6, 11, 10, 7:

a. calculate the standard deviation
b. calculate the standard deviation if 4 is added to each data value. Comment on the effect.
c. calculate the standard deviation if all data values are multiplied by 2. Comment on the effect.
THINK WRITE
5 + 9 + 6 + 11 + 10 + 7
a. 1. Calculate the mean. a. x =
6
=8
2. Set up a frequency table and enter the squares 2
of the deviations. (x) (x − x) (x − x)
5 5 − 8 = −3 9
6 −2 4
7 −1 1
9 1 1
10 2 4
11 3 9
2
Total ∑ (x − x) = 28
√
2
∑ (x − x)
3. To calculate the standard deviation, apply the 𝜎=
formula for standard deviation. n
√
28
=
6
b. 1. Add 4 to each data value in the set. b. 9, 13, 10, 15, 14, 11
9 + 13 + 10 + 15 + 14 + 11
6
= 12
9 9 − 12 = −3 9
10 −2 4
11 −1 1
13 1 1
14 2 4
15 3 9
2
Total ∑ (x − x) = 28
√
2
∑ (x − x)
4. To calculate the standard deviation, apply the 𝜎=
formula for standard deviation. n
√
28
=
6

5. Comment on the effect of adding of 4 to each Adding 4 to each data value increased the
data value. mean but had no effect on the standard
deviation, which remained at 2.16.
c. 1. Multiply each data value in the set by 2 c. 10, 18, 12, 22, 20, 14
10 + 18 + 12 + 22 + 20 + 14
6
= 16
10 10 − 16 = −6 36
12 −4 16
14 −2 4
18 2 4
20 4 16
22 6 36
2
Total ∑ (x − x) = 112
√
2 √
∑ (x − x) 112
4. To calculate the standard deviation, apply the 𝜎= =
formula for standard deviation. n 6
5. Comment on the effect of multiplying each Multiplying each data value by 2 doubled
data value by 2. the mean and doubled the standard deviation,
which changed from 2.16 to 4.32.
Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivities Individual pathway interactivity: The standard deviation (int-4624)
The standard deviation for a sample (int-4814)
Exercise 12.5 The standard deviation (10A)

Individual pathways
1, 2, 4, 8, 10, 13 3, 5, 7, 11, 14 6, 9, 12, 15
Fluency
1. WE10 Calculate the standard deviation of each of the following data sets, correct to 2 decimal places.
a. 3, 5, 8, 2, 7, 1, 6, 5 b. 11, 8, 7, 12, 10, 11, 14
c. 25, 15, 78, 35, 56, 41, 17, 24 d. 5.2, 4.7, 5.1, 12.6, 4.8

2. Calculate the standard deviation of each of the following data sets, correct to 2 decimal places.
a. Score (x) Frequency (f) b. Score (x) Frequency (f)

1 1 16 15
2 5 17 24
3 9 18 26
4 7 19 28
5 3 20 27
c. Score (x) Frequency (f) d. Score (x) Frequency (f)

8 15 65 15
10 19 66 15
12 18 67 16
14 7 68 17
16 6 69 16
18 2 70 15
71 15
72 12
3. Complete the following frequency distribution table and use it to calculate the standard deviation of the data
set, correct to 2 deciaml places.
Class Class centre (x) Frequency (f)

1 − 10 6
11 − 20 15
21 − 30 25
31 − 40 8
41 − 50 6
4. WE11 First-quarter profit increases for 8 leading companies are given below as percentages.
2.3 0.8 1.6 2.1 1.7 1.3 1.4 1.9
Calculate the mean score and the standard deviation for this set of data and express your answer correct to
2 decimal places.
5. The heights in metres of a group of army recruits are given.
1.8 1.95 1.87 1.77 1.75 1.79 1.81 1.83 1.76 1.80 1.92 1.87 1.85 1.83
Calculate the mean score and the standard deviation for this set of data and express your answer correct to
2 decimal places.

6. Times (to the nearest tenth of a second) for the heats in the open 100 m sprint at
Key: 11|0 = 11.0 s
the school sports are given in the stem-and-leaf plot shown.
Calculate the standard deviation for this set of data and express your answer Stem Leaf
correct to 2 decimal places. 11 0
11 2 3
11 4 4 5
11 6 6
11 8 8 9
12 0 1
12 2 2 3
12 4 4
12 6
12 9
7. The number of outgoing phone calls from an office each day over a 4-week
Key: 1|3 = 13 calls
period is shown in the stem-and-leaf plot.
Stem Leaf
Calculate the standard deviation for this set of data and express your answer
correct to 2 decimal places. 0 89
1 3479
2 01377
3 34
4 15678
5 38
8. MC A new legal aid service has been operational for only 5 weeks. The number Key: 1|6 = 16 people
of people who have made use of the service each day during this period is set
Stem Leaf
out in the stem-and-leaf plot shown.
The standard deviation (to 2 decimal places) of these data is: 0 24
A. 6.00 0 779
B. 6.34 1 014444
C. 6.47 1 5667889
D. 15.44 2 122333
E. 9.37 2 7
Understanding
9. WE12 The speeds, in km/h, of the first 25 cars caught by a roadside speed camera on a particular day were:
82, 82, 84, 84, 84, 84, 85, 85, 85, 86, 86, 87, 89, 89, 89, 90, 91, 91, 92, 94, 95, 96, 99, 100, 102
The next car that passed the speed camera was travelling at 140 km/h.
Comment on the effect of the speed of this last car on the standard deviation for the data.
10. Explain what the standard deviation tells us about a set of data.
Reasoning
11. WE13 For the data 1, 4, 5, 9, 11:
a. calculate the standard deviation
b. calculate the standard deviation if 7 is added to each data value. Comment on the effect.
c. calculate the standard deviation if all data values are multiplied by 3. Comment on the effect.
12. Show using an example the effect, if any, on the standard deviation of adding a data value to a set of data
that is equivalent to the mean.

Problem solving
13. If the mean for a set of data is 45 and the standard deviation is 6, determine how many standard deviations
above the mean is a data value of 57.
14. Five numbers a, b, c, d and e have a mean of 12 and a standard deviation of 4.
a. If each number is increased by 3, calculate the new mean and standard deviation.
b. If each number is multiplied by 3, calculate the new mean and standard deviation.
15. Twenty-five students sat a test and the results for 24 of the students are given in
Stem Leaf
the following stem-and-leaf plot.
0 89
a. If the average mark for the test was 27.84, determine the mark obtained 1 123789
by the 25th student.
2 23568
b. Determine how many students scored higher than the median score.
3 012468
c. Calculate the standard deviation of the marks, giving your answer correct to
2 decimal places. 4 02568
12.6 Comparing data sets

LEARNING INTENTION
• choose an appropriate measure of centre and spread to analyse data
• interpret and make decisions based on measures of centre and spread.
12.6.1 Comparing data sets

eles-4962
• Besides locating the centre of the data (the mean, median or mode), any analysis of data must measure the
extent of the spread of the data (range, interquartile range and standard deviation). Two data sets may have
centres that are very similar but be quite differently distributed.
• Decisions need to be made about which measure of centre and which measure of spread to use when
analysing and comparing data.
• The mean is calculated using every data value in the set. The median is the middle score of an ordered set
of data, so it is a more useful measure of centre when a set of data contains outliers.
• The range is determined by calculating the difference between the maximum and minimum data values, so
it includes outliers. It provides only a rough idea about the spread of the data and is inadequate in providing
sufficient detail for analysis. It is useful, however, when we are interested in extreme values such as high
and low tides or maximum and minimum temperatures.
• The interquartile range is the difference between the upper and lower quartiles, so it does not include every
data value in its calculation, but it will overcome the problem of outliers skewing data.
• The standard deviation is calculated using every data value in the set.
WORKED EXAMPLE 14 Interpreting mean and standard deviation
For the two sets of data 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 and 12, 4, 10, 11, 3:

a. calculate the mean
b. calculate the standard deviation
c. comment on the similarities and differences.

THINK WRITE
6 + 7 + 8 + 9 + 10
a. 1. Calculate the mean of a. x1 =
the first set of data. 5
=8
12 + 4 + 10 + 11 + 3
2. Calculate the mean of x2 =
the second set of data. 5
=8
b. 1. Calculate the standard b. √

deviation of the first set of (6 − 8)2 + (7 − 8)2 + (8 − 8)2 + (9 − 8)2 + (10 − 8)2
data. 𝜎1 =
5
≈ 1.41
√
(12 − 8)2 + (4 − 8)2 + (10 − 8)2 + (11 − 8)2 + (3 − 8)2
2. Calculate the standard 𝜎2 =
deviation of the second 5
≈ 3.74
set of data.
c. Comment on the findings. c. For both sets of data the mean was the same, 8. However,
the standard deviation for the second set (3.74) was much
higher than the standard deviation of the first set (1.41),
implying that the second set is more widely distributed
than the first. This is confirmed by the range, which is
10 − 6 = 4 for the first set and 12 − 3 = 9 for the second.
• When multiple data displays are used to display similar sets of data, comparisons and conclusions can then
be drawn about the data.
• We can use back-to-back stem-and-leaf plots and multiple or parallel box plots to help compare statistics
such as the median, range and interquartile range.
Back-to-back stem-and-leaf plots

Parallel box plots
Leaf Stem Leaf
5 0 8 9
6 6 3 2 1 4 5 6 8 9
8 4 1 2 0 4 5 7
9 8 5 3 0 3 1 6 9
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
7 1 4 1 3
5 2 5
WORKED EXAMPLE 15 Comparing data sets
Below are the scores achieved by two students in eight Mathematics tests throughout the year.
John: 45, 62, 64, 55, 58, 51, 59, 62
Penny: 84, 37, 45, 80, 74, 44, 46, 50
a. Determine the most appropriate measure of centre and measure of spread to compare the
performance of the students.
b. Identify the student who performed better over the eight tests. Justify your answer.
c. Identify the student who was more consistent over the eight tests. Justify your answer.

THINK WRITE
a. In order to include all data values in the a. John: x = 57, 𝜎 = 6
calculation of measures of centre and spread, Penny: x = 57.5, 𝜎 = 17.4
calculate the mean and standard deviation.
b. Compare the mean for each student. The student b. Penny performed slightly better on average as
with the higher mean performed better overall. her mean mark was higher than John’s.
c. Compare the standard deviation for each student. c. John was the more consistent student because his
The student with the lower standard deviation standard deviation was much lower than Penny’s.
performed more consistently. This means that his test results were closer to his
mean score than Penny’s were to hers.

a. a.
a Lists & Spreadsheet label list1 as ‘John’
page, label column A as and list2 as ‘Penny’. Enter
‘john’ and column B as the data set as shown.
‘penny’. Enter the data Press EXE after each value.
sets from the question.
value.
2. To calculate only the 2. To calculate the mean and

mean and standard standard deviation of each
deviation of each data data set, tap:
set, open a Calculator • Calc
page and complete the • Two-Variable
entry lines as: Set values as:
mean(john) • XList: main\John
stDevPop(john) • YList: main\Penny
mean(penny) • Freq: 1
stDevPop(penny) John: x = 57, 𝜍 = 6
Tap OK.
Press CTRL ENTER Penny: x = 57.5, 𝜍 = 17.4
The x-values relate to John
after each entry to get a correct to 2 decimal places.
and the y-values to Penny.
decimal approximation. Scroll down to see all the John: x = 57, 𝜍 = 6
statistics. Penny: x = 57.5, 𝜍 = 17.4

b–c. b–c. b–c.

To draw the two box To draw the two box-and-
plots on the same Data whisker plots on the same
& Statistics page, press Statistics screen, tap:
TAB to locate the label • SetGraph
of the horizontal axis and • Setting...
select the variable ‘john’.
Set values as:
Then press: • Type: MedBox
• MENU
• XList: main\John
• 1: Plot Type
• Freq: 1
• 2: Box Plot Penny performed slightly better
overall as her mean mark was Tap 2 in the row of numbers
Then press:
higher than John’s; however, at the top of the screen.
• MENU
John was more consistent as his Set values as:
• 2: Plot Properties Penny performed slightly
• Type: MedBox
• 5: Add X-variable and standard deviation was lower than better overall as her mean
• XList: main\Penny
select ‘penny’. Penny’s. mark was higher than
• Freq: 1
To change the colour, John’s; however, John
Tap Set.
place the pointer over was more consistent as his
Tap SetGraph and tick
one of the data points. standard deviation was
StatGraph1 and StatGraph2.
Then press CTRL lower than Penny’s.
Tap the graphing icon to
MENU. Then press:
display the graphs.
• 6: Color
• 2: Fill Color
Select whichever colour
you like from the palette
for each of the box plots.
Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivities Individual pathway interactivity: Comparing data sets (int-4625)
Back-to-back stem plots (int-6252)
Exercise 12.6 Comparing data sets

Individual pathways
1, 5, 8, 10, 11, 17 2, 4, 6, 9, 12, 13, 18 3, 7, 14, 15, 16, 19, 20
Fluency
1. WE14 For the two sets of data, 65, 67, 61, 63, 62, 60 and 56, 70, 65, 72, 60, 55:
a. calculate the mean
b. calculate the standard deviation
c. comment on the similarities and differences.

2. A bank surveys the average morning and afternoon waiting times for customers. The figures were taken each
Monday to Friday in the morning and afternoon for one month. The stem-and-leaf plot below shows
the results.
Key: 1|2 = 1.2 minutes
Leaf: Stem Leaf:
Morning Afternoon
7 0 788
86311 1 1124456667
9666554331 2 2558
952 3 16
5 4
5 7
a. Identify the median morning waiting time and the median afternoon waiting time.
b. Calculate the range for morning waiting times and the range for afternoon waiting times.
c. Use the information given in the display to comment about the average waiting time at the bank in the
morning compared with the afternoon.
3. In a class of 30 students there are 15 boys and 15 girls. Their heights are measured in metres and are
listed below.
Boys: 1.65, 1.71, 1.59, 1.74, 1.66, 1.69 1.72, 1.66, 1.65, 1.64, 1.68, 1.74, 1.57, 1.59, 1.60
Girls: 1.66, 1.69, 1.58, 1.55, 1.51, 1.56, 1.64, 1.69, 1.70, 1.57, 1.52, 1.58, 1.64, 1.68, 1.67
Display this information in a back-to-back stem-and-leaf plot and comment on their height distribution.
4. The stem-and-leaf plot at right is used to display the number
Key: 1|5 = 15 vehicles
of vehicles sold by the Ford and Hyundai dealerships in a
Leaf: Stem Leaf:
Sydney suburb each week for a three-month period.
Ford Hyundai
a. State the median of both distributions. 74 0 39
b. Calculate the range of both distributions.
952210 1 111668
c. Calculate the interquartile range of both distributions.
8544 2 2279
d. Show both distributions on a box plot.
0 3 5
5. The box plot drawn below displays statistical data of

two AFL teams over a season.
Sydney Swans
Brisbane Lions
50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150

Points
a. State the team that had the higher median score.

b. Determine the range of scores for each team.
c. For each team calculate the interquartile range.

Understanding
6. Tanya measures the heights (in m) of a group of Year
10 boys and girls and produces the following five-point
summaries for each data set.
Boys: 1.45, 1.56, 1.62, 1.70, 1.81
Girls: 1.50, 1.55, 1.62, 1.66, 1.73
a. Draw a box plot for both sets of data and display them
on the same scale.
b. Calculate the median of each distribution.
c. Calculate the range of each distribution.
d. Calculate the interquartile range for each distribution.
e. Comment on the spread of the heights among the boys
and the girls.
7. The box plots show the average daily sales of cold drinks at the
school canteen in summer and winter. Summer
a. Calculate the range of sales in both summer and winter.
b. Calculate the interquartile range of the sales in both summer Winter
and winter.
c. Comment on the relationship between the two data sets, both 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
in terms of measures of centre and measures of spread. Daily sales of cold drinks
8. MC Andrea surveys the age of people at two movies being shown
at a local cinema. The box plot shows the results. Movie A

Select which of the following conclusions could be drawn based on
the information shown in the box plot. Movie B
A. Movie A attracts an older audience than Movie B
B. Movie B attracts an older audience than Movie A. 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
C. Movie A appeals to a wider age group than Movie B. Age
D. Movie B appeals to a wider age group than Movie A.
E. Both movies appeal equally to the same age groups.

The figures below show the age of the first 10 men and women to finish a marathon.
Men: 28, 34, 25, 36, 25, 35, 22, 23, 40, 24
Women: 19, 27, 20, 26, 30, 18, 28, 25, 28, 22
Choose which of the following statements are correct.
A. The mean age of the men is greater than the mean age of the women.
B. The range is greater among the men than among the women.
C. The interquartile range is greater among the men than among the women.
D. The standard deviation is greater among the men than among the women.
E. The standard deviation is less among the men than among the women.

Reasoning
10. WE15 Cory recorded his marks for each test that he did in English and Science throughout the year.
English: 55, 64, 59, 56, 62, 54, 65, 50

Science: 35, 75, 81 32, 37, 62, 77, 75
a. Determine the most appropriate measure of centre and measure of spread to compare Cory’s performance
in the two subjects.
b. Identify the subject in which Cory received a better average. Justify your answer.
c. Identify the subject in which Cory performed more consistently. Justify your answer.
11. Draw an example of a graph that is:

a. symmetrical
b. positively skewed with one mode
c. negatively skewed with two modes.
12. The police set up two radar speed checks on a back street of Sydney and on a main road. In both places the
speed limit is 60 km/h. The results of the first 10 cars that have their speed checked are given below.
Back street: 60, 62, 58, 55, 59, 56, 65, 70, 61, 64
Main road: 55, 58, 59, 50, 40, 90, 54, 62, 60, 60
a. Calculate the mean and standard deviation of the readings taken at each point.
b. Identify the road where drivers are generally driving faster. Justify your answer.
c. Identify the road where the spread of readings is greater. Justify your answer.
13. In boxes of Smarties it is advertised that there are 50 Smarties in each box. Two machines are used to
distribute the Smarties into the boxes. The results from a sample taken from each machine are shown in the
stem-and-leaf plot below.
Key: 5|1 = 51 5 ∗ |6 = 56
Leaf: Stem Leaf:
Machine A Machine B
4 4
99877665 4∗ 57899999999
43222111000000 5 0000011111223
55 5 ∗ 9
a. Display the data from both machines on parallel box plots.

b. Calculate the mean and standard deviation of the number of Smarties distributed from both machines.
c. State which machine is the more dependable. Justify your answer.
14. Nathan and Timana are wingers in their local rugby league team. The
number of tries they have scored in each season are listed below.
Nathan: 25, 23, 13, 36, 1, 8, 0, 9, 16, 20

Timana: 5, 10, 12, 14, 18, 11, 8, 14, 12, 19
a. Calculate the mean number of tries scored by each player.

b. Calculate the range of tries scored by each player. Justify your answer.
c. Calculate the interquartile range of tries scored by each player. Justify
your answer.
d. State which player would you consider to be the more consistent. Justify
your answer.

15. Year 10 students at Merrigong High School sit exams in

Science and Maths. The results are shown in the table below.
Mark Number of students in Science Number of students in Maths

51 − 60 7 6
61 − 70 10 7
71 − 80 8 12
81 − 91 8 9
91 − 100 2 6
a. Determine if either distribution is symmetrical.

b. If either distribution is not symmetrical, state whether it is positively or negatively skewed.
c. Discuss the possible reasons for any skewness.
d. State the modal class of each distribution.
e. Determine which subject has the greater standard deviation greater. Explain your answer.
16. A new drug for the relief of cold symptoms has been developed.
To test the drug, 40 people were exposed to a cold virus. Twenty
patients were then given a dose of the drug while another 20
patients were given a placebo. (In medical tests a control group
is often given a placebo drug. The subjects in this group believe
that they have been given the real drug but in fact their dose
contains no drug at all.)
All participants were then asked to indicate the time when they
first felt relief of symptoms. The number of hours from the time
the dose was administered to the time when the patients first felt
relief of symptoms are detailed below.
Group A (drug)
25 29 32 45 18 21 37 42 62 13
42 38 44 42 35 47 62 17 34 32
Group B (placebo)
25 17 35 42 35 28 20 32 38 35
34 32 25 18 22 28 21 24 32 36
a. Display the data on a back-to-back stem-and-leaf plot.

b. Display the data for both groups on a parallel box plot.
c. Make comparisons of the data. Use statistics in your answer.
d. Explain if the drug works. Justify your answer.
e. Determine other considerations that should be taken into account when trying to draw conclusions from
an experiment of this type.
Problem solving
17. The heights of Year 10 and Year 12 students (to the nearest centimetre) are being investigated. The results of
some sample data are shown below.
Year 10 160 154 157 170 167 164 172 158 177 180 175 168 159 155 163 163 169 173 172 170
Year 12 160 172 185 163 177 190 183 181 176 188 168 167 166 177 173 172 179 175 174 108
a. Draw a back-to-back stem-and-leaf plot.

b. Draw a parallel box plot.
c. Comment on what the plots tell you about the heights of Year 10 and Year 12 students.

18. Kloe compares her English and Maths marks. The results of eight tests in each subject are shown below.
English: 76, 64, 90, 67, 83, 60, 85, 37
Maths: 80, 56, 92, 84, 65, 58, 55, 62
a. Calculate Kloe’s mean mark in each subject.
b. Calculate the range of marks in each subject.
c. Calculate the standard deviation of marks in each subject.
d. Based on the above data, determine the subject that Kloe has performed more consistently in.
19. A sample of 50 students was surveyed on whether they owned an iPad or a mobile phone. The results
showed that 38 per cent of the students owned both. Sixty per cent of the students owned a mobile phone
and there were four students who had an iPad only. Evaluate the percentage of students that did not own a
mobile phone or an iPad.
20. The life expectancy of non-Aboriginal and non–Torres Strait Islander people in Australian states and
territories is shown on the boxplot below.
70 75 80 85
Life expectancy of non-Aboriginal and non–Torres Strait
Islander people in Australian states and territories
The life expectancies of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people in each of the Australian states and
territories are 56, 58.4, 51.3, 57.8, 53.9, 55.4 and 61.0.
a. Draw parallel box plots on the same axes. Compare and comment on your results.
b. Comment on the advantage and disadvantage of using a box plot.
12.7 Populations and samples

LEARNING INTENTION
• describe the difference between populations and samples
• recognise the difference between a census and a survey and identify a preferred method in different
circumstances.
12.7.1 Populations
eles-4946
• The term population refers to a complete set of individuals,
objects or events belonging to some category.
• When data are collected from a whole population, the
process is known as a census.
– It is often not possible, nor cost-effective, to conduct
a census.
– or this reason, samples have to be selected carefully from
Population (size N)
the population. A sample is a subset of a population.
Sample
(size n)

WORKED EXAMPLE 16 Identifying problems with collecting data on populations
List some of the problems you might encounter in trying to collect

data on the following populations.
a. The life of a mobile phone battery.
b. The number of possums in a local area.
c. The number of males in Australia.
d. The average cost of a loaf of white bread.
THINK WRITE
For each of these scenarios, consider how the
data might be collected, and the problems in
obtaining these data.
a. The life of a mobile phone battery. a. The life of a mobile phone battery cannot be
measured until it is dead. The battery life also
depends on how the phone is used, and how many
times it has been recharged.
b. The number of possums in a local area. b. It would be almost impossible to find all the
possums in a local area in order to count them. The
possums also may stray into other areas.
c. The number of males in Australia. c. The number of males in Australia is constantly
changing. There are births and deaths every second.
d. The average cost of a loaf of white bread. d. The price of one particular loaf of white bread
varies widely from one location to another.
Sometimes the bread is on ‘Special’ and this would
affect the calculations.
12.7.2 Samples
eles-4947
• Surveys are conducted using samples. Ideally the sample should reveal generalisations about
the population.
• The sample selected to be surveyed should be chosen without bias, as this may result in a sample that is
not representative of the whole population. For example, the students conducting the investigation decide
to choose a sample of 12 fellow students. While it would be simplest to choose 12 of their friends as the
sample, this would introduce bias since they would not be representative of the population as a whole.
• A random sample is generally accepted as being an ideal representation of the population from which it
was drawn. However, it must be remembered that different random samples from the same population
can produce different results. This means that we must be cautious about making predictions about a
population, as results of surveys conducted using random samples may vary. √
• A sample size must be sufficiently large. As a general rule, the sample size should be about N, where N
is the size of the population. If the sample size is too small, the conclusions that are drawn from the sample
data may not reflect the population as a whole.

WORKED EXAMPLE 17 Determining statistics from samples
A die was rolled 50 times and the following results were obtained.
6 5 3 1 6 2 3 6 2 5 3 4 1 3 2 6 4 5 5 4 3 1 2 1 6
4 5 2 3 6 1 5 3 3 2 4 1 4 2 3 2 6 3 4 6 2 1 2 4 2
a. Determine the mean of the population (to 1 decimal place).

( )
√
b. A suitable sample size for this population would be 7 50 ≈ 7.1 .
i. Select a random sample of 7 scores, and determine the mean of these scores.
ii. Select a second random sample of 7 scores, and determine the mean of these.
iii. Select a third random sample of 20 scores, and determine the mean of these.
c. Comment on your answers to parts a and b.
THINK WRITE
∑x
a. Calculate the mean by first finding the a. Population mean =
sum of all the scores, then dividing by n
the number of scores (50). 169
=
50
= 3.4
b. i. Use a calculator to randomly b. i. The 7 scores randomly selected are numbers 17, 50,
generate 7 scores from 1 to 50. 40, 34, 48, 12, 19 in the set of 50 scores.
Relate these numbers back to the These correspond to the scores:
scores, then calculate the mean. 4, 2, 3, 3, 2, 4, 5.
23
The mean of these scores = ≈ 3.3.
7
ii. Repeat b i to obtain a second set of ii. Ignore the second and third attempts to select 7
7 randomly selected scores. random numbers because of repeated numbers. The
This second set of random second set of 7 scores randomly selected is numbers
numbers produced the number 1 16, 49, 2, 42, 31, 11, 50 of the set of 50. These
twice. Try again. Another attempt correspond to the scores:
produced the number 14 twice. 6, 4, 5, 6, 1, 3, 2.
Try again. 27
A third attempt produced 7 The mean of these scores = ≈ 3.9.
7
different numbers. This set of 7
random numbers will then be used
to, again, calculate the mean of
the scores.
iii. Repeat for a randomly selected iii. The set of 20 randomly selected numbers produced a
20 scores. total of 68.
68
Mean of 20 random scores = = 3.4
20
c. Comment on the results. c. The population mean is 3.4.
The means of the two samples of 7 are 3.3 and 3.9.
This shows that, even though the samples are randomly
selected, their calculated means may be different.
The mean of the sample of 20 scores is 3.4. This
indicates that by using a bigger sample the result is more
accurate than those obtained with the smaller samples.


a. a. a. a.
1. In a new document, 1. On the Statistics
on a Lists & screen, label list1 as
Spreadsheet page, ‘die’. Enter the data
label column A as from the question.
‘die’. Enter the data Press EXE after each
from the question. value.
2. Although you can 2. To find the statistics

find many summary summary, tap:
statistics, to find the • Calc
mean only, open a • One-Variable
Calculator page and Set:
press: • XList: main\die
• MENU • Freq: 1
• 6: Statistics Tap OK.
• 3: List Math
• 3: Mean The mean of the 50 die rolls
Press VAR and select is 3.38.
‘die’, then press
CTRL ENTER The mean of the 50 die
to get a decimal rolls is 3.38.
approximation.
b. b. b. b.
i-ii. To generate a i-ii. i-ii. To generate a random i-ii.
random sample of sample of 7 dice rolls,
7 scores, on the on the Main screen,
Calculator page, type the entry line as:
press: randList (7,1,6)
• MENU Then press EXE.
• 5: Probability The randList can be
• 4: Random found in the Catalog on
• 2: Integer the Keyboard.
Type the entry line The mean of the first sample of 7 This randomly
as: randInt (1,6,7) rolls is 3.71, and the mean of the generates 7 numbers
Then press ENTER. second sample of 7 rolls is 3.29, between 1 and 6.
This randomly correct to 2 decimal places. The mean of the first
Tap:
generates 7 numbers sample of 7 rolls is 4.71;
• Action
between 1 and 6. the mean of the second
• List
Press: sample of 7 rolls is also
• Statistics
• MENU
• Mean 4.71, correct to 2 decimal
• 6: Statistics
Highlight the random places.
• 3: List Math
• 3: Mean list, including the
brackets, and drag it
Complete the entry
to the ‘mean( ’. Close
line as: mean(ans)
the bracket and press
Then press
EXE.
CTRL ENTER
Repeat this with
to get a decimal
another set of random
approximation of the
numbers.
mean.
Repeat this with
another set of
random numbers.

iii. To repeat the iii. To repeat the procedure iii.

procedure with 20 with 20 randomly
randomly generated generated values,
values, change the change the first entry
first entry line to: line to:
randList(1,6,20) randList(20,1,6)
Follow the remaining Follow the remaining
steps to calculate the steps to calculate the
mean. mean.
The mean of the third sample of
20 rolls is 3.15.
The mean of the third

sample of 20 rolls is 2.65.
c. c. c. c.
This indicates that the results This indicates that the
obtained from a bigger sample results obtained from a
are more accurate than those bigger sample are more
from smaller samples. accurate than those from
smaller samples.
12.7.3 To sample or to conduct a census?

eles-4948
• The particular circumstances determine whether data are collected from a population, or from a sample
of the population. For example, suppose you collected data on the height of every Year 10 student in
your class. If your class was the only Year 10 class in the school, your class would be the population. If,
however, there were several Year 10 classes in your school, your class would be a sample of the
Year 10 population.
• Worked example 17 showed that different random samples can produce different results. For this reason,
it is important to acknowledge that there could be some uncertainty when using sample results to make
predictions about the population.
WORKED EXAMPLE 18 Stating if the information was obtained by census or survey
For each of the following situations, state whether the information was obtained by census or survey.
Justify why that particular method was used.
a. A roll call is conducted each morning at school to determine which students are absent.
b. TV ratings are collected from a selection of viewers to discover the popular TV shows.
c. Every hundredth light bulb off an assembly production line is tested to determine the life of
that type of light bulb.
d. A teacher records the examination results of her class.
THINK WRITE
a. Every student is recorded as being present a. This is a census. If the roll call only applied to
or absent at the roll call. a sample of the students, there would not be an
accurate record of attendance at school.
A census is essential in this case.
b. Only a selection of the TV audience b. This is a survey. To collect data from the whole
contributed to these data. viewer population would be time-consuming and
expensive. For this reason, it is appropriate to select
a sample to conduct the survey.

c. Only 1 bulb in every 100 is tested. c. This is a survey. Light bulbs are tested to
destruction (burn-out) to determine their life. If
every bulb was tested in this way, there would be
none left to sell! A survey on a sample is essential.
d. Every student’s result is recorded. d. This is a census. It is essential to record the result
of every student.
Resources
Resourceseses
Digital documents SkillSHEET Determining suitability of questions for a survey (doc-5337)
SkillSHEET Finding proportions (doc-5338)
SkillSHEET Distinguishing between types of data (doc-5339)
Interactivities Individual pathway interactivity: Populations and samples (int-4629)
Sample sizes (int-6183)
Exercise 12.7 Populations and samples

Individual pathways
1, 4, 5, 8, 11 2, 6, 9, 12 3, 7, 10, 13
Fluency
1. WE16 List some of the problems you might encounter in trying to collect
data from the following populations.
a. The life of a laptop computer battery.
b. The number of dogs in your neighbourhood.
c. The number of fish for sale at the fish markets.
d. The average number of pieces of popcorn in a bag of popcorn.
2. WE17 The data below show the results of the rolled die from Worked example 17.
6 5 3 1 6 2 3 6 2 5 3 4 1 3 2 6 4 5 5 4 3 1 2 1 6
4 5 2 3 6 1 5 3 3 2 4 1 4 2 3 2 6 3 4 6 2 1 2 4 2
The mean of the population is 3.4. Select your own samples for the following questions.
a. Select a random sample of 7 scores, and determine the mean of these scores.
b. Select a second random sample of 7 scores, and determine the mean of these.
c. Select a third random sample of 20 scores, and determine the mean of these.
d. Comment on your answers to parts a, b and c.
3. WE18 In each of the following scenarios, state whether the information was obtained by census or survey.
Justify why that particular method was used.
a. Seating for all passengers is recorded for each aeroplane flight.
b. Movie ratings are collected from a selection of viewers to discover the best movies for the week.

c. Every hundredth soft drink bottle off an assembly production line is measured to determine the volume of
its contents.
d. A car driving instructor records the number of hours each learner driver has spent driving.
4. For each of the following, state whether a census or a survey has been used.
a. Two hundred people in a shopping centre are asked to nominate the supermarket where they do most of
their grocery shopping.
b. To find the most popular new car on the road, new car buyers are asked what make and model
they purchased.
c. To find the most popular new car on the road, data are obtained from the transport department.
d. Your Year 10 Maths class completed a series of questions on the amount of maths homework for
Year 10 students.
Understanding
5. To conduct a statistical investigation, Gloria needs to obtain information from 630 students.
a. Determine the appropriate sample size.
b. Describe a method of generating a set of random numbers for this sample.
6. A local council wants the opinions of its residents regarding

its endeavours to establish a new sporting facility for the
community. It has specifically requested all residents over 10
years of age to respond to a set of on-line questions.
a. State if this is a census or a survey.
b. Determine what problems could be encountered when
collecting data this way.
7. A poll was conducted at a school a few days before the
election for Head Boy and Head Girl. After the election, it was
discovered that the polls were completely misleading. Explain
how this could have happened.
Reasoning
8. A sampling error is said to occur when results of a sample are different from those of the population from
which the sample was drawn. Discuss some factors which could introduce sampling errors.
9. Since 1961, a census has been conducted in Australia every 5 years. Some people object to the census on the
basis that their privacy is being invaded. Others say that the expense involved could be directed to a better
cause. Others say that a sample could obtain statistics which are just as accurate. State are your views on
this. Justify your statements.
10. Australia has a very small population compared with other countries like China and India. These are the
world’s most populous nations, so the problems we encounter in conducting a census in Australia would
be insignificant compared with those encountered in those countries. Suggest what different problems
authorities would come across when conducting a census in countries with large populations.
Problem solving
11. The game of Lotto involves picking the same 6 numbers in the range 1 to 45 as have been randomly selected
by a machine containing 45 numbered balls. The balls are mixed thoroughly, then 8 balls are selected
representing the 6 main numbers, plus 2 extra numbers, called supplementary numbers.
Here is a list of the number of times each number had been drawn over a period of time, and also the number
of weeks since each particular number has been drawn.

Number of weeks since Number of times each number

each number drawn drawn since draw 413
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1 5 2 1 1 7 - 4 246 238 244 227 249 241 253 266
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
3 3 1 5 5 7 - 4 228 213 250 233 224 221 240 223
17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
9 - 9 2 2 12 10 8 217 233 240 226 238 240 253 228
25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32
5 11 17 2 3 3 - 22 252 239 198 229 227 204 230 226
33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
4 3 - 1 12 - 6 - 246 233 232 251 222 221 219 259
41 42 43 44 45 41 42 43 44 45
6 1 7 - 31 245 242 237 221 224
If these numbers are randomly chosen, explain the differences shown in the tables.
12. A sample of 30 people was selected at random from those attending a
local swimming pool. Their ages (in years) were recorded as follows:
19, 7, 58, 41, 17, 23, 62, 55, 40, 37, 32, 29, 21, 18, 16,
10, 40, 36, 33, 59, 65, 68, 15, 9, 20, 29, 38, 24, 10, 30
a. Calculate the mean and the median age of the people in this sample.
b. Group the data into class intervals of (0–9 etc.) and complete the
frequency distribution table.
c. Use the frequency distribution table to estimate the mean age.
d. Calculate the cumulative frequency and, hence, plot the ogive.
e. Estimate the median age from the ogive.
f. Compare the mean and median of the original data in part a with the
estimates of the mean and the median obtained for the grouped data
in parts c and e.
g. Were the estimates good enough? Explain your answer.
13. The typing speed (words per minute) was recorded for a group of Year 8 and Year 10 students. The results
are displayed in this back-to-back stem plot.
Key: 2|6 = 26 wpm

Leaf: Stem Leaf:
Year 8 Year 10
99 0
986 5420 1 79
98864 2100 2 23689
977 6410 3 02455788
8 6520 4 1258899
5 03578
6 003
Write a report comparing the typing speeds of the two groups.

12.8 Evaluating inquiry methods and statistical reports

LEARNING INTENTION
• describe the difference between primary and secondary data collection
• identify misleading errors or graphical techniques in data
• evaluate the accuracy of a statistical report.
12.8.1 Data collection methods

eles-4963
• Data can be collected in different ways. The manner in which you collect data can affect the validity of the
results you determine.
• Primary data is collected firsthand by observation, measurement, survey, experiment or simulation. and is
owned by the data collector until it is published.
• Secondary data is obtained from external sources such as journals, newspapers, or any other previously
collected data.
When collecting primary data through experiments, or using secondary data, considerations need to be given to:
• Validity. Results of valid investigations are supported by other investigations.
• Reliability. Data is reliable if the same data can be collected when the investigation is repeated. If the data
cannot be repeated by other investigators, the data may not be valid or true.
• Accuracy and precision. When collecting primary data through experiments, the accuracy of the data is
how close it is to a known value. Precise data is when multiple measurements of the same investigation are
close to each other.
• Bias. When collecting primary data in surveys it is important to ensure your sample is representative of the
population you are studying. When using secondary data you should consider who collected the data, and
whether those researchers had any intentional or unintentional influence on the data.
WORKED EXAMPLE 19 Choosing appropriate collection methods
You have been given an assignment to investigate which

year level uses the school library, after school, the most.
a. Explain whether it is more appropriate to use primary
or secondary data in this case. Justify your choice.
b. Describe how the data could be collected. Discuss any
problems which might be encountered.
c. Explain whether an alternative method would be just
as appropriate.
THINK WRITE
a. No records have been kept on library use. a. Since records are not kept on the library use,
secondary data is not an option.
Primary data collection could be either sampling
or census. A sufficiently large sample size could be
chosen; this would take less time than conducting
a census, although it would not be as accurate.
Sampling would be considered appropriate in
this case.

b. The data can be collected via a questionnaire b. A questionnaire could be designed and distributed
or in person. to a randomly-chosen sample. The problem here
would be the non-return of the forms.
Observation could be used to personally interview
students as they entered the library. This would take
more time, but random interview times could
be selected.
c. A census is the other option. c. A census could be conducted, either by
questionnaire or observation. This should yield a
more accurate outcome.
WORKED EXAMPLE 20 Choosing appropriate collection methods
State which method would be the most appropriate to collect the following data. Suggest an
alternative method in each case.
a. The number of cars parked in the staff car park each day.
b. The mass of books students carry to school each day.
c. The length a spring stretches when weights are added to it.
d. The cost of mobile phone plans with various network providers.
THINK WRITE
a. Observation a. The best way would probably be observation by visiting the staff car
park to count the number of cars there.
An alternative method would be to conduct a census of all workers to ask
if they parked in the staff car park. This method may be prone to errors
as it relies on accurate reporting by many people.
b. Measurement b. The mass of the books could be measured by weighing each student’s
pack on scales.
A random sample would probably yield a reasonably accurate result.
c. Experiment c. Conduct an experiment and measure the extension of the spring with
various weights.
There are probably no alternatives to this method as results will depend
upon the type of spring used.
d. Internet search d. An internet search would enable data to be collected.
Alternatively, a visit to mobile phone outlets would yield similar results.
12.8.2 Analysing the data

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• Once the data have been collected and collated, a decision must be made with regard to the best methods
for analysing the data.
• a measure of central tendency — mean, median or mode
• a measure of spread — range, interquartile range or standard deviation
• an appropriate graph.
Statistical graphs
• Data can be graphed in a variety of ways — line graphs, bar graphs, histograms, stem plots, box plots, and
so on.
• Because graphs give a quick visual impression, the temptation is to not look at them in great detail. Often
graphs can be quite misleading.

• It is easy to manipulate a graph to give an impression which is supported by the creator of the graph. This is
achieved by careful choice of scale on the horizontal and vertical axes.
• Shortening the horizontal axis tends to highlight the increasing/decreasing nature of the trend of the
graph. Lengthening the vertical axis tends to have the same effect.
• Lengthening the horizontal and shortening the vertical axes tends to level out the trends.
WORKED EXAMPLE 21 Observing the effect of changing scales on bar graphs
The report shows the annual

HOUSES Median house price Annual
change in median house prices change
Suburb/locality 2020–21 2019–20
in the local government areas
(LGA) of Queensland from Brisbane (LGA) $700,000 $627,000 11.6%
2019–20 to 2020–21. Ipswich City (LGA) $323,000 $310,000 4.2%
a. Draw a bar graph which would
Redland City (LGA) $467,500 $435,000 7.5%
give the impression that the
percentage annual change was Logan City (LGA) $360,000 $340,000 5.9%
much the same throughout the Moreton Bay (LGA) $399,000 $372,000 7.3%
whole state.
Gold Coast City (LGA) $505,000 $465,000 8.6%
b. Construct a bar graph to give the
impression that the percentage Toowoomba (LGA) $360,000 $334,500 7.6%
annual change in Brisbane was Sunshine Coast (LGA) $470,000 $445,000 5.6%
far greater than that in the other
Fraser Coast (LGA) $322,500 $312,500 3.2%
local government areas.
Bundaberg (LGA) $282,000 $275,000 2.5%
Gladstone (LGA) $286,000 $286,000 0.0%
Rockhampton (LGA) $267,000 $254,000 5.1%
Mackay (LGA) $398,000 $383,000 3.9%
Townsville City (LGA) $375,000 $359,000 4.5%
Cairns (LGA) $400,000 $389,000 2.8%
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a. To flatten out trends, a. % house price changes in QLD 2019–20 to 2020-21
lengthen the horizontal
axis and shorten the
vertical axis.
Annual % change
10
0
Brisbane
Ipswich
Redland
Logan
Moreton Bay
Gold Coast
Toowoomba
Sunshine Coast
Fraser Coast
Bundaberg
Gladstone
Rockhampton
Mackay
Townsville
Cairns
Area

b. To accentuate trends, b. % house price changes in QLD 2019–20 to 2020–21

shorten the horizontal 12
axis and lengthen the
11
vertical axis.
10
9
Annual % change
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
0
Brisbane
Ipswich
Redland
Logan
Moreton Bay
Gold Coast
Toowoomba
Sunshine Coast
Fraser Coast
Bundaberg
Gladstone
Rockhampton
Mackay
Townsville
Cairns
Area
WORKED EXAMPLE 22 Comparing and choosing statistical measures
Consider the data displayed in the table of Worked example 21. Use the data collected for the median
house prices in 2020–21.
a. Explain whether the data would be classed as primary or secondary data.
b. Explain why the data shows median house prices rather than the mean or modal house price.
c. Calculate a measure of central tendency for the data. Explain the reason for this choice.
d. Give a measure of spread of the data, giving a reason for the particular choice.
e. Display the data in a graphical form, explaining why this particular form was chosen.
THINK WRITE
a. These are data which have been a. These are secondary data because they have been
collected by someone else. collected by someone else.
b. Median is the middle price, mean is b. The median price is the middle value. It is not affected
the average price, and mode is the by outliers as the mean is. The modal house price may
most frequently-occurring price. only occur for two house sales with the same value.
On the other hand, there may not be any mode.
The median price is the most appropriate in this case.

c. Determine the measure of central c. The measures of central tendency are the mean,
tendency that is the most appropriate median and mode. The mean is affected by high
one. values (i.e. $700 000) and low values (i.e. $282 000).
These are not typical values, so the mean would not
be appropriate.
There is no modal value, as all the house prices
are different.
The median house price is the most suitable measure
of central tendency to represent the house prices in
the Queensland local government areas. The median
value is $370 000.
d. Consider the range and the d. The five-number summary values are:
interquartile range as measures of Lowest score = $267 000
spread. Lowest quartile = $322 500
Median = $375 000
Upper quartile = $467 500
Highest score = $700 000
Range = $700 000 − $267 000
= $433 000
Interquartile range = $467 500 − $322 500
= $145 000
The interquartile range is a better measure for the
range as the house prices form a cluster in this region.
e. Consider the graphing options. e. Of all the graphing options, the box plot seems the
most appropriate as it shows the spread of the prices
as well as how they are grouped around the median
price.
200 000 300000 400000 500000 600000 700000

Median house price 2020–21 ($)
WORKED EXAMPLE 23 Analysing data and use of statistics to interpret results
The following data is the heights of the members of the Australian women’s national basketball team
(in metres):
1.73, 1.65, 1.8, 1.83, 1.96, 1.88, 1.63, 1.88, 1.83, 1.88, 1.8, 1.96
Provide calculations and explanations as evidence to verify or refute the following statements.
a. The mean height of the team is greater than their median height.
b. The range of the heights of the 12 players is almost 3 times their interquartile range.
c. Only 5 players are on the court at any one time. A team of 5 players can be chosen such that their
mean, median and modal heights are all the same.
THINK WRITE
∑x 21.83
a. 1. Calculate the mean height of the 12 players. a. Mean = = = 1.82 m
n 12

2. Order the heights to determine the median. The heights of the players, in order, are:
1.63, 1.65, 1.73, 1.8, 1.8, 1.83, 1.83, 1.88, 1.88,
1.88, 1.96, 1.96. There are 12 scores, so the
median is the average of the 6th and 7th scores.
1.83 + 1.83
Median = = 1.83 m
2
3. Comment on the statement. The mean is 1.82 m, while the median is
1.83 m. This means that the mean is less than
the median, so the statement is not true.
b. 1. Determine the range and the interquartile b. Range = 1.96 − 1.63 = 0.33 m
range of the 12 heights. Lower quartile is the average of 3rd and
4th scores.
1.73 + 1.8
Lower quartile = = 1.765 m
2
Upper quartile is average of 3rd and 4th scores
from the end.
1.88 + 1.88
Upper quartile = = 1.88 m
2
Interquartile range = 1.88 − 1.765 = 0.115 m
2. Compare the two values. Range = 0.33 m

Interquartile range = 0.115 m
Range 0.33
= = 2.9
Interquartile range 0.115
3. Comment on the statement. Range = 2.9 × interquartile range

This is almost 3 times, so the statement is true.
c. 1. Choose 5 players whose mean, median and c. Three players have a height of 1.88 m. If a
modal heights are all equal. Trial and error is player shorter and one taller are chosen, both
appropriate here. There may be more than the same measurement from 1.88 m, this would
one answer. make the mean, median and mode all the same.
Choose players with heights:
1.8, 1.88, 1.88, 1.88, 1.96
9.4
Mean = = 1.88 m
5
Median = 3rd score = 1.88 m
Mode = Most frequent score = 1.88 m
2. Comment on the statement. The 5 players with heights, 1.8 m, 1.88 m,

1.88 m, 1.88 m and 1.96 m have a mean,
median and modal height of 1.88 m.
It is true that a team of 5 such players can
be chosen.


a. a. a. a.
a Lists & Spreadsheet label list1 as ‘heights’.
page, label column A as Enter the data in
‘heights’. Enter the data the table as shown.
from the question. Press EXE after each
value.
2. Open a Calculator page 2. To find the statistics

and complete the entry summary, tap:
lines as: • Calc
mean(heights) • One-Variable
median(heights) Set values as:
Press ENTER after each • XList: main\heights
entry. • Freq: 1
Tap OK.
The mean and median can
The mean heights are less than be found in the list.
the median heights, so the
statement is false.
The mean heights are less
than the median heights, so
the statement is false.
b. b. b. b.
To find all the summary More statistics can be
statistics, open the found from the statistics
Calculator page and summary.
press:
• MENU
• 6: Statistics
• 1: One-Variable
Statistics...
Select 1 as the number The range is max − min =
of lists. Then on the 1.96 − 1.63 = 0.33.
One-Variable Statistics Q1 = 1.765 and Q3 = 1.88.
page, select ‘heights’ as IQR = Q3 − Q1
The range is max − min =
the X1 List and leave the = 1.88 − 1.765 = 0.115.
1.96 − 1.63 = 0.33.
frequency as 1. Leave Now 2.9 × IQR ≈ range so the
Q1 = 1.765 and Q3 = 1.88.
the next two fields empty statement is true.
IQR = Q3 − Q1
and TAB to OK and then
= 1.88 − 1.765 = 0.115.
press ENTER.
Now 2.9 × IQR ≈ range so
the statement is true.

12.8.3 Statistical reports

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• Reported data must not be simply taken at face value; all reports should be examined with a critical eye.
WORKED EXAMPLE 24 Analysing a statistical report
This is an excerpt from an article that appeared in a newspaper on Father’s Day. It was reported to be
a national survey findings of a Gallup Poll of data from 1255 fathers of children aged 17 and under.
THE GREAT AUSSIE DADS SURVEY
Thinking about all aspects of your life, how Which of these aspects of your children’s future
happy would you say you are? do you have concerns about?
% %
I am very happy......................................................26 Their safety.............................................................70
I am fairly happy.....................................................49 Being exposed to drugs.........................................67
Totally happy..........................................................75 Their health.............................................................54
Some days I’m happy and some days Bullying or cyber-bullying.......................................50
I’m not....................................................................21 Teenage violence....................................................50
I am fairly unhappy...................................................3 Their ability to afford a home..................................50
I am very unhappy....................................................1 Alcohol consumption and binge drinking...............47
Totally unhappy........................................................4 Achieving academic success.................................47
How often, if ever, do you regret having children? Achieving academic success.................................47
Every day..................................................................1 Feeling pressured into sex.....................................41
Most days.................................................................2 Being able to afford the lifestyle they expect to
Some days.............................................................18 have........................................................................38
Never......................................................................79 Climate change......................................................23
Having them living with you in their mid 20s..........14
Which one of these best describes the impact None of the above....................................................3
of having children on your relationship with your
partner? What is the best thing about being a dad?
We’re closer than ever............................................29 The simple pleasures of family life........................61
We don’t spend as much time together as we Enjoying the successes of your kids......................24
should.....................................................................40 The unpredictability it brings....................................9
We’re more like friends now than lovers...............21 The comfort of knowing that you will be looked after
We have drifted apart...............................................6 in later life.................................................................3
None of the above....................................................4 None of the above....................................................3
Which one of these best describes the Key findings
allocation of cooking and cleaning duties in your 75% of Aussie dads are totally happy
household? 79% have never regretted having children
My partner does nothing/I do everything.................1 67% are worried about their children being
I do most of it.........................................................11 exposed to drugs
We share the cooking and cleaning.......................42 57% would like more intimacy with their partner
My partner does most of it.....................................41 “Work–life balance is definitely an issue for dads
I do nothing/my partner does everything.................4 in 2010.”
None of the above....................................................1 David Briggs
Galaxy principal
Source: The Sunday Mail, 5 Sept. 2010, pp. 14–15.
a. Comment on the sample chosen.

b. Discuss the percentages displayed.
c. Comment on the claim that 57% of dads would like more intimacy with their partner.

THINK WRITE
a. How is the sample chosen? Is it truly a. The results of a national survey such as this should
representative of the population of reveal the outlook of the whole nation’s dads. There
Australian dads? is no indication of how the sample was chosen, so
without further knowledge we tend to accept that
it is representative of the population. A sample of
1255 is probably large enough.
b. Look at the percentages in each of the b. For the first question regarding happiness, the
categories. percentages total more than 100%. It seems logical
that, in a question such as this, the respondents
would tick only one box, but obviously this has not
been the case.
In the question regarding aspects of concern of
‘your children’s future’, these percentages also
total more than 100%. It seems appropriate here that
dads would have more than one concerning area, so
it is possible for the percentages to total more
than 100%.
In each of the other three questions, the percentages
total 100%, which is appropriate.
c. Look at the tables to try to find the source c. Examining the reported percentages in the question
of this figure. regarding ‘relationship with your partner’, there is
no indication how a figure of 57% was determined.
Note: Frequently media reports make claims where the reader has no hope of confirming their truth.
WORKED EXAMPLE 25 Analysing a statistical report
This article appeared in a newspaper. Read the article, then answer the following questions.
SPONGES ARE TOXIC

Washing dishes can pose a serious health risk, with more than half of all kitchen sponges containing
high levels of dangerous bacteria, research shows.
A new survey dishing the dirt on washing up shows more than 50 per cent of kitchen sponges have
high levels of E.coli, which can cause severe cramps and diarrhoea, and staphylococcus aureus, which
releases toxins that can lead to food poisoning or toxic shock syndrome.
Microbiologist Craig Andrew-Kabilafkas of Australian Food Microbiology said the Westinghouse study of
more than 1000 households revealed germs can spread easily to freshly washed dishes.
The only way to safeguard homes from sickness was to wash utensils at very high temperatures in a
dishwasher.
Source: The Sunday Mail, 5 Sept. 2010, p. 36.
a. Comment on the sample used in this survey.

b. Comment on the claims of the survey and identify any potential bias.
c. Is the heading of the article appropriate?

THINK WRITE
a. Look at sample size and selection of sample. a. The report claims that the sample size was
more than 1000. There is no indication how
the sample was selected.
The point to keep in mind is whether this
sample is truly representative of the population
consisting of all households. We have no way
of knowing.
b. 1. Determine the results of the survey. b. The survey claims that 50% of kitchen sponges
have high levels of E. coli which can cause
severe medical problems.
2. Identify any potential bias. The study was conducted by Westinghouse,
so it is not surprising they recommend using
a dishwasher. There is no detail of how the
sample was selected.
c. Examine the heading in the light of the c. The heading is quite shocking, designed to
contents of the article. catch the attention of readers.
Resources
Resourceseses
Digital documents SkillSHEET Reading bar graphs (doc-5340)
SkillSHEET Determining independent and dependent variables (doc-5341)
Interactivities Individual pathway interactivity: Evaluating inquiry methods and statistical reports (int-4631)
Compare statistical reports (int-2790)
Exercise 12.8 Evaluating inquiry methods and statistical

reports
Individual pathways
1, 4, 6, 9, 12 2, 7, 10, 13 3, 5, 8, 11, 14
Fluency
1. WE19,20 You have been given an assignment to investigate which Year level has the greatest number of
students who are driven to school each day by car.
a. Explain whether it is more appropriate to use primary or secondary data in this case. Justify your choice.
b. Describe how the data could be collected. Discuss any problems which might be encountered.
c. Explain whether an alternative method would be just as appropriate.

2. WE21 You run a small company that is listed on the Australian Stock Exchange (ASX). During the past year
you have given substantial rises in salary to all your staff. However, profits have not been as spectacular as in
the year before. This table gives the figures for the salary and profits for each quarter.
1st quarter 2nd quarter 3rd quarter 4th quarter

′
Profits ($ 000 000) 6 5.9 6 6.5
Salaries ($′ 000 000) 4 5 6 7
Draw two graphs, one showing profits, the other showing salaries, which will show you in the best possible
light to your shareholders.
3. WE22 The data below were collected from a real

estate agent and show the sale prices of ten blocks of
land in a new estate.
$150 000, $190 000, $175 000, $150 000, $650 000,
$150 000, $165 000, $180 000, $160 000, $180 000
a. Calculate a measure of central tendency for the
data. Explain the reason for this choice.
b. Give a measure of spread of the data, giving a
reason for the particular choice.
c. Display the data in a graphical form, explaining why this particular form was chosen.
d. The real estate agent advertises the new estate land as:
Own one of these amazing blocks of land for only $150 000 (average)!
Comment on the agent’s claims.
4. WE23 The following data is the heights of the members of the Australian women’s national basketball team
(in metres):
1.73, 1.65, 1.8, 1.83, 1.96, 1.88, 1.63, 1.88, 1.83, 1.88, 1.8, 1.96
Provide calculations and explanations as evidence to verify or refute the following statements.
a. The mean height of the team is closer to the lower quartile than it is to the median.
b. Half the players have a height within the interquartile range.
c. Suggest which 5 players could be chosen to have the minimum range in heights.
5. The resting pulse of 20 female athletes was measured and is shown below.
50 62 48 52 71 61 30 45 42 48 43 47 51 52 34 61 44 54 38 40
a. Represent the data in a distribution table using appropriate groupings.
b. Calculate the mean, median and mode of the data.
c. Comment on the similarities and differences between the three values.
6. The batting scores for two cricket players over six innings were recorded as follows.
Player A: 31, 34, 42, 28, 30, 41
Player B: 0, 0, 1, 0, 250, 0
Player B was hailed as a hero for his score of 250.
Comment on the performance of the two players.

Understanding
7. The table below shows the number of shoes of each size
that were sold over a week at a shoe store.
Number
Size sold
4 5
5 7
6 19
7 24
8 16
9 8
10 7
a. Calculate the mean shoe size sold.

b. Determine the median shoe size sold.
c. Identify the modal shoe size sold.
d. Explain which measure of central tendency has the most meaning to the store proprietor.
8. WE24,25 This report from Woolworths appeared in a newspaper.
IT’S A RECORD
• Woolworths posted 10.1% gain in annual profit to $2.02b
• 11th consecutive year of double-digit growth
• Flags 8% to 11% growth in the current financial year
• Sales rose 4.8% to $51.2b
• Wants to increase its share of the fresh food market
• Announced $700m off-market share buyback
• Final fully franked dividend 62% a share
Shares rebound Net profit
$
28.40
28.10 2.4% $b +$2.02b
27.70 Yesterday +10.1%
2 +12.8%
27.40 +25.7%
27.10 1.5 +27.5%
20.80
+24.3%
26.50 1
26.20
0.5
25.90
25.60
Aug 26 0
May 26 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
Source: IRESS
Source: The Courier Mail, 27 Aug. 2010, pp. 40–1.
Comment on the report.

Reasoning
9. Explain the point of drawing a misleading graph in a report.
10. The graph shows the fluctuation in the Australian dollar in terms of the AUSSIE
US dollar during the period 13 July to 13 September 2010. The higher the US¢ US 93.29¢
Australian dollar, the cheaper it is for Australian companies to import goods 92.8
from overseas, and the cheaper they should be able to sell their goods to the 90.9
Australian public.
88.8
The manager of Company XYZ produced a graph to support his claim that,
because there hasn’t been much change in the Aussie dollar over that period, 86.8
there hasn’t been any change in the price he sells his imported goods to the 84.8
Australian public. 82.8
Draw a graph that would support his claim. Explain how you were able to
80.8
achieve this effect. Jul 13 Sep 13
11. Two brands of light globes were tested by a consumer organisation. They Source: IRESS
Source: The Courier Mail, 14
obtained the following results. Sept. 2010, p. 25.
Brand A (Hours lasted) Brand B (Hours lasted)
385 390 425 426 570 500 555 560 630 720
640 645 730 735 760 735 742 770 820 860
a. Complete a back-to-back stem plot for the data.

b. State the brand that had the shortest lifetime. Justify your answer.
c. State the brand that had the longest lifetime. Justify your answer.
d. If you wanted to be certain that a globe you bought would last at least 500 hours, determine which brand
would you buy. Show your working.
Problem solving
12. A small manufacturing plant employs 80 workers. The table below shows the structure of the plant.
Position Salary ($) Number of employees

Machine operator 18 000 50
Machine mechanic 20 000 15
Floor steward 24 000 10
Manager 62 000 4
Chief Executive Officer 80 000 1
a. Workers are arguing for a pay rise, but the management of the factory claims that workers are well paid
because the mean salary of the factory is $22 100. Explain whether this is a sound argument.
b. Suppose that you were representing the factory workers and had to write a short submission in support of
the pay rise. Explain the management’s claim by providing some other statistics to support your case.

13. Look at the following bar charts and discuss why the one on the left is misleading and what characteristics
the one on the right possesses that makes it acceptable.
Massive increase in house Small increase in house

prices this year prices this year
82 000 100 000

Average house price
90 000
Average house price

80 000
in pounds
81 000 70 000
in pounds
60 000
50 000
40 000
80 000 30 000
20 000
10 000
1998 1999 1998 1999
14. a. Determine what is wrong with this pie graph.
2020 presidential run
Candidate A
70%
Candidate B
63%
Candidate C
60%
b. Explain why the following information is misleading.

Did scientists falsify research to support their own theories on global warming?
59% somewhat likely
35% very likely
26% not very likely
c. Discuss the implications of this falsification by statistics.

12.9 Review
Populations and samples Measures of spread
•
• A population is the full set of people/things that you • Measures of spread describe how far the data values
are collecting data on. are spread from the centre or from each other.
• A sample is a subset of a population. • The range is the difference between the maximum and
• Samples must be randomly selected from a minimum data values.
population in order for the results of the sample to Range = maxiumum value – minimum value
• The interquartile range (IQR) is the range of the
• It is important to acknowledge that the results taken
middle 50% of the scores in an ordered set:
whole. This is particularly true if the sample size is IQR = Q3 – Q1
too small. where Q1 and Q3
• The minimum sample size that should be used is respectively.
approximately √ N, where N is the size of the
population.
Standard deviation
• The standard deviation is a more sophisticated measure
of spread.
UNIVARIATE DATA • The standard deviation measures how far, on average,
each data value is away from the mean.
• The deviation of a data value is the difference between it
Measures of central tendency and the mean (x – xˉ ).
• The formula for the standard deviation is:
• The three measures of central tendency are the mean,
median and mode. (x – xˉ )2
• The mean is the average of all values in a set of data. σ=
n
It is therefore affected by extreme values.
• The standard deviation is always a positive number.
x
x=
n
Boxplots
• The median is the middle value in an ordered set of
n+1
data. It is located at the th score. containing:
2
• The mode is the most frequent value in a set of data. • the minimum value
• For the data set 2, 4, 5, 7, 7: • the lower quartile, Q1
• the median
The mean is 2 + 4 + 5 + 7 + 7 = 5. • the upper quartile, Q3
5 • the maximum value.
The median is the middle value, 5.
The mode is 7.
Comparing data sets

• Measures of centre and measures of spread are used
to compare data sets. The lowest The The The The greatest
• It is important to consider which measure of centre or score lower median upper score
spread is the most relevant when comparing data sets. Xmin quartile Med. quartile Xmax
• For example, if there are outliers in a data set, the (Lower Q1 Q3 (Upper
extreme) extreme)
median will likely be a better measure of centre than
the mean, and the IQR would be a better measure of
spread than the range. • Outliers are calculated and marked on the boxplot.
• Back-to-back stem-and-leaf plots can be used to A score is considered an outlier if it falls outside the
compare two data sets. upper or lower boundary.
• Parallel boxplots can also be used to compare the Lower boundary = Q1 –1.5 × IQR
spread of two or more data sets. Upper boundary = Q3 +1.5 × IQR


(Green: I understand; Yellow: I can do it with help; Red: I do not understand.)
12.2 I can calculate the mean, median and mode of data presented as
ungrouped data (in a single list), frequency distribution tables and
grouped data.
12.3 I can calculate the range and interquartile range of a data set.
12.4 I can calculate the five-number summary for a set of data.
I can draw a box plot showing the five-number summary of a data set.
I can calculate outliers in a data set.
I can describe skewness of distributions.
I can compare box plots to dot plots or histograms.
I can draw parallel box plots and compare sets of data.
12.5 I can calculate the standard deviation of a small data set by hand.
I can calculate the standard deviation using technology.
I can interpret the mean and standard deviation of data.
I can identify the effect of outliers on the standard deviation.
12.6 I can choose an appropriate measure of centre and spread to

analyse data.
I can interpret and make decisions based on measures of centre
and spread.
12.7 I can describe the difference between populations and samples.
I can recognise the difference between a census and a survey and

identify a preferred method in different circumstances.
12.8 I can describe the difference between primary and secondary
data collection.
I can identify misleading errors or graphical techniques in data.
I can evaluate the accuracy of a statistical report.

12.9.3 Project
Cricket scores
Data are used to predict, analyse, compare and measure many
aspects of the game of cricket. Attendance is tallied at every
match. Players’ scores are analysed to see if they should be kept
on the team. Comparisons of bowling and batting averages are
used to select winners for awards. Runs made, wickets taken,
no-balls bowled, the number of ducks scored in a game as well
as the number of 4s and 6s are all counted and analysed after the
game. Data of all sorts are gathered and recorded, and measures of
central tendency and spread are then calculated and interpreted.
Sets of data have been made available for you to analyse, and
decisions based on the resultant measures can be made.
Batting averages
The following table shows the runs scored by four cricketers who
are vying for selection to the state team.
Player Runs in the last 25 matches Mean Median Range IQR

Will 13, 18, 23, 21, 9, 12, 31, 21, 20, 18, 14, 16, 28,
17, 10, 14, 9, 23, 12, 24, 0, 18, 14, 14, 20
Rohit 2, 0, 112, 11, 0, 0, 8, 0, 10, 0, 56, 4, 8, 164, 6,
12, 2, 0, 5, 0, 0, 0, 8, 18, 0
Marnus 12, 0, 45, 23, 0, 8, 21, 32, 6, 0, 8, 14, 1, 27, 23,
43, 7, 45, 2, 32, 0, 6, 11, 21, 32
Ben 2, 0, 3, 12, 0, 2, 5, 8, 42, 0, 12, 8, 9, 17, 31, 28,
21, 42, 31, 24, 30, 22, 18, 20, 31
1. Calculate the mean, median, range and IQR scored for each cricketer.
2. You need to recommend the selection of two of the four cricketers. For each player, write two points as
to why you would or would not select them. Use statistics in your comments.
Bowling averages
The bowling average is the number of runs per wicket taken
no. of runs scored
Bowling average =
no. of wicket taken
The smaller the average, the better the bowler has performed.
Josh and Ravi were competing for three bowling awards:
• Best in semifinal
• Best in final
• Best overall
The following table gives their scores.
Semifinal Final
Runs scored Wickets taken Runs scored Wickets taken
Josh 12 5 28 6
Ravi 10 4 15 3

2. Calculate the bowling averages for the following and fill in the table below.
• Semifinal
• Final
• Overall
Semifinal average Final average Overall average

Josh
Ravi
3. Explain how Ravi can have the better overall average when Josh has the better average in both the
semifinal and final.
Resources
Resourceseses

Fluency
1. List some problems you might encounter in trying to collect data from the following populations.
a. The average number of mL in a can of soft drink.
b. The number of fish in a dam.
c. The number of workers who catch public transport to work each weekday morning.
2. For each of the following investigations, state whether a census or a survey has been used.
a. The average price of petrol in Canberra was estimated by averaging the price at 30 petrol stations in
the area.
b. The performance of a cricketer is measured by looking at his performance in every match he
has played.
c. Public opinion on an issue is sought by a telephone poll of 2000 homes.
3. Calculate the mean, median and mode for each of the following sets of data:
a. 7, 15, 8, 8, 20, 14, 8, 10, 12, 6, 19
b. Key: 1|2 = 12
Stem Leaf
1 26
2 178
3 033468
4 01159
5 136

c.
Score (x) Frequency (f)
70 2
71 6
72 9
73 7
74 4
4. For each of the following data sets, calculate the range.

a. 4, 3, 6, 7, 2, 5, 8, 4, 3
b.
x 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
f 3 6 7 12 6 7 8
c. Key: 1|8 = 18
Stem Leaf
1 7889
2 12445777899
3 0001347
5. For each of the following data sets, calculate the interquartile range.
a. 18, 14, 15, 19, 20, 11 16, 19, 18, 19
b. Key: 9|8 = 9.8

Stem Leaf
8 7889
9 02445777899
10 01113
6. Consider the box plot shown.

a. Calculate the median.
b. Calculate the range.
c. Determine the interquartile range. 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Score
7. The following back-to-back stem-and-leaf plot shows the typing speed in words per minute (wpm) of
30 Year 8 and Year 10 students.
Key: 2|6 = 26 wpm
Leaf Stem Leaf
Year 8 Year 10
99 0
9865420 1 79
98864 2 23689
2100
9776410 3 0255788
86520 4 1258899
5 03578
6 003

a. Using a calculator or otherwise, construct a pair of parallel box-and-whisker plots to represent the
two sets of data.
b. Calculate the mean, median, range, interquartile range and standard deviation of each set.
c. Compare the two distributions, using your answers to parts a and b.
8. The following data give the amount of cut meat (in kg) obtained from each of 20 lambs.
4.5 6.2 5.8 4.7 4.0 3.9 6.2 6.8 5.5 6.1
5.9 5.8 5.0 4.3 4.0 4.6 4.8 5.3 4.2 4.8
a. Detail the data on a stem-and-leaf plot. (Use a class size of 0.5 kg.)
b. Prepare a five-point summary of the data.
c. Draw a box plot of the data.
9. Calculate the standard deviation of each of the following data sets correct to one decimal place.
a. 58, 12, 98, 45, 60, 34, 42, 71, 90, 66
b.
x 1 2 3 4 5
f 2 6 12 8 5
c. Key: 1|4 = 14
Stem Leaf
0 1344578
1 00012245789
2 022357
10. MC The Millers obtained a number of quotes on the price of having their home painted. The quotes, to
the nearest hundred dollars, were:
4200 5100 4700 4600 4800 5000 4700 4900
The standard deviation for this set of data, to the nearest whole dollar, is:
A. 260 B. 278 C. 324 D. 325 E. 900
11. MC The number of Year 12 students who, during semester 2, spent all their spare periods studying in
the resource centre is shown on the stem-and-leaf plot below.
Key: 2|5 = 25 students

Stem Leaf
0 8
1
2 5667
3 02369
4 79
5 6
6 1
The standard deviation for this set of data, to the nearest whole number is:
A. 12 B. 14 C. 17 D. 35 E. 53

12. Each week, varying amounts of a chemical are added to a filtering system. The amounts required
(in mL) over the past 20 weeks are shown in the stem-and-leaf plot.
Key: 3|8 represents 0.38 ml

Stem Leaf
2 1
2 22
2 4445
2 66
2 8 8 99
3 0
3 22
3 4
3 6
3 8
Calculate to 2 decimal places the standard deviation of the amounts used.
13. Calculate the mean, median and mode of this data set: 2, 5, 6, 2, 5, 7, 8. Comment on the shape of
the distribution.
14. The box plot shows the heights (in cm) of Year 12 students in a Maths class.
150 155 160 165 170 175

Height (cm)
a. State the median class height.

b. Calculate the range of heights.
c. Calculate the interquartile range of the heights.

Problem solving
15. MC A data set has a mean of 75 and a standard deviation of 5. Another score of 50 is added to the data
set. Choose which of the following will occur.
A. The mean will increase and the standard deviation will increase.
B. The mean will increase and the standard deviation will decrease.
C. The mean will decrease and the standard deviation will increase.
D. The mean will decrease and the standard deviation will decrease.
E. The mean and the standard deviation will both remain unchanged.
16. MC A data set has a mean of 60 and a standard deviation of 10. A score of 100 is added to the data set.
This score becomes the highest score in the data set. Choose which of the following will increase.
Note: There may be more than one correct answer.
A. Mean
B. Standard deviation
C. Range
D. Interquartile range
E. Median
17. A sample of 30 people was selected at random from those attending a local swimming pool. Their ages
(in years) were recorded as follows:
19 7 58 41 17 23 62 55 40 37 32 29 21 18 16
10 40 36 33 59 65 68 15 9 20 29 38 24 10 30
a. Calculate the mean and the median age of the people in this sample.
b. Group the data into class intervals of 10 (0–9 etc.) and complete the frequency distribution table.
c. Use the frequency distribution table to estimate the mean age.
d. Calculate the cumulative frequency and, hence, plot the ogive.
e. Estimate the median age from the ogive.
f. Compare the mean and median of the original data in part a with the estimates of the mean and the
median obtained for the grouped data in parts c and e.
g. Determine if the estimates were good enough. Explain your answer.

18. The table below shows the number of cars that are garaged at each house in a certain street each night.
Number of cars Frequency

1 9
2 6
3 2
4 1
5 1
a. Show these data in a frequency histogram.

b. State if the data is positively or negatively skewed. Justify your answer.
19. Consider the data set represented by the frequency histogram shown.
a. Explain if the data is symmetrical. 10
b. State if the mean and median of the data can be seen. If so, determine their 9
values. 8
c. Evaluate the mode of the data. 7
Frequency
6
5
4
3
2
1
0 1 2 3 4 5
Score
m
20. There are 3 m values in a data set for which x = m and 𝜎 = .
2
a. Comment on the changes to the mean and standard deviation if each value of the data set is
multiplied by m.
b. An additional value is added to the original data set, giving a new mean of m + 2. Evaluate the
additional value.
21. The following data show the number of pets in each of the 12 houses in Coral Avenue, Rosebud.
2, 3, 3, 2, 2, 3, 2, 4, 3, 1, 1, 0
a. Calculate the mean and median number of pets.

b. The empty block of land at the end of the street was bought by a Cattery and now houses 20 cats.
Recalculate the mean and median.
c. Explain why the answers are so different, and which measure of central tendency is best used for
certain data.

22. The number of Year 10 students in all the 40 schools in the Northern District of the Education
Department was recorded as follows:
56, 134, 93, 67, 123, 107, 167, 124, 108, 78, 89, 99, 103, 107, 110, 45, 112, 127, 106, 111, 127, 145,
87, 75, 90, 123, 100, 87, 116, 128, 131, 106, 123, 87, 105, 112, 145, 115, 126, 92
a. Using an interval of 10, produce a table showing the frequency for each interval.
b. Use the table to estimate the mean.
c. Calculate the mean of the ungrouped data.
d. Compare the results from parts b and c and explain any differences.
23. The following back-to-back stem-and-leaf plot shows the ages of a group of 30 males and 30 females as
they enter hospital for the first time.
Key: 1 | 7 = 17
Leaf: Stem Leaf:
Male Female
98 0 5
998886321 1 77899
87764320 2 00 1 2 4 5 5 6 7 9
86310 3 013358
752 4 2368
53 5 134
6 2
8 7
a. Construct a pair of parallel box plots to represent the two sets of data, showing working out for the
median and 1st and 3rd quartiles.
b. Calculate the mean, range and IQR for both sets of data.
c. Determine any outliers if they exist.
d. Write a short paragraph comparing the data.
24. The times, in seconds, of the duration of 20 TV advertisements shown in the 6–8 pm time slot are
recorded below.
16 60 35 23 45 15 25 55 33 20 22 30 28 38 40 18 29 19 35 75
a. From the data, determine the:

i. mode
ii. median
iii. mean, write your answer correct to 2 decimal places
iv. range
v. lower quartile
vi. upper quartile
vii. interquartile range.
b. Using your results from part a, construct a box plot for the time, in seconds, for the 20 TV
advertisements in the 6–8 pm time slot.
c. From your box plot, determine:
i. the percentage of advertisements that are more than 39 seconds in length
ii. the percentage of advertisements that last between 21 and 39 seconds
iii. the percentage of advertisements that are more than 21 seconds in length

The types of TV advertisements during the 6–8 pm time slot were categorised as Fast food,
Supermarkets, Program information and Retail (clothing, sporting goods, furniture).
A frequency table for the frequency of these advertisements is shown below.
Type Frequency
Fast food 7
Supermarkets 5
Program information 3
Retail 5
d. State the type of data that has been collected in the table.
e. Determine the percentage of advertisements that are advertisements for fast food outlets.
f. Suggest a good option for a graphical representation of this type of data.
25. The test scores, out of a total score of 50, for two classes A and B are shown in the back-to-back
stem-and-leaf plot.
Key: 1 | 4 = 14
Leaf Leaf
Class A Class B
5 0 124
9753 1 145
97754 2 005
886551 3 155
320 4 157789
0 5 00
a. Ms Vinculum teaches both classes and made the statement that ‘Class A’s performance on the test
showed that the students’ ability was more closely matched than the students’ ability in Class B’.
By calculating the measure of centre, first and third quartiles, and the measure of spread for the test
scores for each class, explain if Ms Vinculum’s statement was correct.
b. Would it be correct to say that Class A performed better on the test than Class B? Justify your answer
by comparing the quartiles and median for each class.

26. The speeds, in km/h, of 55 cars travelling along a major road are recorded below.
Speed Frequency
60–64 1
65–69 1
70–74 10
75–79 13
80–84 9
85–89 8
90–94 6
95–99 3
100–104 2
105–109 1
110–114 1
Total 55
a. By calculating the midpoint for each class interval, determine the mean speed, in km/h, of the cars
travelling along the road.
Write your answer correct to two decimal places.
b. The speed limit along the road is 75 km/h. A speed camera is set to photograph the license plates of
cars travelling 7% more than the speed limit. A speeding fine is automatically sent to the owners of
the cars photographed.
Based on the 55 cars recorded, determine the number of speeding fines that were issued.
c. Drivers of cars travelling 5 km/h up to 15 km/h over the speed limit are fined $135. Drivers of cars
travelling more than 15 km/h and up to 25 km/h over the speed limit are fined $165 and drivers of
cars recorded travelling more than 25 km/h and up to 35 km/h are fined $250. Drivers travelling more
than 35 km/h pay a $250 fine in addition to having their driver’s license suspended.
If it is assumed that this data is representative of the speeding habits of drivers along a major road
and there are 30 000 cars travelling along this road on any given month.
i. Determine the amount, in dollars, collected in fines throughout the month. Write your answer
correct to the nearest cent.
ii. Evaluate the number of drivers that would expect to have their licenses suspended throughout
the month.

eWorkbook Interactivities
Download the workbook for this topic, which includes 12.2 Individual pathway interactivity: Measures of central
worksheets, a code puzzle and a project (ewbk-2038) ⃞ tendency (int-4621) ⃞
Mean (int-3818) ⃞
Solutions Median (int-3819) ⃞
Mode (int-3820) ⃞
Ogives (int-6174) ⃞
12.3 Individual pathway interactivity: Measures of spread
(int-4622) ⃞
Digital documents
Range (int-3822) ⃞
12.2 SkillSHEET Finding the mean of a small data set The interquartile range (int-4813) ⃞
(doc-5299) ⃞ 12.4 Individual pathway interactivity: Box-and-whisker plots
SkillSHEET Finding the median of a small data set (int-4623) ⃞
(doc-5300) ⃞ Skewness (int-3823) ⃞
SkillSHEET Finding the mode of a small data set Box plots (int-6245) ⃞
(doc-5301) ⃞ Parallel box plots (int-6248) ⃞
SkillSHEET Finding the mean, median and mode from 12.5 Individual pathway interactivity: The standard deviation
a stem-and-leaf plot (doc-5302) ⃞ (int-4624) ⃞
SkillSHEET Presenting data in a frequency distribution The standard deviation for a sample (int-4814) ⃞
table (doc-5303) ⃞ 12.6 Individual pathway interactivity: Comparing data sets
SkillSHEET Drawing statistical graphs (doc-5304) ⃞ (int-4625) ⃞
12.7 SkillSHEET Determining suitability of questions for a Back-to-back stem plots (int-6252) ⃞
survey (doc-5337) ⃞ 12.7 Individual pathway interactivity: Populations and
SkillSHEET Finding proportions (doc-5338) ⃞ samples (int-4629) ⃞
SkillSHEET Distinguishing between types of data Sample sizes (int-6183) ⃞
(doc-5339) ⃞ 12.8 Individual pathway interactivity: Evaluating inquiry
12.8 SkillSHEET Reading bar graphs (doc-5340) ⃞ methods and statistical reports (int-4631) ⃞
SkillSHEET Determining independent and dependent Compare statistical reports (int-2790) ⃞
variables (doc-5341) ⃞ 12.9 Crossword (int-2860) ⃞
Video eLessons
12.2 Mean, median and mode of univariate data (eles-4949) ⃞
Calculating mean, median and mode from a frequency Teacher resources
distribution table (eles-4950) ⃞ There are many resources available exclusively for teachers
Cumulative frequency curves (ogives) (eles-4951) ⃞ online.
Mean and median (eles-1905) ⃞
12.3 Measures of spread (eles-4952) ⃞
12.4 Five-number summary (eles-4953) ⃞
Box plots (eles-4954) ⃞
Comparing different graphical representations
(eles-4956) ⃞
12.5 Standard deviation (eles-4958) ⃞
Effects on standard deviation (eles-4959) ⃞
Properties of standard deviation (eles-4961) ⃞
12.6 Comparing data sets (else-4962) ⃞
12.7 Populations (eles-4946) ⃞
Samples (eles-4947) ⃞
To sample or to conduct a census? (eles-4948) ⃞
12.8 Data collections methods (eles-4963) ⃞
Analysing the data (eles-4964) ⃞
Statistical reports (eles-4955) ⃞

Answers b.
Cumulative
Class interval Frequency frequency
Topic 12 Univariate data 0−9 5 5
Exercise 12.1 Pre-test 10 − 19 5 10
1. 2 20 − 29 5 15
2. 29 30 − 39 3 18
3. 72 40 − 49 5 23
4. 29.8 50 − 59 3 26
5. subset 60 − 69 3 29
6. 22 70 − 79 1 30
7. 13 Total 30
8. Positively skewed Mean = $32.50, median = $30
9. 11 c.
10. C 30
11. x = 184.42 and 𝜍 = 7.31 25
20
12. D
15
13. B 10
14. The mean typing speed is 26.53 and IQR is 19 for Year 8. 5
The mean typing speed is 40.53 and IQR is 20 for Year 10.
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
This suggests, that the mean typing speed for Year 10 is
Amount spent ($)
greater than the Year 8 students. The interquartile range is
not the same for both Year 8 and Year 10. d. The mean is slightly underestimated; the median is
15. E exact. The estimate is good enough as it provides a
guide only to the amount that may be spent by future
Exercise 12.2 Measures of central tendency customers.
1. a. 7 b. 8 c. 8 15. a. 3
2. a. 6.875 b. 7 c. 4, 7 b. 4, 5, 5, 5, 6 (one possible solution)
c. One possible solution is to exchange 15 with 20.
3. a. 39.125 b. 44.5 c. No mode
16. a. Frequency column: 16, 6, 4, 2, 1, 1
4. a. 4.857 b. 4.8 c. 4.8
b. 6.8
5. a. 12 b. 12.625 c. 13.5 c. 0 − 4 hours
6. Science: mean = 57.6, median = 57, mode = 42, 51 d. 0 − 4 hours
Maths: mean = 69.12, median = 73, mode = 84 17. a. Frequency column: 1, 13, 2, 0, 1, 8
7. a. 5.83 b. 6 c. 6
b. Age of emergency
8. a. 14.425 b. 15 c. 15 ward patients
9. a. Mean = 2.5, median = 2.5
15
b. Mean = 4.09, median = 3
Frequency
c. Median 10
2
10. a. 72 b. 73 c. 70− < 80
3 5
11. 124.83
12. 65− < 70 0
13. a. B b. B 7.5 22.5 37.5 52.5 67.5 82.5
Age
c. C d. D
c.Asymmetrical or bimodal (as if the data come from two
14. a. Mean = $32.93, median = $30 separate graphs).
d. 44.1
e. 15 − <30
f. 15 − <30

g. 7. a.

28 40
24 100% 35
20 30
16 25
12 50% 20
8 15
4 10
5
0 30 60 90
Age 0 50 55 60 65 70 75 80
h. 28 Battery life (h)
i. No
b. 62.5 i.
j. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions
Q1 = 58, Q3 = 67 ii.
iii. 9
18. A
iv. 14
19. a. Player A median = 34.33, Player B median = 41.83
v. 6
b. Player B
8. IQR = 27
c. Player A median = 32.5, Player B median = 0
d. Player A 55
e. Player A is more consistent. One large score can distort 50
the mean. 45
30
21. a. Frequency column: 3, 8, 5, 3, 1
25
b. 50.5 20
c. 40− < 50 15
d. 40− < 50 10
e.
5
Ogive of pulse rate
of female athletes
0 120130140150160170180 190200
Class interval
20 100%
9. a. i. Range = 23
15
10 50% IQR = 13.5 ii.
5 b. i. Range = 45
ii. IQR = 27.5
0 30 50 70
Beats per minute c. i. Range = 49
ii. IQR = 20
f. Approximately 48 beats/ min 10. Measures of spread tell us how far apart the values (scores)
22. Answers will vary. Sample responses include: are from one another.
a. 3, 4, 5, 5, 8
11. a. 25.5
b. 4, 4, 5, 10, 16
b. 28
c. 2, 3, 6, 6, 12
c. 39
23. 12 d. 6
2a + b
24. e. The three lower scores affect the mean but not the
3
25. 13, 31, 31, 47, 53, 59 median or mode.
12. a. mean = 32.3; median = 32.5; range = 38;
Men:
Exercise 12.3 Measures of spread IQR = 14
1. a. 15 b. 77.1 c. 9 Women: mean = 29.13; median = 27.5; range = 36;
IQR = 13
2. a. 7 b. 7 c. 8.5 d. 39
b. Typically, women marry younger than men, although the
3. a. 3.3 kg b. 1.5 kg spread of ages is similar.
4. 22 cm 13. Mean = 25.036, Median = 24.9, Mode = 23.6
5. 0.8
Range = 8.5, IQR = 3.4
6. C 14. a = 22, b = 9, c = 9 and d = 8

15. a. Yes b.
Range = 10 − 1 = 9
Median (middle score) = 6
b. 6
To maintain range, min = 1 and max = 10. 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
If median = 6, then 3rd and 4th scores must be 6.
Therefore 6th score must be 6. This will maintain the Both graphs indicate that the data is slightly negatively
range, Q1, Q3 and median. skewed. However, the box plot provides an excellent
summary of the centre and spread of the distribution.
Exercise 12.4 Box plots
14.
1. a. 5 b. 26
2. a. 6 b. 27 10
3. a. 5.8 b. 18.6 8
Frequency
4. a. 140 b. 56 c. 90 d. 84 e. 26
6
5. a. 58 b. 31 c. 43 d. 27 e. 7
6. B 4
7. C
8. D, E 2
9. a. 22, 28, 35, 43, 48
b. 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Number of passengers on bus journeys
20 30 40 50
Sales
10. a. (10, 13.5, 22, 33.5, 45) 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140

b. Number of passengers
15. Xmin Q1 Median Q3 Xmax

0 10 20 30 40 50 Before 75 86 95 128.5 152
Rainfall (mm) After 66 81 87 116 134
11. a. (18, 20, 26, 43.5, 74) b. After
b.
Before
10 30 50 70
Age
60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160
The distribution is positively skewed, with most of the
c.
As a whole, the program was effective. The median
c.
offenders being young drivers.
weight dropped from 95 kg to 87 kg, a loss of 8 kg. A
12. a. (124 000, 135 000, 148 000, 157 000, 175 000) noticeable shift in the graph shows that after the program
b. 50% of participants weighed between 66 and 87 kg,
compared to 25% of participants weighing between 75
and 86 kg before they started. Before the program the
120 140 160 180 range of weights was 77 kg (from 75 kg to 152 kg); after
($ × 1000) the program the range had decreased to 68 kg. The IQR
also diminished from 42.5 kg to 35 kg.
13. a. 16. The advantages of box plots is that they are clear visual
representations of 5-number summary, display outliers and
can handle a large volume of data. The disadvantage is that
individual scores are lost.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Both graphs indicate that the data is slightly positively
skewed. However, the box plot provides an excellent
summary of the centre and spread of the distribution.

17. a. Key: 12|1 = 121. quartile, median, third quartile and maximum time).
Stem Leaf The next best performing group was the 25–29-year-
olds. They had the same median as the 20–24-year-olds,
12 1569 but outperformed them in all of the other metrics.
13 124 The 24–29-year-olds were the most consistent group,
14 3488 with a range of 1750 seconds compared to the range of
15 022257 2000 seconds of the other groups.
16 35
17 29 Exercise 12.5 The standard deviation (10A)
18 1112378 1. a. 2.29 b. 2.19 c. 20.17 d. 3.07
b. 2. a. 1.03 b. 1.33 c. 2.67 d. 2.22
3. 10.82
4. Mean = 1.64% Std dev. = 0.45%
120 140 160 180
5. Mean = 1.76 Std dev. = 0.06 m
Number sold
6. 0.49 s
On most days the hamburger sales are less than 160.
c. 7. 15.10 calls
Over the weekend the sales figures spike beyond this. 8. B
18. a. Key: 1*|7 = 17 years 9. The mean of the first 25 cars is 89.24 km/h with a standard
deviation of 5.60. The mean of the first 26 cars is 91.19
Stem Leaf with a standard deviation of 11.20, indicating that the
1∗ 7788899 extreme speed of 140 km/h is an anomaly.
2 000122223333444 10. The standard deviation tells us how spread out the data is
2∗ 5589 from the mean
3 123 11. a. 𝜍 ≈ 3.58
3∗ b. The mean is increased by 7 but the standard deviation
4 remains at 𝜍 ≈ 3.58.
4∗ 8 c. The mean is tripled and the standard deviation is tripled
to 𝜍 ≈ 10.74.
b. 12. The standard deviation will decrease because the average
×
distance to the mean has decreased.
13. 57 is two standard deviations above the mean.
15 25 35 45
14. a. New mean is the old mean increased by 3 (15) but no
Age
change to the standard deviation.
c. The distribution is positively skewed, with first-time b. New mean is 3 times the old mean (36) and new
mothers being under the age of 30. There is one outlier standard deviation is 3 times the old standard deviation
(48) in this group. (12).
19. 15. a. 43 b. 12 c. 12.19
f
Exercise 12.6 Comparing data sets

1. a. The mean of the first set is 63. The mean of the second
set is 63.
b. The standard deviation of the first set is. 2.38 The
Size standard deviation of the second set is 6.53.
c. For both sets of data the mean is the same, 63. However,
20. a. HJ Looker:median = 5; Hane and Roarne: median = 6
the standard deviation for the second set (6.53) is much
b. HJ Looker higher than the standard deviation of the first set (2.38),
c. HJ Looker implying that the second set is more widely distributed
d. Hane and Roarne had a higher median and a lower than the first. This is confirmed by the range, which is
spread and so they appear to have performed better. 67 − 60 = 7 for the first set and 72 − 55 = 17 for the
21. a. $50 b. $135 c. $100 d. $45 e. 50% second.
22. a. 9625 seconds 2. a. Morning: median = 2.45; afternoon: median = 1.6
b. i. Under 20 − (20–24): 750 seconds difference b. Morning: range = 3.8; afternoon: range = 5
ii. Under 20 − (25–29): 500 seconds difference c. The waiting time is generally shorter in the afternoon.
One outlier in the afternoon data causes the range to
iii. (20–24) − (25–29): 250 seconds difference
be larger. Otherwise the afternoon data are far less
c. The under-20s performed best of the three groups, with
spread out.
the fastest time for each metric (minimum time, first

3. Key: 16|1 = 1.61 m b. The drivers are generally driving faster on the
Leaf: Stem Leaf: back street.
Boys Girls c. The spread of speeds is greater on the main road as
indicated by the higher standard deviation.
997 15 1256788
13. a. Machine A
16 4467899
98665540
4421 17 0 Machine B
4. a. Ford: median = 15; Hyundai: median = 16

b. Ford: range = 26; Hyundai: range = 32 40 42 44 46 48 50 52 54 56 58 60
c. Ford: IQR = 14; Hyundai: IQR = 13.5 Number of Smarties in a box
d. b. Machine A: mean = 49.88,

Ford standared deviation = 2.87;
Machine B: mean = 50.12,
Hyundai standared deviation = 2.44
c. Machine B is more reliable, as shown by the lower
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 standard deviation and IQR. The range is greater on
machine B only because of a single outlier.
5. a. Brisbane Lions 14. a. Nathan: mean = 15.1; Timana: mean = 12.3
b. Brisbane Lions: range = 63; b. Nathan: range = 36; Timana: range = 14
Sydney Swans: range = 55 c. Nathan: IQR = 15; Timana: IQR = 4
c. Brisbane Lions: IQR = 40; d. Timana’s lower range and IQR shows that he is the more
Sydney Swans: IQR = 35 consistent player.
6. a. 15. a. Yes — Maths
Girls
b. Science: positively skewed
Boys c. The Science test may have been more difficult.
d. Science: 61 − 70, Maths: 71 − 80
1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 e. Maths has a greater standard deviation (12.6) compared
Height to Science (11.9).
16. a. Key: 2|3 = 2.3 hours
b. Boys: median = 1.62; girls: median = 1.62
c. Boys: range = 0.36; girls: range = 0.23 Leaf: Stem Leaf:
d. Boys: IQR = 0.25; girls: IQR = 0.17 Group A Group B
e. Although boys and girls have the same median height, 873 1 78
the spread of heights is greater among boys as shown by 951 2 01245588
the greater range and interquartile range. 875422 3 222455568
7. a. Summer: range = 23; winter: range = 31 754222 4 2
b. Summer: IQR = 14; winter: IQR = 11 5
c. There are generally more cold drinks sold in summer 22 6
as shown by the higher median. The spread of data is
similar as shown by the IQR although the range in winter b. Five-point summary
is greater. Group A: 13 27 36 43 62
8. A Group B: 17 23 30 35 42
9. A, B, C, D
Group B
10. a. In order to include all data values in the calculation of
measures of centre and spread, calculate the mean and
Group A
standard deviation.
b. Cory achieved a better average mark in Science (59.25)
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 Hours
than he did in English (58.125).
Nouns
c. Cory was more consistent in English (𝜍 = 4.9) than he
was in Science (𝜍 = 19.7) c.Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions
11. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions in in the online resources.
the online resources. d. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions
12. a. Back street: x = 61, 𝜍 = 4.3; in the online resources.
main road: x = 58.8, 𝜍 = 12.1 e. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions

17. a. Leaf: Year 10 Stem Leaf: Year 11 Survey. A census would involve opening every bottle.
c.
98754 15 Census. The instructor must have an accurate record of
d.
9874330 16 03678 each learner driver’s progress.
7532200 17 223456779 4. a. Survey b. Survey c. Census d. Survey
0 18 0 1 358 5. a. About 25
19 0 b. Drawing numbers from a hat, using a calculator.
6. a. The council is probably hoping it is a census, but it will
b.
Year 12 probably be a survey because not all those over 10 will
respond.
Year 10
b. Residents may not all have internet access. Only those
x who are highly motivated are likely to respond.
150 160 170 180 190
7. The sample could have been biased. The questionnaire may
c. On average, the Year 12 students are about 6 − 10 cm have been unclear.
taller than the Year 10 students. The heights of the 8. Sample size, randomness of sample
majority of Year 12 students are between 170 cm and 9. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions in
180 cm, whereas the majority of the Year 10 students are the online resources.
between 160 and 172 cm in height.
10. Sample response: A census of very large populations
18. a. English: mean = 70.25; Maths: mean = 69 requires huge amounts of infrastructure and staff to
b. English: range = 53; Maths: range = 37 collect the information for large numbers of people. These
c. English: 𝜍 = 16.1; Maths: 𝜍 = 13.4 challenges could also be made harder because many people
d. Kloe has performed more consistently in Maths as the live in remote areas with poor transport access for census
range and standard deviation are both lower. staff; forms may need to be created in multiple languages;
and migrants who do not have residency permits may be
19. 32%
unwilling to complete a census.
20. a.
11. There is quite a variation in the frequency of particular
numbers drawn. For example, the number 45 has not been
drawn for 31 weeks, while most have been drawn within
50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85
the last 10 weeks. In the long term, one should find the
The parallel box plots show a significant gap between
frequency of drawing each number is roughly the same. It
the life expectancy of Aboriginal and Torres Strait
may take a long time for this to happen, as only 8 numbers
Islander people and that of non-Aboriginal and non–
are drawn each week.
Torres Strait Islander people. Even the maximum median
12. a. Mean = 32.03; median = 29.5
age of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people is
much lower than the minimum of non-Aboriginal and b. Class interval Frequency
non–Torres Strait Islander people.
0−9 2
b. The advantage of box plots is that it gives a clear
graphical representation of the results and in this case 10 − 19 7
shows a significant difference between the median life 20 − 29 6
expectancy of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander 30 − 39 6
people and non-Aboriginal and non–Torres Strait 40 − 49 3
Islander people. The disadvantage is that we lose the 50 − 59 3
data for individual states and territories.
60 − 69 3
Exercise 12.7Populations and samples Total 30
1. a. When was it first put into the machine? How old was the
battery before being purchased? How frequently has the c. Mean = 31.83
computer been used on battery? d.
b. Can’t always see if a residence has a dog; a census is

30
very time-consuming; perhaps could approach council 25
20
for dog registrations.
15
c. This number is never constant with ongoing purchases,
10
and continuously replenishing stock. 5
d. Would have to sample in this case as a census would
involve opening every packet. 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Age
e. Median = 30
f. Estimates from parts c and e were fairly accurate.
3. a. Census. The airline must have a record of every
passenger on every flight. g. Yes, they were fairly close to the mean and median of
the raw data.
b. Survey. It would be impossible to interview everyone.

13. Year 8: mean = 26.83, median = 27, range = 39, IQR = 19 5. a.

Year 10: mean = 40.7, median = 39.5 range = 46 IQR = 20
The typing speed of Year 10 students is about 13 to 14 wpm Resting Middle x× Cumulative
faster than that of Year students. The spread of data in Year pulse Frequency value, x frequency frequency
8 is slightly less than the spread in Year 10. 30–39 3 34.5 103.5 3
40–49 8 44.5 356.0 11
Exercise 12.8 Evaluating inquiry methods and 50–59 5 54.5 272.5 16
statistical reports 60–69 3 64.5 193.5 19
1. a. Primary. There is probably no secondary data available. 70–79 1 74.5 74.5 20
Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions
b.
in the online resources. b. Mean = 48.65
c. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions Median = 48
in the online resources. Mode = 48
2. Company profits c. From the table it can be clearly seen that the highest
concentration of resting pulse readings was in the 40–
Company profits
49 and 50–59 groups. All three measures of central
tendency fell within these two groupings.
6.5
Profits ($’000 000)
Because of the higher frequency in the 40−49 group,

6.4
6.3
it was not surprising that the mode and median were
6.2
contained there also. The mean was slightly higher, and
6.1 this would have been influenced by the one reading in
6.0 the 70−79 group.
5.9 6. Player B appears to be the better player if the mean result is
used. However, Player A is the more consistent player.
0 1 2 3 4 7. a. 7.1 b. 7 c. 7
Quarter
d. The mode has the most meaning as this size sells
Mean salaries the most.
Company salaries 8. Points which could be mentioned include:
10.1% is only just ‘double digit’ growth.
Mean Salaries
($’000 000)
15 2006–08 showed mid to low 20% growth. Growth has been

10 declining since 2008.
5 The share price has rebounded, but not to its previous high.
The share price scale is not consistent. Most increments are
0 1 2 3 4
Quarter 30c, except for $27.70 to $28.10?(40c increment). Note also
the figure of 20.80 — probably a typo instead of 26.80.
3. a. Mean = $21 5000, median = $170 000, 9. A misleading graph steers/convinces the reader towards a
mode = $150 000. The median best represents these land particular opinion. It can be biased and not accurate.
prices. The mean is inflated by one large score, and the 10. Shorten the y-axis and expand the x-axis.
mode is the lowest price. Aussie dollar
US c
b. Range = $500 000, interquartile range = $30 000. The
interquartile range is the better measure of spread. 90 c
80 c
150 000 300 000 450 000 600 000 0

Price 13 July 13 September
Time
11. a. Key: 3|85 = 385 hours
c. This dot plot shows how 9 of the scores are grouped
close together, while the score of $650 000 is an outlier. Leaf: Stem Leaf:
d. The agent is quoting the modal price, which is the lowest Brand B Brand A
price. This is not a true reflection of the average price of 3 85 90
these blocks of land. 4 25 26
4. a. False. Mean = 1.82 m, lower quartile = 1.765 m, 60 55 00 5 70
median = 1.83 m 30 6 40 45
b. True. This is the definition of interquartile range. 70 42 35 20 7 30 35 60
c. Players with heights 1.83 m, 1.83 m, 1.88 m, 1.88 m 60 20 8
Brand A: mean = 570.6, median = 605

Brand B: mean = 644.2, median = 727.5
b. Brand A had the shortest mean lifetime.

c.Brand B had the longest mean lifetime. Players to be selected:

d.Brand B Would recommend Will if the team needs someone
12. a. The statement is true, but misleading as most of the
with very consistent batting scores every game but no
employees earn $18000. outstanding runs.
b. The median and modal salary is $18000 and only 15 out Would recommend Rohit if the team needs someone
of 80 (less than 20%) earn more than the mean. who might score very high occasionally but in general
13. Left bar chart suggests prices have tripled in one year due to fails to score many runs.
fact vertical axis does not start at zero. Bar chart on right is Would recommend Marnus if the team needs someone
truly indicative of situation. who is fairly consistent but can score quite well at times
14. a. Percentages do not add to 100%. and the rest of the time does OK.
b. Percentages do not add to 100%.
Would recommend Ben if the team needs someone who
c. Such representation allows multiple choices to have
is fairly consistent but can score quite well at times and
closer percentages than really exist. the rest of the time has a better median than Glenn.
3.
Project Semifinal Final Overall
average average average
1.
Runs in the last Josh 2.4 4.67 3.64
Player 25 matches Mean Median Range IQR Ravi 2.5 5 3.57
Will 13, 18, 23, 21, 16.76 17 31 8.5
9, 12, 31, 21, 20, 4. In the final, wickets were more costly than in the semifinal.
18, 14, 16, 28, Josh therefore conceded many runs in getting his six
17, 10, 14, 9, 23, wickets.
12, 24, 0, 18, 14, This affected the overall mean. In reality Josh was the most
14, 20 valuable player overall, but this method of combining the
Rohit 2, 0, 112, 11, 0, 17.04 4 164 10.5 data of the two matches led to this unexpected result.
0, 8, 0, 10, 0, 56,
4, 8, 164, 6, 12, Exercise 12.10 Review questions
2, 0, 5, 0, 0, 0, 8, 1. a. You would need to open every can to determine this.
18, 0 b. Fish are continuously dying, being born, being caught.
Marnus 12, 0, 45, 23, 0, 16.76 12 45 25.5 c. Approaching work places and public transport offices.
8, 21, 32, 6, 0, 8, 2. a. Survey
14, 1, 27, 23, 43,
b. Census
7, 45, 2, 32, 0,
6,11, 21, 32 c. Survey
Ben 2, 0, 3, 12, 0, 2, 16.72 17 42 25 3. a. Mean = 11.55; median = 10; mode = 8
5, 8, 42, 0, 12, 8, b. Mean = 36; median = 36; mode = 33, 41
9, 17, 31, 28, 21, c. Mean = 72.18; median = 72; mode = 72
42, 31, 24, 30, 4. a. 6 b. 6 c. 20
22, 18, 20, 31
5. a. 4 b. 0.85
2. a. Will: has a similar mean and median, which shows he 6. a. 20 b. 24 c. 8
was fairly consistent. The range and IQR values are 7. a.
Year 10
lowindicating that his scores remain at the lower end
with not much deviation for the middle 50% . Year 8
b. Rohit: has the best average but a very low median
indicating his scores are not consistent. The range is 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
extremely high and the IQR very low in comparison
showing he can score very well at times but is not a b. Year 8: mean = 26.83, median = 27, range = 39,
consistent scorer. IQR = 19, sd = 11.45
c. Marnus: has a similar mean to Will and Ben but a lower Year 10: mean = 40.7, median = 39.5, range = 46,
median, indicating his scores are sometimes high but IQR = 20, sd = 12.98
generally are lower than the average. The range and IQR c. The typing speed of Year 10 students is about 13 to 14
show a consistent batting average and spread with only a wpm faster than that of Year 8 students. The spread of
few higher scores and some lower ones. data in Year 8 is slightly less than in Year 10.
d. Ben: has a similar mean and median which shows he was
a consistent player. The range and IQR show a consistent
batting average and spread.

8. a. Key: 3*|9 = 3.9 kg 18. a.

9
Stem Leaf 8
3* 9 7
Frequency
6
4 00023
5
4* 5678
4
5 03 3
5* 5889 2
6 122 1
6* 8
0 1 2 3 4 5
Number of cars
b. (3.9, 4.4, 4.9, 5.85, 6.8)
b. Positively skewed — a greater number of scores is
c.
distributed at the lower end of the distribution.
19. a. Yes b. Yes. Both are 3
3.5 4.5 5.5 6.5 kg c. 3
9. a. 24.4 b. 1.1 c. 7.3 m2

20. a. x = m2 𝜍= b. 7m + 2
10. A 2
21. a. Mean = 2.17, median = 2
11. B
b. Mean = 3.54, median = 2
12. 0.05 ml
c. The median relies on the middle value of the data and
13. Mean = 5, median = 5, mode = 2 and 5.
won’t change much if an extra value is added. The mean
The distribution is positively skewed and bimodal.
however has increased because this large value will
14. a. Median height = 167 cm
change the average of the numbers. The mean is used
b. Range = 25 cm as a measure of central tendency if there are no outliers
c. IQR = 5 cm or if the data are symmetrical. The median is used as a
15. C measure of central tendency if there are outliers or the
16. A, B and C data are skewed.
22. a.
17. a. Mean = 32.03; median = 29.5 Frequency
b. Interval (f) Midpoint × ( f )
40 − 49 1 44.5 × 1 = 44.5
0−9 2
50 − 59 1 54.5 × 1 = 54.5
10 − 19 7
60 − 69 1 64.5 × 1 = 64.5
20 − 29 6
70 − 79 2 74.5 × 2 = 149
30 − 39 6
80 − 89 4 84.5 × 4 = 338
40 − 49 3
90 − 99 4 94.5 × 4 = 378
50 − 59 3
100 − 109 8 104.5 × 8 = 836
60 − 69 3
110 − 119 6 114.5 × 6 = 687
Total 30
120 − 129 8 124.5 × 8 = 996
c. Mean = 31.83 130 − 139 2 134.5 × 2 = 269
d. 140 − 149 2 144.5 × 2 = 289
30 150 − 159 0 154.5 × 0 = 0

25 160 − 169 1 164.5 × 1 = 164.5
20 Total 40 4270
15
10 b. 106.75
5
c. 107.15
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 d. The differences in this case were minimal; however, the
Amount spent ($) grouped data mean is not based on the actual data but on
e. Median = 30 the frequency in each interval and the interval midpoint.
f. Estimates from parts c and e were fairly accurate. It is unlikely to yield an identical value to the actual
g. Yes, they were fairly close to the mean and median of mean. The spread of the scores within the class interval
the raw data. has a great effect on the grouped data mean.

23. a.
Females
Males
x
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Age
b. Males Females
Mean 28.2 31.1
Range 70 57
IQR 18 22
c.There is one outlier — a male aged 78.

d.Typically males seem to enter hospital for the first time
at a younger age than females.
24. a. i. 35 s
ii. 29.5 s
iii. 33.05 s
iv. 60 s
v. 21s
vi. 39 s
vii. 18 s
b. 21 29.5 39
15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 t
c. i. 25%
ii. 50%
iii. 75%
d. Categorical
e. 35%
f. Pictogram, pie chart or bar chart.
25. a. Class A: Q1 – 21.5, Median – 30, Q3 – 38, IQR – 16.5
Class B: Q1 – 14.5, Median – 33, Q3 – 47, IQR – 32.5
Based on the comparison between Class A’s IQR (16.5)
and Class B’s IQR (32.5), Ms Vinculum was correct in
her statement.
b. No, Class B has a higher median and upper quartile
score than Class A, while Class A has a higher lower
quartile. You can’t confidently say that either class did
better in the test than the other.
26. a. 82.73 km/h
b. 30 cars
c. i. $2 607 272.73
ii. About 545

13 Bivariate data
LEARNING SEQUENCE
13.1 Overview ...............................................................................................................................................................830
13.2 Bivariate data ......................................................................................................................................................834
13.3 Lines of best fit by eye .................................................................................................................................... 844
13.4 Linear regression using technology (10A) ................................................................................................855
13.5 Time series .......................................................................................................................................................... 863
13.6 Review ................................................................................................................................................................... 871
13.1 Overview
Why learn this?
Bivariate data can be collected from all kinds of place. This includes
data about the weather, data about athletic performance and data
about the profitability of a business. By learning the tools you need
to analyse bivariate data, you will be gaining skills that help you turn
numbers (data) into powerful information that can be used to make
predictions (plots).
The use for bivariate data is not limited to the classroom; in fact, many
professionals rely on bivariate data to help make decisions. Some
examples of bivariate data in the real world are:
• when a new drug is created, scientists will run drug trials in
which they collect bivariate data about how the drug works.
When the drug is approved for use, the results of the scientific
analysis help guide doctors, nurses, pharmacists and patients as
to how much of the drug to use and how often.
• manufacturers of products can use bivariate data about sales to
help make decisions about when to make products and how many
to make. For example, a beach towel manufacturer would know
that they need to produce more towels for summer, and analysis
of the data would help them decide how many to make.
By studying bivariate data you can learn how to use data to make predictions. By studying and understanding
how these predictions work, you will be able to understand the strengths and limitations of these types of
predictions.
Where to get help

Fully worked
solutions
eLessons
to every
question
Digital
eWorkbook
documents

“c13BivariateData_PrintPDF” — 2021/9/11 — 7:46 — page 831 — #3

1. MC Choose the following graphs that shows whether there is a relationship between two variables and
each data value is shown as a point on a Cartesian plane.

A. Box plot B. Scatterplot C. Dot plot D. Ogive E. Histogram
2. MC Select which of the following statements is incorrect.

A. Bivariate data are data with two variables.
B. Correlation describes the strength, the direction and the form of the relationship between
two variables.
C. The explanatory variable is placed on the y-axis and the response variable on the x-axis.
D. The value of the response variable changes in response to the other variable.
E. The explanatory variable takes on values that do not depend on the value of the other variable.
3. Data is compared from twenty students on the number of hours spent studying for an examination and
the result of the examination. State if the number of hours spent studying is the explanatory or response
variable.
4. Match the type of correlation with the data shown on the scatter plots.
Scatter plot Type of correlation

a. y A. Strong negative linear correlation
b. y B. No correlation
c. y C. Weak positive linear correlation
TOPIC 13 Bivariate data 831

5. MC The table below shows the number of hours spent doing a problem-solving task for a subject and
the corresponding total score for task.
Number of hours spent on task 0 1.5 2 1 2 1.5 2.5 3 2 2.5
Task score % 20 50 60 45 80 70 75 97 85 20
Choose which data point is a possible outlier.
A. (0, 20) B. (1.5, 50) C. (1.5, 70) D. (2.5, 20) E. (2.5, 70)
6. MC Each point on the scatterplot shows the Exercising and fitness levels
number of hours per week spent exercising by a y
person and their fitness level. 3.5
Choose the statement that best describes the 3

scatterplot.
A. The more time exercising the worse the 2.5
Fitness levels
fitness level.
B. The number of hours per week spent exercising 2
is the explanatory variable.
C. The correlation between the number of hours 1.5
per week exercising and the fitness levels is a
weak positive non-linear correlation. 1
D. There are six people’s information collected.
E. There is an outlier. 0.5
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 x

Number of hours per week exercising
7. Select a term that describes a line of best fit being used y

20 (12, 20)
to predict a value of a variable from within a given range
from the following options: extrapolation, interpolation or 18
regression. 16
14
12
8. Determine the gradient of the line of best fit shown in the
10
scatter plot.
8
6
9. In time series data, explain whether time is the explanatory 4
or response variable. (1, 4)
2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 x
10. Select another term for an explanatory variable from the
following options: a dependent variable or an independent
variable.
11. MC Select the correct difference between a seasonal pattern and a cyclical pattern in a time series plot.
A. A cyclical pattern shows upward trends, where as a seasonal pattern shows only downward trends.
B. A cyclical pattern displays fluctuations with no regular periods between peaks, where as a seasonal
pattern displays fluctuations that repeat at the same time each week, month, quarter or year.
C. A cyclical pattern does not show any regular fluctuations, where as a seasonal pattern does.
D. A seasonal pattern displays fluctuations with no regular periods between peaks, where as a cyclical
pattern displays fluctuations that repeat at the same time each week, month, quarter or year.
E. A seasonal pattern shows upward trends, where as a cyclical pattern shows only downward trends.

12. MC The time series plot shown can be classified as:
A. upward trend
B. downward trend
C. seasonal pattern
D. cyclical pattern
E. random pattern
y
10
6
Data
0 x
10 20 30 40 50
Time
13. Use the given scatterplot and the line of best fit to determine the value of x when y = 2.
y
7
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 x

14. The table below shows the number of new COVID-19 cases per month reported in Australia in 2020.
Month March April May June July

New COVID-19 cases 11 304 14 9 86
Month August September October November December
New COVID-19 cases 377 73 18 5 8
a. Plot the time series.

b. Interpret the trend in the data from March to December.
15. Use the given scatterplot and line of best fit y

to predict: 18
16
a. the value of y when x = 4
14
b. the value of x when y = 1.
12
10
8
6
4
2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 x
13.2 Bivariate data

LEARNING INTENTION
• recognise the explanatory and response variables in bivariate data
• represent bivariate data using a scatter plot
• describe the correlation between two variables in a bivariate data set
• draw conclusions about the correlation between two variables in a bivariate data set.
13.2.1 Bivariate data

eles-5361
• Bivariate data are data with two variables (the prefix ‘bi’ means ‘two’).
•For example, bivariate data could be used to investigate the question: ‘How are student marks affected by
phone use?’
• In bivariate data, one variable will be the explanatory variable (also known as the experimental variable or
independent variable). This variable is not impacted by the other variable.
• In the example the explanatory variable is phone use per day.
• In bivariate data one variable will be the response variable (also known as the dependent variable). This
variable is impacted by the other variable.
• In the example the response variable is average student marks.
Scatter plots
• A scatter plot is a way of displaying bivariate data.
• A scatter plot will have:
• the explanatory variable placed on the x-axis with a label and scale
• the response variable placed on the y-axis with a label and scale
• the data points shown on the plot.

Features of a scatter plot
Average student marks (%)

100
Data points plotted
75
Response data
on y-axis 50
25
0 1 2 3 4 x
Time spent on phone per day (hours) Explanatory data
on x-axis
WORKED EXAMPLE 1 Representing bivariate data on a scatter plot
The table shows the total revenue from selling tickets for a number of different chamber music
concerts. Represent the given data on a scatterplot.
Number of
400 200 450 350 250 300 500 400 350 250
tickets sold
Total ( )
8000 3600 8500 7700 5800 6000 11 000 7500 6600 5600
revenue $
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1. Determine which is the response variable The total revenue changes in response to (or is
and which is the explanatory variable. explained by) the number of tickets being sold, so the
total revenue is the response variable and the number
of tickets in the explanatory variable.
Total revenue from selling tickets

2. Draw a set of axes. Label the title of the graph.
Label the horizontal axis ‘Number of tickets 11 000
sold’ and the vertical axis ‘Total revenue ($)’. 10 000
Total revenue ($)
9000
3. Use an appropriate scale on the horizontal and
8000
vertical axes.
7000
4. Plot the points on the scatterplot. 6000
5000
4000
3000
0 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
Number of tickets sold

13.2.2 Correlation
eles-5362
• Correlation is a way of describing a connection between variables in a bivariate data set.
Describing correlation
Correlation between two variables will have:

• a type (linear or non-linear)
Linear Non-linear
• a direction (positive or negative)
Positive Negative
• a strength (strong, moderate or weak).
Strong Moderate Weak
• Data will have no correlation if the data are spread out across the plot with no clear pattern, as shown
in this example.
No correlation

WORKED EXAMPLE 2 Describing the correlation
State the type of correlation between the variables x and y, shown on the scatterplot.
THINK WRITE
Carefully analyse the scatterplot and comment The points on the scatterplot are close together
on its form, direction and strength. and constantly increasing therefore the relationship
is linear.
The path is directed from the bottom left corner to
the top right corner and the value of y increases as x
increases. Therefore the correlation is positive.
The points are close together so the correlation can
be classified as strong.
There is a linear, positive and strong relationship
between x and y.
13.2.3 Drawing conclusions from correlation

eles-5363
• When drawing a conclusion from a scatter plot, state how the explanatory variable appears to affect the
response variable and explain what that means.
• For the example of comparing time spent on phone to average marks, a good conclusion for the graph
shown in section 13.2.1 would be:
Explanatory variable Response variable
The number of hours spent on a phone per day appears to affect the average marks .
This means that the more time spent on a phone per day, the worse a student’s marks are likely to be.
Explanation
• Based on scatter plots, it is possible to draw conclusions y

about correlation but not causation.
Distance run (km)
For example, for this graph: 15
• it is correct to say that the amount of water drunk 10

appears to affect the distance run
• it is incorrect to say that drinking more water causes a 5
person to run further, because someone might only be
able to run 1 km and even if they drink 3 litres of water, 0 x
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
they will still only be able to run 1 km.
Amount of water drunk (L)

WORKED EXAMPLE 3 Stating conclusions from bivariate data
Mary sells business shirts in a department store. She always records the number of different styles of
shirt sold during the day. The table below shows her sales over one week.
( )
Price $ 14 18 20 21 24 25 28 30 32 35
Number of shirts sold 21 22 18 19 17 17 15 16 14 11
a. Construct a scatterplot of the data.

b. State the type of correlation between the two variables and, hence, draw a corresponding conclusion.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a. Draw the scatterplot showing ‘Price ($)’ a.
(explanatory variable) on the horizontal 28
Number of shirts sold

26
axis and ‘Number of shirts sold’ (response
24
variable) on the vertical axis.
22
20
18
16
14
12
10
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Price ($)
b. 1. Carefully analyse the scatterplot and b. The points on the plot form a path that resembles
comment on its form, direction and strength. a straight, narrow band, directed from the top
left corner to the bottom right corner. The points
are close to forming a straight line. There is a
linear, negative and strong correlation between the
two variables.
2. Draw a conclusion corresponding to the The price of the shirt appears to affect the number
analysis of the scatterplot. sold; that is, the more expensive the shirt the
fewer sold.

a−b. a−b. a−b. a−b.
1. In a new document, 1. On the Statistic
on a Lists & screen, label list1
Spreadsheet page, as ‘Price’ and list 2
label column A as as ‘Shirts’, then
‘price’ and label enter
column B as ‘sold’. the values from the
Enter the values question.
from the question. Press EXE after

2. Open a Data & 2. Tap:
Statistics page. • SetGraph
Press TAB to locate • Setting...
the label of the Set values as shown
horizontal axis and in the screenshot,
select the variable then tap Set.
‘price’. Press TAB
again to locate the
label of the vertical
axis and select the
variable ‘sold’.
3. To change the colour 3. Tap the graphing

of the scatterplot, icon and the
place the pointer over scatterplot will
one of the data points. appear.
Then press CTRL
MENU. Press:
• Colour
• Fill Colour
Select a colour from
the palette for the
scatterplot. Press The scatterplot is shown, using
ENTER. a suitable scale for both axes.
The points are close to forming a
straight line. There is a strong The scatterplot is shown,
negative, linear correlation using a suitable scale for
between the two variables. The both axes. The points
trend indicates that the price are close to forming a
of a shirt appears to affect the straight line. There is a
number sold; that is, the more strong negative linear
expensive the shirt, the fewer are correlation between the
sold. two variables. The trend
indicates that the price of
a shirt appears to affect
the number sold; that is,
the more expensive the
shirt, the fewer are sold.
DISCUSSION
How could you determine whether the change in one variable causes the change in another variable?
Resources
Resourceseses
Digital documents SkillSHEET Substitution into a linear rule (doc-5405)
SkillSHEET Solving linear equations that arise when finding x- and y-intercepts (doc-5406)
SkillSHEET Transposing linear equations to standard form (doc-5407)
SkillSHEET Measuring the rise and the run (doc-5408)
SkillSHEET Determining the gradient given two points (doc-5409)
SkillSHEET Graphing linear equations using the x- and y-intercept method (doc-5410)
SkillSHEET Determining independent and dependent variables (doc-5411)
SkillSHEET Determining the type of correlation (doc-5413)
Interactivity Individual pathway interactivity: Bivariate data (int-4626)

Exercise 13.2 Bivariate data
Individual pathways
1, 4, 5, 8, 11, 14 2, 6, 9, 12, 15 3, 7, 10, 13, 16
Fluency
For questions 1 and 2, decide which is the explanatory variable
and which is the response variable.
1. a. Number of hours spent studying for a Mathematics test and
the score on that test.
b. Daily amount of rainfall (in mm) and daily attendance at the
Botanical Gardens.
c. Number of hours per week spent in a gym and the annual
number of visits to the doctor.
d. The amount of computer memory taken by an essay and the
length of the essay (in words).
2. a. The cost of care in a childcare centre and attendance at the childcare centre.
b. The cost of the property (real estate) and the age of the property.
c. The entry requirements for a certain tertiary course and the number of applications for that course.
d. The heart rate of a runner and the running speed.
3. WE1 The following table shows the cost of a wedding reception at 10 different venues. Represent the data
on a scatterplot.
No of guests 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120

( )
Total cost × $1000 1.5 1.8 2.4 2.3 2.9 4 4.3 4.5 4.6 4.6
4. WE2 State the type of relationship between x and y for each of the following scatterplots.
a. y b. y c. y
x x x
d. y e. y
x x

5. State the type of relationship between x and y for each of the following scatterplots.
a. y b. y c. y
x x x
d. y e. y
x x
6. State the type of relationship between x and y for each of the following scatterplots.
a. y b. y c. y
x x x
d. y e. y
x x
Understanding
7. WE3 Eugene is selling leather bags at the local market. During the day he keeps records of his sales. The
table below shows the number of bags sold over one weekend and their corresponding prices (to the
nearest dollar).
Price ($) of a bag 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80

Number of bags sold 10 12 8 6 4 3 4 2 2 1 1

b. State the type of correlation between the two variables and, hence, draw a corresponding conclusion.
8. The table below shows the number of bedrooms and the price of each of 30 houses.
Number of Price Number of Price Number of Price

bedrooms ($′ 000) bedrooms ($′ 000) bedrooms ($′ 000)
2 180 3 279 3 243
2 160 2 195 3 198
3 240 6 408 3 237
2 200 4 362 2 226
2 155 2 205 4 359
4 306 7 420 4 316
3 297 5 369 2 200
5 383 1 195 2 158
2 212 3 265 1 149
4 349 2 174 3 286

b. State the type of correlation between the number of bedrooms and the price of the house and, hence, draw
a corresponding conclusion.
c. Suggest other factors that could contribute to the price of the house.
9. The table below shows the number of questions solved by each student on a test, and the corresponding total
score on that test.
Number of questions 2 0 7 10 5 2 6 3 9 4 8 3 6
Total score (%) 22 39 69 100 56 18 60 36 87 45 84 32 63

b. Suggest the type of correlation shown in the scatterplot.
c. Give a possible explanation as to why the scatterplot is not perfectly linear.
10. A sample of 25 drivers who had obtained a full licence within the last month
was asked to recall the approximate number of driving lessons they had taken
(to the nearest 5), and the number of accidents they had while being on P plates.
The results are summarised in the table that follows.
a. Represent these data on a scatterplot.
b. Specify the relationship suggested by the scatterplot.
c. Suggest some reasons why this scatterplot is not perfectly linear.
Number of lessons 5 20 15 25 10 35 5 15 10 20 40 25 10
Number of accidents 6 2 3 3 4 0 5 1 3 1 2 2 5
Number of lessons 5 20 40 25 30 15 35 5 30 15 20 10
Number of accidents 5 3 0 4 1 4 1 4 0 2 3 4
Reasoning
11. MC The scatterplot that best represents the relationship between the amount of water consumed daily by a
certain household for a number of days in summer and the daily temperature is:
A. B. C.
Temperature (°C)
Water usage (L)
Water usage (L)
Water usage (L) Temperature (°C) Temperature (°C)
D. E.
Temperature (°C)
Water usage (L)
Temperature (°C) Water usage (L)

12. MC The scatterplot shows the number of sides and the sum of interior y
angles for a number of polygons. 1300
Select the statement that is NOT true of the following statements. 1200
1100
A. The correlation between the number of sides and the angle sum of
Sum of angles (°)

1000
the polygon is perfectly linear. 900
B. The increase in the number of sides causes the increase in the size of 800
the angle sum. 700
C. The number of sides depends on the sum of the angles. 600
D. The correlation between the two variables is positive. 500
E. There is a strong correlation between the two variables. 400
300
13. MC After studying a scatterplot, it was concluded that there was
200
evidence that the greater the level of one variable, the smaller the level
0 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 x
of the other variable. The scatterplot must have shown a:
Number of sides
A. strong, positive correlation
B. strong, negative correlation
C. moderate, positive correlation
D. moderate, negative correlation
E. weak, negative correlation
Problem solving
14. The table below gives the number of kicks and handballs obtained by the top 8 players in an AFL game.
Player A B C D E F G H
Number of kicks 20 27 21 19 17 18 21 22
Number of handballs 11 3 11 6 5 1 9 7
a. Represent this information on a scatterplot by using the

x-axis as the number of kicks and the y-axis as the number
of handballs.
b. State whether the scatterplot supports the claim that the
more kicks a player obtains, the more handballs they give.
15. Each point on the scatterplot shows the time (in weeks) spent by a person on a healthy diet and the
corresponding mass lost (in kg).
Study the scatterplot and state whether each of the following statements is true or false.
a. The number of weeks that the person stays on a diet is the explanatory
Loss in mass (kg)
variable.
b. The y-coordinates of the points represent the time spent by a person on
a diet.
c. There is evidence to suggest that the longer the person stays on a diet,
the greater the loss in mass.
d. The time spent on a diet is the only factor that contributes to the loss
in mass. Number of weeks
e. The correlation between the number of weeks on a diet and the number
of kilograms lost is positive.

16. The scatterplot shown gives the marks obtained by
(iii)
students in two mathematics tests. Mardi’s score in
(v)
the tests is represented by M. Determine which point (ii) (iv)
represents each of the following students.
a. Mandy, who got the highest mark in both tests. (vi) M
Test 2
b. William, who got the top mark in test 1 but not in
(i) (viii)
test 2.
c. Charlotte, who did better on test 1 than Mardi but not
(vii)
as well in test 2.
d. Dario, who did not do as well as Charlotte in
both tests.
e. Edward, who got the same mark as Mardi in test 2
Test 1
but did not do so well in test 1.
f. Cindy, who got the same mark as Mardi for test 1 but did better than her for test 2.
g. Georgina, who was the lowest in test 1.
h. Harrison, who had the greatest discrepancy between his two marks.
13.3 Lines of best fit by eye

LEARNING INTENTION
• draw a line of best fit by eye
• determine the equation of the line of best fit
• use the line of best fit to make interpolation or extrapolation predictions.
13.3.1 Lines of best fit by eye

eles-5364
• A line of best fit is a line that follows the trend of the data in a 100
scatter plot.
• A line of best fit is most appropriate for data with strong or 75
moderate linear correlation.
• Drawing lines of best fit by eye is done by placing a line that: 50
• represents the data trend
25
• has an equal number of points above and below the line.
0 1 2 3 4
Time spent on phone per day (hours)
Determine the equation of a line of best fit by eye
To determine the equation of the line of best fit, follow these steps:
1. Choose two points on the line.
Note: It is best to use two data points on the line if possible.
2. Write the points in the coordinate form (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ).
y2 − y1
3. Calculate the gradient using m = .
x2 − x1
4. Write the equation in the form y = mx + c using the m found in step 3.
5. Substitute one coordinate into the equation and rearrange to find c.
6. Write the final equation, replacing x and y if needed.

WORKED EXAMPLE 4 Determining the equation for a line of best fit
The data in the table shows the cost of using the internet at a number of different internet cafes based
on hours used per month.
Hours used per month 10 12 20 18 10 13 15 17 14 11

Total monthly cost ($) 15 18 30 32 18 20 22 23 22 18

b. Draw the line of best fit by eye.
c. Determine the equation of the line of best fit in terms of the variables n (number of hours) and
C (monthly cost).
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a. Draw the scatterplot placing the explanatory a. y
variable (hours used per month) on the 32
horizontal axis and the response variable 30
Total monthly cost ($)

(total monthly cost) on the vertical axis. 28
Label the axes. 26
24
22
20
18
16
14
0 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 x
Hours used per month
b. 1. Carefully analyse the scatterplot. b. y

32
2. Position the line of best fit so there is 30
Total monthly cost ($)
approximately an equal number of data points 28 (20, 30)

on either side of the line and so that all points 26
are close to the line. 24
Note: With the line of best fit, there is no 22
single definite solution. 20
(13, 20)
18
16
14
0 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 x
Hours used per month
c. 1. Select two points on the line that are not too c. Let (x1 , y1 ) = (13, 20) and (x2 , y2 ) = (20, 30).
y2 − y1
2. Calculate the gradient of the line. m=
x2 − x1
30 − 20
m=
20 − 13
10
=
7
3. Write the rule for the equation of a straight line. y = mx + c

10
4. Substitute the known values into the equation. y= x+c
7
10
5. Substitute one pair of coordinates, 20 = (13) + c
say (13, 20) into the equation to evaluate c. 7
130
c = 20 −
7
140 − 130
=
7
10
=
7
10 10
6. Write the equation. y= x+
Note: The values of c and m are the same in 7 7
this example. This is not always the case.
10 10
7. Replace x with n (number of hours used) and C= n+
y with C (the total monthly cost) as required. 7 7
13.3.2 Predictions using lines of best fit

eles-5365
• Predictions can be made by using the line of best fit.
• To make a prediction, use one coordinate then determine the other coordinate by using:
the line of best fit
•
the equation of the line of best fit.
•
• Predictions will be made using:
• interpolation if the prediction sits within the given data
• extrapolation if the prediction sits outside the given data.
Interpolation vs extrapolation
Predictions made within
the data use interpolation.
y
100
75
50 Predictions made outside

the data use extrapolation.
25
0 1 2 3 4 5
Time spent on phone per day (hours)
• Predictions will be reliable if they are made:

• using interpolation
• from data with a strong correlation
• from a large number of data.

WORKED EXAMPLE 5 Making predictions using the line of best fit
Use the given scatterplot and line of best fit to predict:

y
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 x
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a. 1. Locate 10 on the x-axis and draw a vertical a. y
line until it meets with the line of best fit. 45
From that point, draw a horizontal line to the 40
35
y-axis. Read the value of y indicated by the
30
horizontal line.
25
20
15
10
5
0 x
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
2. Write the answer. When x = 10, y is predicted to be 35.
b. 1. Locate 10 on the y-axis and draw a horizontal b. y
line until it meets with the line of best fit. 45
From that point draw a vertical line to the 40
35
x-axis. Read the value of x indicated by the
30
vertical line.
25
20
15
10
5
0 x
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
2. Write the answer. When y = 10, x is predicted to be 27.

WORKED EXAMPLE 6 Interpreting meaning and making predictions
The table below shows the number of boxes of tissues purchased by hay fever sufferers and the
number of days affected by hay fever during the blooming season in spring.
Number of days affected by hay fever (d) 3 12 14 7 9 5 6 4 10 8

Total number of boxes of tissues
1 4 5 2 3 2 2 2 3 3
purchased (T)
a. Construct a scatterplot of the data and draw a line of best fit.

b. Determine the equation of the line of best fit.
c. Interpret the meaning of the gradient.
d. Use the equation of the line of best fit to predict the number of boxes of tissues purchased by people
suffering from hay fever over a period of:
i. 11 days ii. 15 days.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a. 1. Draw the scatterplot showing the a. T
Total no. boxes of tissues purchased

explanatory variable (number of days
affected by hay fever) on the horizontal axis 5
and the response variable (total number of
4
boxes of tissues purchased) on the
vertical axis.
3
0 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 d
No. days affected by hay fever
2. Position the line of best fit on the scatterplot T

Total no. boxes of tissues purchased
so there is approximately an equal number

of data points on either side of the line. 5
(14,5)
4
1
(3,1)
0 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 d
No. days affected by hay fever
b. 1. Select two points on the line that are not too b. Let (x1 , y1 ) = (3, 1) and (x2 , y2 ) = (14, 5).
y2 − y1
2. Calculate the gradient of the line. m=
x2 − x1
5−1 4
m= =
14 − 3 11

3. Write the rule for the equation of a y = mx + c
straight line.
4
4. Substitute the known values into the y= x+c
equation, say (3, 1), into the equation to 11
calculate c. 4
1= (3) + c
11
12
c = 1−
11
−1
=
11
4 1
5. Write the equation. y= x−
11 11
4 1
6. Replace x with d (number of days with hay T= d−
fever) and y with T (total number of boxes of 11 11
tissues used) as required.
c. Interpret the meaning of the gradient of the c. The gradient indicates an increase in sales
line of best fit. of tissues as the number of days affected
by hay fever increases. A hay fever
4
sufferer is using on average (or
11
about 0.36) of a box of tissues per day.
d. i. 1. Substitute the value d = 11 into the d. i. When d = 11,

equation and evaluate. 4 1
T= × 11 −
11 11
1
= 4−
11
10
=3
11
2. Interpret and write the answer. In 11 days the hay fever sufferer will need
4 boxes of tissues.
ii. 1. Substitute the value d = 15 into the ii. When d = 15,
equation and evaluate. 4 1
T= × 15 −
11 11
60 1
= −
11 11
4
=5
11
2. Interpret and write the answer. In 15 days the hay fever sufferer will need
about 6 boxes of tissues.
DISCUSSION
Why is extrapolation not considered to be reliable?

Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivities Individual pathway interactivity: Lines of best fit (int-4627)
Lines of best fit (int-6180)
Interpolation and extrapolation (int-6181)
Exercise 13.3 Lines of best fit by eye

Individual pathways
1, 2, 5, 8, 11 3, 6, 9, 12 4, 7, 10, 13
Fluency
1. WE4 The data in the table shows the distances travelled by 10 cars
and the amount of petrol used for their journeys (to the nearest
litre).
Distance travelled
52 36 83 12 44 67 74 23 56 95
(km), d
Petrol used (L), P 7 5 9 2 7 9 12 3 8 14
a. Construct a scatterplot of the data and draw the line of best fit.
b. Determine the equation of the line of best fit in terms of the
variables d (distance travelled) and P (petrol used).
2. WE5 Use the given scatterplot and line of best fit to predict:
y
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 x


3. Analyse the following graph. y
600
a. Use the line of best fit to estimate the 500
value of y when the value of x is: 400
i. 7 ii. 22 iii. 36. 300
200
b. Use the line of best fit to estimate the
100
value of x when the value of y is:
0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 x
i. 120 ii. 260 iii. 480.
c. Determine the equation of the line of best fit, if it is known that it passes through the points (5, 530)
and (40, 75).
d. Use the equation of the line to verify the values obtained from the graph in parts a and b.
4. A sample of ten Year 10 students who have part-time jobs was randomly selected. Each student was asked
to state the average number of hours they work per week and their average weekly earnings (to the nearest
dollar). The results are summarised in the table below.
Hours worked, h 4 8 15 18 10 5 12 16 14 6
Weekly earnings ($), E 23 47 93 122 56 33 74 110 78 35
a. Construct a scatterplot of the data and draw the line of best fit.
b. Write the equation of the line of best fit, in terms of variables h (hours worked) and E (weekly earnings).
Understanding
5. WE6 The following table shows the average weekly expenditure on food for households of various sizes.
Number of people in a household 1 2 4 7 5 4 3 5

Cost of food ($ per week) 70 100 150 165 150 140 120 155
Number of people in a household 2 4 6 5 3 1 4
Cost of food ($ per week) 90 160 160 160 125 75 135
a. Construct a scatterplot of the data and draw in the line of best fit.
b. Determine the equation of the line of best fit. Write it in terms of
variables n (for the number of people in a household) and C (weekly
cost of food).
d. Use the equation of the line of best fit to predict the weekly food
expenditure for a family of:
i. 8 ii. 9 iii. 10.
6. The number of hours spent studying, and the percentage marks obtained by a group of students on a test are
shown in this table.
Hours spent studying 45 30 90 60 105 65 90 80 55 75
Marks obtained 40 35 75 65 90 50 90 80 45 65
a. State the values for marks obtained that can be used for interpolation.
b. State the values for hours spent studying that can be used for interpolation.

7. The following table shows the gestation time and the birth mass of 10 babies.
Gestation time (weeks) 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40

Birth mass (kg) 1.080 1.470 1.820 2.060 2.230 2.540 2.750 3.110 3.080 3.370
a. Construct a scatterplot of the data. Suggest the type of correlation shown by the scatterplot.
b. Draw in the line of best fit and determine its equation. Write it in terms of the variables t (gestation time)
and M (birth mass).
c. Determine what the value of the gradient represents.
d. Although full term of gestation is considered to be 40 weeks, some pregnancies last longer. Use the
equation obtained in part b to predict the birth mass of babies born after 41 and 42 weeks of gestation.
e. Many babies are born prematurely. Using the equation obtained in part b, predict the birth mass of a baby
whose gestation time was 30 weeks.
f. Calculate their gestation time (to the nearest week), if the birth mass of the baby was 2.390 kg.
Reasoning
8. MC Consider the scatterplot shown.
y
x
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
The line of best fit on the scatterplot is used to predict the values of y when x = 15, x = 40 and x = 60.
a. Interpolation would be used to predict the value of y when the value of x is:
A. 15 and 40 B. 15 and 60 C. 15 only D. 40 only E. 60 only

b. The prediction of the y-value(s) can be considered reliable when:
A. x = 15 and x = 40 B. x = 15, x = 40 and x = 60 C. x = 40
D. x = 40 and x = 60 E. x = 60
9. MC The scatterplot below is used to predict the value of y when x = 300. This prediction is:
y
500
400
300
200
100
0 x
100 200 300 400 500 600 700
A. reliable, because it is obtained using interpolation

B. not reliable, because it is obtained using extrapolation
C. not reliable, because only x-values can be predicted with confidence
D. reliable because the scatterplot contains a large number of points
E. not reliable, because there is no correlation between x and y

10. As a part of her project, Rachel is growing a crystal. Every day she measures the crystal’s mass using special
laboratory scales and records it. The table below shows the results of her experiment.
Day number 1 2 3 4 5 8 9 10 11 12 15 16
Mass (g) 2.5 3.7 4.2 5.0 6.1 8.4 9.9 11.2 11.6 12.8 16.1 17.3
Measurements on days 6, 7, 13 and 14 are missing, since these were 2 consecutive weekends and, hence,
Rachel did not have a chance to measure her crystal, which is kept in the school laboratory.
a. Construct the scatterplot of the data and draw in the line of best fit.
b. Determine the equation of the line of best fit. Write the equation,
using variables d (day of the experiment) and M (mass of the crystal).
d. For her report, Rachel would like to fill in the missing measurements
(that is, the mass of the crystal on days 6, 7, 13 and 14). Use the
equation of the line of best fit to help Rachel determine these
measurements. Explain whether this is an example of interpolation
or extrapolation.
e. Rachel needed to continue her experiment for 2 more days, but she
fell ill and had to miss school. Help Rachel to predict the mass of the
crystal on those two days (that is, days 17 and 18), using the equation
of the line of best fit. Explain whether these predictions are reliable.
Problem solving
11. Ari was given a baby rabbit for his birthday. To monitor the rabbit’s growth, Ari decided to measure it once
a week.
The table below shows the length of the rabbit for various weeks.
Week number, n 1 2 3 4 6 8 10 13 14 17 20
Length (cm), l 20 21 23 24 25 30 32 35 36 37 39

b. Draw a line of best fit and determine its equation.
c. As can be seen from the table, Ari did not measure his rabbit on weeks 5, 7, 9, 11, 12, 15, 16, 18 and 19.
Use the equation of the line of best fit to predict the length of the rabbit for those weeks.
d. Explain whether the predictions made in part c were an example of interpolation or extrapolation.
e. Predict the length of the rabbit in the next three weeks (that is, weeks 21–23), using the line of best fit
from part c.
f. Explain whether the predictions that have been made in part e are reliable.

12. Laurie is training for the long jump, hoping to make the Australian Olympic team. His best jump each year
is shown in the table below.
Age (a) Best jump (B) (metres)
8 4.31
9 4.85
10 5.29
11 5.74
12 6.05
13 6.21
14 —
15 6.88
16 7.24
17 7.35
18 7.57
a. Plot the points generated by the table on a

scatterplot.
b. Join the points generated with straight line
segments.
c. Draw a line of best fit and determine its equation.
d. The next Olympic Games will occur when Laurie
is 20 years old. Use the equation of the line of
best fit to estimate Laurie’s best jump that year
and whether it will pass the qualifying mark of
8.1 metres.
e. Explain whether a line of best fit is a good way to
predict future improvement in this situation. State
the possible problems are there with using a line of
best fit.
f. Olympic Games will also be held when Laurie is
24 years old and 28 years old. Using extrapolation,
what length would you predict Laurie could jump
at these two ages? Discuss whether this is realistic.
g. When Laurie was 14, he twisted a knee in training and did not compete for the whole season. In that year,
a national junior championship was held. The winner of that championship jumped 6.5 metres. Use your
line of best fit to predict whether Laurie would have won that championship.
13. Sam has a mean score of 88 per cent for his first
nine tests of the semester. In order to receive
an A+ his score must be 90 per cent or higher.
There is one test remaining for the semester.
Explain whether it is possible for him to receive
an A+ .

13.4 Linear regression using technology (10A)
LEARNING INTENTION
• display a scatter plot using technology
• determine the equation of the regression line using technology
• display a scatter plot with its regression line using technology
• use a regression line to make predictions.
13.4.1 Scatter plots using technology

eles-5366
• Scatter plots can be displayed using graphics calculators and spreadsheets.
• To display a scatter plot using technology:
• first input the data with the explanatory variable in the first column and the response variable in the
second column
• then use the technology to draw the plot.
WORKED EXAMPLE 7 Displaying a scatter plot using technology
The following data shows the amount of time (hours) and the amount of distance walked (km) on a
bushwalk. Display the data on a scatter plot using technology.
Time, hours (x) 1 2 3 4

Distance, km (y) 3.11 4.73 6.08 7.54
THINK WRITE
1. Determine which data will go Time is the explanatory variable – it will go in the first column.
in which column by identifying Distance is the response variable – it will go in the second column.
the explanatory and response
variable.
2. Input the data into the
spreadsheet or calculator.
3. Use the spreadsheet or calculator

to create a scatter plot. Type
your data into the spreadsheet
and highlight all your data
(including headings).
For Google Sheets:
Go to Insert and select Chart.
For Excel:
Go to Insert, select the scatter
plot icon and choose the
Scatter option.

1. In a new problem, on 1. From the menu, select
a Lists & Spreadsheet Spreadsheet. Enter the
page, label column data from the question in
A as ‘time’ and B as the columns A and B.
‘distance’. Enter the data
from the question.
2. Add a page by pressing 2. Highlight both columns

CTRL then DOC and A and B and tap:
select: • Graph
• 2: Add Graphs • Scatter
In the graphs page press:
• MENU
• 6: Scatter Plot
On the first line (next
to x ←) press VAR and
select ‘time’ and on
the second line (next
to y ←) press VAR and
select ‘distance’ then
press ENTER.
To adjust the screen
press:
• MENU
• 4: Window / Zoom
• 9: Zoom – Data
13.4.2 Regression lines using technology

eles-5367
• Regression lines are another name for lines of best fit.
• Using technology it is possible to calculate and sketch a regression line with more accuracy compared to
using a line of best fit by eye.
• For regression lines using technology it is possible to:
•draw the regression line
•determine the equation of the line.
• Note that regression lines are only valid if the explanatory and response variables have a connection.
WORKED EXAMPLE 8 Displaying a regression line using technology
The following data shows the amount of time (hours) and the amount of distance walked (km) on a
bushwalk. Determine the equation of the regression line and display the regression line using
a spreadsheet.

Distance, km (y) 3.11 4.73 6.08 7.54

THINK WRITE
1. Use the scatter plot from
Worked example 7.
Start by sketching the
regression line using the
spreadsheet option called
trendline.
2. On the spreadsheet display The equation is: y = 1.46x + 1.71

the equation by using the
spreadsheet option to show
equations on the graph.

1. Start with the scatter plot Start with the scatter plot
from Worked example 7. from Worked example 7.
To determine the equation To determine the equation
of the regression line, return of the regression line, tap:
to the spreadsheet page and • Calc
click into the third column. • Regression
Press: • Linear Reg
• MENU
• 4: Statistics
• 3. Linear Regression
(mx + b)
In X List select ‘time’ and in
Y List select ‘distance’, then
click OK.
2. To plot the regression line,

return to the graph page 1.2
and press:
• MENU
• 1: Function
Press the up arrow to see
‘f1 (x) = 1.464x + 1.705
Then press ENTER.
13.4.3 Using regression lines to make predictions

eles-5368
• The regression line can be used to make predictions by using technology.
• Predictions will be reliable if they are made: using interpolation, from data with a strong correlation and
from a large number of data. (see section 13.3.2).

Digital technology
1. Predictions from regression lines using spreadsheets

To predict the y-value:
Use the function FORECAST.
To use FORECAST type the following into any cell:
= FORECAST(x-value, y-data, x-data)
For example, for the x-value 3.5 type:
= FORECAST (3.5, B2∶B6, A2∶A6)
and find the y-value is 2.59.
2. Predictions from regression lines using CAS
Start with your scatter plot with a regression line from section 13.4.2.
To predict the y-value:
Press menu then 3: Graph Entry/Edit and choose
6: Scatterplot and press up to see s1. In s1 untick the blue box. Press
menu then 5: Trace then select 1: Graph Trace. The type the x-value and
press enter. The coordinate will appear.
For the example, when x is 3.5, y is 2.59.
WORKED EXAMPLE 9 Using regression line to make predictions
For the following data:

a. use technology to predict the distance after 2.2 hours
b. use technology to predict the distance after 6.4 hours
c. explain whether these predictions are reliable.

Distance, km (y) 3.11 4.73 6.08 7.54
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Use the spreadsheet or CAS pages set up in See Worked example 8.
Worked example 8.
2. We need to calculate the distance value, Into a spreadsheet type:
which is the y-value. = FORECAST (2.2, B2∶B5, A2∶A5)
For a spreadsheet use the function Note the order B2:B5 first and A2:A5 second.
FORECAST. Distance = 4.93 km
OR OR
For a CAS start on the graph page and use the Using a CAS select Trace, type the value 2.2
Trace tool. and press enter.
Note: the scatter plot must be turned off.
Distance = 4.93 km
b. 1. We need to calculate the distance value which Into a spreadsheet type:
is the y-value. = FORECAST (6.4, B2∶B5, A2∶A5)
For a spreadsheet use the function Note the order B2:B5 first and A2:A5 second.
FORECAST Distance = 11.07 km
OR OR
For a CAS start on the graph page and use the Using a CAS select Trace, type the value 6.4
Trace tool. and press enter.
Note: the scatter plot must be turned off.
Distance = 11.07 km

c. Predictions that use interpolation Answer a is reliable because it uses
are reliable and predictions that use interpolation.
extrapolation are not reliable. Answer b is not reliable because it uses
extrapolation.
Resources
Resourceseses
Exercise 13.4 Linear regression using technology (10A)

Individual pathways
1, 2, 3, 6, 11, 14 4, 7, 9, 12, 15 5, 8, 10, 13, 16
Fluency
1. WE 7 The following data shows the amount of time athletes spent training in preparation for a marathon and
their finishing position in the race. Display the data on a scatter plot using technology.
Time, hours (x) 25 30 35

Finishing position (y) 15 11 8
2. WE 8 The following data shows the number of visitors to a store in a day and the profit of the store that day.
Determine the equation of the regression line and display the regression line using either a spreadsheet or a
CAS calculator.
Number of visitors (x) 80 85 94 101
Profit, dollars (y) 152 164 180 200
3. WE 9 Use the data from question 2 to answer the following questions.

a. Use technology to predict the profit if there were 90 visitors.
b. Use technology to predict the profit if there were 200 visitors. Round your answer to the nearest dollar.
c. Explain if these predictions are reliable.
4. The following data shows how far away students live from school in kilometers and the hours those students
spend in a car per week.
Distance from school, kilometres (x) 2 2.5 3 5

Hours spent in a car each week (y) 2.2 2.8 2.9 3.4
a. Use technology to display the data on a scatter plot.

b. Use technology to determine the equation of the regression line and display the regression line.
c. Use technology to predict the hours spent in a car each week for a student that lives 6 km from school.
Give your answer to one decimal place.

d. Use technology to predict the hours spent in a car each week for a student that lives 2.2 km from school.
Give your answer to one decimal place.
e. Explain if these predictions are reliable.
5. The following data shows how many thousands of bees are in a hive and the amount of honey produced in
that hive per year:
Number of bees ( × 1000) (x) 11 16 24 31

Honey produced, kilograms per year (y) 15 18 22 24
a. Use technology to display the data on a scatter plot.

b. Use technology to determine the equation of the regression line and
display the regression line.
c. Use technology to predict the honey produced per year if a hive had
35 000 bees. Round the prediction to the nearest whole number.
d. Use technology to predict the honey produced per year if a hive had
18 000 bees. Round the prediction to the nearest whole number.
e. Explain if these predictions are reliable.
Understanding
6. The following data shows the temperature on certain days of the year. The days have been numbered like
this: 1 January is 1, 2 January is 2 and so on for 365 days. Assume it is a non-leap year.
Day of the year (x) 1 5 12 20

Maximum temperature, °C (y) 32 33 38 42
a. Use technology to determine the equation of the regression line.

b. Use technology to predict the temperature on 15 March (day 75 of the year). Give your answer to one
decimal place.
c. Explain if your answer to part b makes sense. Within your answer use the word extrapolation.
7. Chantal is a big fan of the Dugongs baseball team. The following data shows the number of games Chantal
watched per year and the games won by the Dugongs per year.
Number of games watched per year (x) 8 12 16 20

Number of games won by the Dugongs (y) 10 11 15 16
a. Use technology to determine the equation of the regression line.

b. Use technology to predict the number of games won if Chantal watches 15 games. Give your answer to
the nearest whole number.
c. Explain if your answer to part b makes sense. Explain your answer in terms of whether a fan watching a
sports game has a connection to the outcome.

8. Below is data from four lawn mowing companies showing yard size and the cost
of their most recent lawn mowing jobs:
Fred’s mowing: 200 m2 yard for $80
Dial-a-gardner: 150 m2 yard for $75
Chopper chops limited: 50 m2 yard for $60
Landscapes-r-us: 400 m2 yard for $120
a. Organise the data into a table and assign the x and y values.
b. Explain how you have assigned the x and y values.
c. Use technology to determine the equation of the regression line for this data.
d. Based on your equation for the regression line from part c, estimate the
call-out fee for lawn mowing.
9. MC Sally Miles is a world-famous pop star. By analysing Sally’s tour data, the equation for a regression line
is found that relates numbers of fans at a concert (x) to Sally’s earning (y). The regression line equation is
y = 22x + 25144. In the equation of the regression line, the number 22 represents:
A. The amount Sally earns per fan at the concert.
B. How much Sally earns per year.
C. How much Sally would earn if she had 10 fans at her concert.
D. The number of songs in Sally’s playlist.
E. How much Sally earns per month.
10. MC Regression lines are only valid for data where the explanatory variable has a connection to the response
variable. Select which of the following would NOT have a valid regression line.
A. Number of growing days and height of a sunflower.
B. Average top speed of cars and years since cars were invented.
C. Number of ice creams purchased and the price of ice cream.
D. Amount of cheese eaten per capita and the number of injuries in an AFL season.
E. Amount of cheese eaten per capita and the price of cheese.
Reasoning
11. Two friends, Yousef and Gavin, were having an eating competition. In the competition they both ate one,
then two, then three apples and recorded their time. These were the results:
Yousef
Number of apples eaten (x) 1 2 3
Time taken, seconds (y) 46 67 124
Gavin
Number of apples eaten (x) 1 2 3
Time taken, seconds (y) 38 75 112
a. Use technology to determine the equations of the regression lines for each set of data.
b. Identify the gradients for each set of data.
c. Compare the gradients. Explain what this information shows.
d. Explain who won the apple-eating contest using the data.
12. The following data shows the time it took for five people to complete one lap of a BMX track.
Age, years (x) 13 14 15 16 25

Time, minutes (y) 2.5 2.2 1.9 1.8 1.2

a. Determine the equation of the regression line for this data.
b. The outlier in this data is the point (25, 1.2 ). Remove this piece of data and find the equation of the new
regression line.
c. Explain the impact on the equation of the regression line after removing an outlier. In your answer refer
to the gradient and y-intercept.
13. The following data shows the time it took for packages of different weights to arrive in the post:
Weight, kilograms (x) 0.5 1.1 1.7 2.5 18

Time, days (y) 4 3 3 2 4

b. Use technology to draw the scatter plot for this data. Explain whether there is a correlation. Determine
the type, direction and strength of the correlation.
c. There is an outlier in this data. Remove the outlier and determine the new regression line.
d. Use technology to draw the scatter plot for the data with the outlier removed. Explain whether there is a
correlation; if so, describe the type, direction and strength.
e. Explain which regression line more accurately represents the data.
Problem solving
14. At the school athletics carnival Mr. Wall was in charge of recording the student year levels and jump heights
for the winning jumps.
Year level (x) 7 8 9 10 11 12

Winning jump height, cm (y) 110 122 126 130 139
Mr Wall knows the regression line for this data is y = 4.91x + 79.3. Calculate the missing jump height.
15. Use the following data to answer these questions:
x 1 2 3 4
y 3 5 9 11

b. Determine what happens to the equation of the regression line if you double all the y values.
c. Determine the number that could be added to each y-value in the original data so that the regression line
becomes y = 2.8x + 5. Show your working.
16. Answer the folllowing questions with full working.
a. Determine four data points that give a regression line equation of y = 8x + 3.
b. Now determine four different data points that still give a regression line equation of y = 8x + 3.

13.5 Time series
LEARNING INTENTION
• describe time series data using trends and patterns
• draw lines of best fit by eye and use it to make predictions for a time series
13.5.1 Describing time series

eles-5369
• Time series are a type of bivariate data with time as the explanatory variable. In other words, time series
show time on the x-axis.
• To describe time series data use trends and patterns.
• Time series trends can be:
• increasing or decreasing
• linear or non-linear.
Increasing linear time series Decreasing non-linear time series
An upwards slope from left to right with A downwards slope from left to right with data that is not
data that is approximately a straight line. a straight line.
y
33.0 150
Pages unread
32.5
Temp. (°C)
32.0 100
31.5
31.0 50
30.5
30.0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 x 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 x
Time (hours) Time (days)
• Time series patterns can be:

• seasonal
• cyclical
• random.
Seasonal The pattern repeats over a period
of time such as a day, week, month 16 Cycle peaks every 12 months
or year. 14
Houses sold
12
10
8
6
4
2
0 x
Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4
2003 2004 2005
Time
(continued)

Cyclical Rises and falls happen over
different periods of time. 400 No regular periods between peaks
350
products sold
300
Software
250
200
150
100
50
0
x
Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4
2003 2004 2005
Time
Random No regular pattern and caused by
unpredictable events. 30
Profits
26
22
18
14
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 x
Time
WORKED EXAMPLE 10 Classifying the time series trend
Classify the trend suggested by the time series graph shown as being linear or non-linear, and
upward, downward or no trend.
Data
Time
THINK WRITE
Carefully analyse the given graph and The time series graph does not resemble a straight
comment on whether the graph resembles line and overall the level of the variable, y, decreases
a straight line or not and whether the over time. The time series graph suggests a non-linear
values of y increase or decrease over time. downward trend.
WORKED EXAMPLE 11 Commenting on the time series trend
The data below show the average daily mass of a person (to the nearest 100 g), recorded over the
28-day period.
63.6, 63.8, 63.5, 63.7, 63.2, 63.0, 62.8, 63.3, 63.1, 62.7, 62.6, 62.5, 62.9, 63.0,
63.1, 62.9, 62.6, 62.8, 63.0, 62.6, 62.5, 62.1, 61.8, 62.2, 62.0, 61.7, 61.5, 61.2
a. Plot these masses as a time series graph.
b. Comment on the trend.

THINK WRITE/DRAW
a. 1. Draw the points on a scatterplot with time on a. y
the horizontal axis and mass on the vertical 64.0
axis. 63.8
2. Join the points with straight line segments to 63.6
63.4
create a time series plot.
63.2
63.0
62.8
Mass (kg)
62.6
62.4
62.2
62.0
61.8
61.6
61.4
61.2
61.0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 x
Time (days)
b. Carefully analyse the given graph and b. The graph resembles a straight line that slopes
comment on whether the graph resembles a downwards from left to right (that is, mass
straight line or not and whether the values decreases with increase in time). Although a
of y (in this case, mass) increase or decrease person’s mass fluctuates daily, the time series
over time. graph suggests a downward trend. That is,
overall, the person’s mass has decreased over
the 28-day period.
13.5.2 Time series lines of best fit by eye

eles-4974
• It is possible to draw lines of best fit by eye for time series (see subtopic 13.3).
• Lines of best fit can be used to make predictions.
• For interpolations, the predictions are reliable.
• For extrapolations, the predictions are not very reliable since there is an assumption that the trend
will continue.
WORKED EXAMPLE 12 Making predictions using a line of best fit
The graph at right shows the average cost of y

renting a one-bedroom flat, as recorded over a 300
10-year period. 280
Cost of rent ($)
a. If appropriate, draw in a line of best fit and 260

240
comment on the type of the trend.
220
b. Assuming that the current trend will continue,
200
use the line of best fit to predict the cost of rent
180
in 5 years’ time. 160
140
0 1 5 10 15 x
Time (years)

THINK WRITE/DRAW
a. 1. Analyse the graph and observe what a. y
occurs over a period of time. Draw a 300
line of best fit. 280
Cost of rent ($)

260
240
220
200
180
160
140
0 1 5 10 15 x
Time (years)
2. Comment on the type of trend The graph illustrates that the cost of rent
observed. increases steadily over the years. The time
series graph indicates an upward linear trend.
b. 1. Extend the line of best fit drawn in b. y

300
part a. The last entry corresponds to
280
the 10th year and we need to predict
Cost of rent ($)
260
the cost of rent in 5 years’ time; that 240
is, in the 15th year. 220
2. Locate the 15th year on the time 200
axis and draw a vertical line until it 180
meets with the line of best fit. From 160
the trend line (line of best fit) draw a 140
horizontal line to the cost axis. 0 1 5 10 15 x
Time (years)
3. Read the cost from the vertical axis. Cost of rent = $260
4. Write the answer. Assuming that the cost of rent will continue to
increase at the present rate, in 5 years we can
expect the cost of rent to reach $260 per week.
DISCUSSION
Why are predictions in the future appropriate for time series even though they involve extrapolation?
Resources
Resourceseses
Video eLesson Fluctuations and cycles (eles-0181)
Interactivity Individual pathway interactivity: Time series (int-4628)

Exercise 13.5 Time series
Individual pathways
1, 4, 8, 11 2, 5, 7, 9, 12 3, 6, 10, 13
Fluency
1. WE10 For questions 1 and 2, classify the trend suggested by each time series graph as being linear or
non-linear, and upward, downward or stationary in the mean (no trend).
a. Data b. Data
Time Time
c. Data d. Data
Time Time
2. a. Data b. Data
Time Time
c. Data d. Data
Time Time
3. WE11 The data below show the average daily temperatures recorded in June.
17.6, 17.4, 18.0, 17.2, 17.5, 16.9, 16.3, 17.1, 16.9, 16.2, 16.0, 16.6, 16.1, 15.4, 15.1,
15.5, 16.0, 16.0, 15.4, 15.2, 15.0, 15.5, 15.1, 14.8, 15.3, 14.9, 14.6, 14.4, 15.0, 14.2
a. Plot these temperatures as a time series graph.
b. Comment on the trend.

Understanding
4. The data below show the quarterly sales (in thousands of dollars) recorded by the
owner of a sheepskin product store over a period of 4 years.
Quarter 2006 2007 2008 2009

1 57 59 50 52
2 100 102 98 100
3 125 127 120 124
4 74 70 72 73
a. Plot the time series.

b. The time series plot displays seasonal fluctuations of period 4 (since there are four quarters). Explain in
your own words what this means. Also write one or two possible reasons for the occurrence of
these fluctuations.
c. Determine if the time series plot indicate upward, downward or no trend.
5. The table below shows the total monthly revenue (in thousands of dollars) obtained by the owners of a large
reception hall. The revenue comes from rent and catering for various functions over a period of 3 years.
Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.
2007 60 65 40 45 40 50 45 50 55 50 55 70
2008 70 65 60 65 55 60 60 65 70 75 80 85
2009 80 70 65 70 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 100
a. Construct a time series plot for this data.

b. Describe the graph (peaks and troughs, long-term trend, any other patterns).
c. Suggest possible reasons for monthly fluctuations.
d. Explain if the graph shows seasonal fluctuations over 12 months. Discuss any patterns that repeat from
year to year.
6. The owner of a motel and caravan park in a small town keeps records of the total number of rooms and total
number of camp sites occupied per month. The time series plots based on his records are shown below.
Number of rooms/sites occupied
90
80
70
Camp sites
60
50 Motel rooms
40
30
20
10
0 Jan. Apr. Aug. Dec.

Month
a. Describe each graph, discussing general trend, peaks and troughs and so on. Explain particular features
of the graphs and give possible reasons.
b. Compare the two graphs and write a short paragraph commenting on any similarities and differences
between them.

7. WE12 The graph shows enrolments in the Health and Nutrition
120
course at a local college over a 10-year period.
110
a. If appropriate, draw in a line of best fit and comment on the 100
type of the trend. 90
b. Assuming that the trend will continue, use the line of best fit to 80
Enrolment
predict the enrolment for the course in 5 years’ time; that is, in 70
the 15th year. 60
50
40
30
20
10
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time (years)
Reasoning
8. In June a new childcare centre was opened. The number of children attending full time (according to the
enrolment at the beginning of each month) during the first year of operation is shown in the table.
June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May
6 8 7 9 10 9 12 10 11 13 12 14
a. Plot this time series (Hint: Let June = 1, July = 2 etc.)

b. Justify if the childcare business is going well.
c. Draw a line of best fit.
d. Use your line of best fit to predict the enrolment in the centre during the second year of operation at the
beginning of:
i. August
ii. January.
e. State any assumptions that you have made.
9. The graph shows the monthly sales of a certain book since its publication. Explain in your own words why
linear trend forecasting of the future sales of this book is not appropriate.
Sales
Time
10. In the world of investing this phrase is commonly used when talking about investments:
“Past performance is not an indicator of future returns.”
a. Explain what this phrase means.
b. Explain why this phrase is true using the term extrapolation.

Problem solving
11. In Science class Melita boiled some water and then recorded the temperature of the water over ten minutes.
These are her results:
Time (minutes) 0 1.5 3 4.5 6 7.5 10
Temperature (°C) 100 95 88 74 65 60 52
a. Melita wants to convert the time from minutes into seconds. She starts by converting 1.5 minutes to
150 seconds. Explain what she did wrong and find the correct number in seconds.
b. Copy and complete the table, changing the time in minutes to time in seconds.
c. Draw a scatter plot using seconds as the time scale.
d. Draw a line of best fit and use it to predict the time, in seconds, when the water will reach 20°C.
e. Convert your answer from part e back to minutes.
12. The table below gives the quarterly sales figures for a second-hand car dealer over a three-year period.
Year Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4
2012 75 65 92 99
2013 91 79 115 114
2014 93 85 136 118
a. Represent this data on a time series plot.

b. Briefly describe how the car sales have altered over the time period.
c. Discuss if it appears that the car dealer can sell more cars in a particular period each year.
13. Jasper owns an ice-cream truck.

• In summer 2020/21 he sold 1536 ice-creams.
• In Autumn 2021 he sold one-quarter of that number.
• In Winter 2021 he sold one-eighth of that number
• In Spring 2021 he sold one-third of that number
• From Summer 2021/22 until Spring 2022 his sales doubled from the season in the previous year.
a. Represent his sales from Summer 2020/21 to Spring 2022 on a scatter plot.
b. Describe the trend and the patterns in the data.

13.6 Review
BIVARIATE DATA
•
Properties of bivariate data Representing the data Correlations from scatter plots
• Bivariate data can be displayed, • Scatter plots can be created • Correlation is a way of
analysed and used to make predictions. by hand or using technology describing a connection between
• Types of variables: (CAS or Excel). variables in a bivariate data set.
• Explanatory (experimental or • The explanatory variable is • Correlation between the two
independent variable): not placed on the x-axis and the variables will have:
impacted by the other variable. response variable on the y-axis. • a type (linear or non-linear)
• Response (dependent variable): • a direction (positive or
impacted by the other variable. Response data on y-axis negative)
y • a strength (strong, moderate or
Data points plotted weak).
Time series scatter plots
100
• Correlations can be used to make
75 conclusions.
time is the explanatory variable. • There is no correlation if the data are
• Describe time series by: 50 spread out across the plot with no
• trends clear pattern.
25
• patterns. Explanatory data on x-axis
• Time series patterns can be: x
0 1 2 3 4
• seasonal Time spent on phone per day (hours)
• cyclical
• random.
Interpolation and extrapolation
33.0
• A line that follows the trend of • Interpolation and extrapolation can
Temp. (°C)
32.5
32.0 the data in a scatter plot. be used to make predictions.
31.5
31.0 • It is most appropriate for • Interpolation:
30.5 data with strong or moderate • is more reliable from a large
30.0 t linear correlation. number of data
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Hours • Can be sketched as a line of best • used if the prediction sits within
Cycle peaks every 12 months
the given data.
12 using technology. • Extrapolation:
• The equation for the line can • assumes the trend will continue
Houses sold
10
8 be found by using the gradient • used if the prediction sits outside
6
4 and equation of the straght line. the given data.
2 • The line can be used to make
0 Predictions
Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 t predictions. made within
y
2003 2004 2005 • Regression lines are only valid if the data use
Predictions
the explanatory and response 100 interpolation.

made outside
No regular periods between peaks variables have a connection. the data use
Software products sold
300 75 extrapolation.
250
200
50
150
100 100
50 25
0 75
Q 1Q 2Q 3Q 4Q 1Q 2Q 3Q 4Q 1Q 2Q 3Q 4 t
0 1 2 3 4 5
2003 2004 2005 50 Time spent on phone per day (hours)
30 25
26
Profits
22
18 0 1 2 3 4
14
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 t Time spent on phone per day (hours)

13.2 I can recognise the explanatory and response variables in bivariate data.
I can represent bivariate data using a scatter plot.
I can describe the correlation between two variables in a bivariate data set.
I can draw conclusions about the correlation between two variables in a

bivariate data set.
13.3 I can draw a line of best fit by eye.
I can determine the equation of the line of best fit.
I can use the line of best fit to make predictions.
I can identify if a prediction is interpolation or extrapolation.
13.4 I can display a scatter plot using technology.
I can determine the equation of the regression line using technology.
I can display a scatter plot with its regression line using technology.
I can use a regression line to make predictions.
13.5 I can describe time series data using trends and patterns.
I can draw a line of best fit by eye and use it to make predictions for a
time series.
13.6.3 Project
Collecting, recording and analysing data over time
A time series is a sequence of measurements taken at regular intervals (daily,

weekly, monthly and so on) over a certain period of time. Time series are
best represented using time-series plots, which are line graphs with the time
plotted on the horizontal axis.
Examples of time series include daily temperature, monthly unemployment
rates and daily share prices.

When data are recorded on a regular basis, the value of the variable may go up and down in what seems
to be an erratic pattern. These are called fluctuations. However, over a long period of time, the time series
usually suggests a certain trend. These trends can be classified as being linear or non-linear, and upward,
downward or stationary (no trend).
Time series are often used for forecasting, that is, making predictions about the future. The predictions
made with the help of time series are always based on the assumption that the observed trend will continue
in the future.
1. Choose a subject that is of interest to you and that can be observed and measured during one day or over
the period of a week or more. (Suitable subjects are shown in the list below.)
2. Prepare a table for recording your results. Select appropriate regular time intervals. An example is
shown below.
Time 8 am 9 am 10 am 11 am 12 pm 1 pm 2 pm 3 pm 4 pm 5 pm
Pulse rate
3. Take your measurements at the selected time intervals and record them in the table.
4. Use your data to plot the time series. You can use software such as Excel or draw the scatterplot by hand.
5. Describe the graph and comment on its trend.
6. If appropriate, draw a line of best fit and predict the next few data values.
7. Take the actual measurements during the hours you have made predictions for. Compare the predictions
with the actual measurements. Were your predictions good? Give reasons.
Here are some suitable subjects for data observation and recording:
• minimum and maximum temperatures each day for 2 weeks (use the TV news or online data as
resources)
• the value of a stock on the share market (e.g. Telstra, Wesfarmers and Rio Tinto)
• your pulse over 12 hours (ask your teacher how to do this or check on the internet)
• the value of sales each day at the school canteen
• the number of students absent each day
• the position of a song in the Top 40 over a number of weeks
• petrol prices each day for 2 weeks
• other measurements (check with your teacher)
• world population statistics over time.
Resources
Resourceseses

“c13BivariateData_PrintPDF” — 2021/9/11 — 7:46 — page 874 — #46

Fluency
1. As preparation for a Mathematics test, a group of 20 students was given a revision sheet containing 60
questions. The table below shows the number of questions from the revision sheet successfully
completed by each student and the mark, out of 100, of that student on the test.
Number of questions 9 12 37 60 55 40 10 25 50 48 60
Test result 18 21 52 95 100 67 15 50 97 85 89
Number of questions 50 48 35 29 19 44 49 20 16 58 52
Test result 97 85 62 54 30 70 82 37 28 99 80
a. State which is the response variable and which is the explanatory variable.
b. Construct a scatterplot of the data.
c. State the type of correlation between the two variables suggested by the scatterplot and draw a
corresponding conclusion.
d. Suggest why the relationship is not perfectly linear.
2. Use the line of best fit shown on the graph to answer the following y
questions. 50
a. Predict the value of y, when the value of x is: 45
40
i. 10 ii. 35.
35
b. Predict the value of x, when the value of y is:
30
i. 15 ii. 30.
25
c. Determine the equation of a line of best fit if it is known that it passes 20
through the points (5, 5) and (20, 27). 15
d. Use the equation of the line to algebraically verify the values 10
obtained from the graph in parts a and b. 5
0 x
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
3. The graph shows the number of occupants of a y

large nursing home over the last 14 years. 130
a. Comment on the type of trend displayed. 120
Number of occupants
110
b. Explain why it is appropriate to draw in a line
100
of best fit.
90
c. Draw a line of best fit and use it to predict the
80
number of occupants in the nursing home in 3 70
years time. 60
d. State the assumption that have been made when 50
predicting figures for part c. 40
x
19 6
20 9
20 0
20 1
20 2
20 3
20 4
20 5
20 6
20 7
20 8
09
19 7
98
9
9
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
9
19
19
Time (Year)

( )
4. The table below shows the advertised sale price ($′ 000) and the land size m2 for ten vacant blocks of
land.
( )
Land size m2 Sale price ($'000)
632 36
1560 58
800 40
1190 44
770 41
1250 52
1090 43
1780 75
1740 72
920 43
a. Construct a scatterplot and determine the equation of the line of best fit.
b. State what the gradient represents.
c. Using the line of best fit, predict the approximate sale price, to the nearest thousand dollars for a
block of land with an area of 1600 m2 .
d. Using the line of best fit, predict the approximate land size, to the nearest 10 square metres, you
could purchase with $50 000.
5. The table below shows, for fifteen students, the amount of pocket money they receive and spend at the
school canteen in an average week.
Pocket money ($) Canteen spending ($)

30 16
40 17
15 12
25 14
40 16
15 14
30 16
30 17
25 15
15 13
50 19
20 14
35 17
20 15
10 13
a. Construct a scatterplot and determine the equation of the line of best fit.
c. Using your line of best fit, predict the amount of money spent at the canteen for a student receiving
$45 pocket money a week.
d. Using your line of best fit, predict the amount of money spent at the canteen by a student who
receives $100 pocket money each week. Explain if this seems reasonable.

6. The table below shows, for 10 ballet students, the number of hours a week spent training and the
number of pirouettes in a row they can complete.
Training (hours) 11 11 2 8 4 16 11 16 5 3
Number of pirouettes 15 13 3 12 7 17 13 16 8 5
a. Construct a scatterplot and determine the

equation of the line of best fit.
c. Using your line of best fit, predict the
number of pirouettes that could be
completed if a student undertakes
14 hours of training.
d. Professional ballet dancers may undertake
up to 30 hours of training a week. Using
your line best fit, predict the number of
pirouettes they should be able to do in a
row. Comment on your findings.
7. Use the information in the data table to answer the following questions.
Age in years (x) 7 11 8 16 9 8 14 19 17 10 20 15

Hours of television
20 19 25 55 46 50 53 67 59 25 70 58
watched in a week (y)
a. Use technology to determine the equation of the line of best fit for the following data.
b. Use technology to predict the value of the number of hours of television watched by a person
aged 15.
Problem solving
8. Describe the trends present in the following time series data that shows the mean monthly daily hours
of sunshine in Melbourne from January to December.
Month 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Daily hours of sunshine 8.7 8.0 7.5 6.4 4.8 4.0 4.5 5.5 6.3 7.3 7.5 8.3
9. The existence of the following situations is often considered an obstacle to making estimates from data.
a. Outlier.
b. Extrapolation.
c. Small range of data.
d. Small number of data points.
Explain why each of these situations is considered an obstacle to making estimates of data and how
each might be overcome.

10. The table shows the heights of 10 students and the distances along the ground between their feet as they
attempt to do the splits.
Height (cm) Distance stretched (cm)

134.5 150
156 160
133.5 147
145 160
160 162
135 149
163 163
138 149
152 158
159 160
Using the data, estimate the distance a person 1.8 m tall can achieve when attempting the splits. Write a
detailed analysis of your result. Include:
• an explanation of the method(s) used
• any plots or formula generated
• comments on validity of the estimate
• any ways the validity of the estimate could be improved.

eWorkbook Teacher resources

Download the workbook for this topic, which includes There are many resources available exclusively for teachers
worksheets, a code puzzle and a project (ewbk-2039) ⃞ online.
Solutions
Digital documents
13.2 SkillSHEET Substitution into a linear rule (doc-5405) ⃞
SkillSHEET Solving linear equations that arise when
finding x- and y-intercepts (doc-5406) ⃞
SkillSHEET Transposing linear equations to standard
form (doc-5407) ⃞
SkillSHEET Measuring the rise and the run (doc-5408) ⃞
SkillSHEET Determining the gradient given two points
(doc-5409) ⃞
SkillSHEET Graphing linear equations using the x- and
y-intercept method (doc-5410) ⃞
SkillSHEET Determining independent and dependent
variables (doc-5411) ⃞
SkillSHEET Determining the type of relationship
(doc-5413) ⃞
Video eLessons
13.3 Bivariate data (eles-4965) ⃞
Correlation (eles-4966) ⃞
Drawing conclusions from correlation (eles-4967) ⃞
13.4 Lines of best fit by eye (eles-4968) ⃞
Predictions using lines of best fit (eles-4969) ⃞
13.5 Scatter plots using technology (eles-4970) ⃞
Regression lines using technology (eles-4971) ⃞
Using regression lines to make predictions (eles-4972) ⃞
13.6 Describing time series (eles-4973) ⃞
Time series lines of best fit by eye (eles-4974) ⃞
Fluctuations and cycles (eles-0181) ⃞
Interactivities
13.2 Individual pathway interactivity: Bivariate data
(int-4626) ⃞
13.3 Individual pathway interactivity: Lines of best
fit (int-4627) ⃞
Lines of best fit (int-6180) ⃞
Interpolation and extrapolation (int-6181) ⃞
13.5 Individual pathway interactivity: Time series (int-4628) ⃞

Answers 3.
4.6
y
4.4
Topic 13 Bivariate data 4.2
Exercise 13.1 Pre-test 4.0
1. B 3.8
3.6
2. C
3.4
Cost ($1000)
3. Explanatory variable 3.2
4. a. B b. C c. A 3.0
5. D 2.8
6. B
2.6
2.4
7. Interpolation
2.2
16 2.0
8. The gradient of the line is .
11 1.8
9. Explanatory variable 1.6
10. Independent variable 1.4
11. B 0 x
30 40 50 60 70 80 90100110 120
12. C Number of guests
13. x=6 4. a. Perfectly linear, positive
14. a. See figure at the bottom of the page.* b. No correlation
b. The number of COVID-19 cases started rising in March c. Non-linear, negative, moderate
and peaked in April, then started to decline until June.
d. Strong, positive, linear
There was an increase in cases in July and the cases
reached peak again in August. Cases then started to e. No correlation
decline again until December. 5. a. Non-linear, positive, strong
15. a. y = 14 b. x = 12 · 5 b. Strong, negative, negative
c. Non-linear, moderate, negative
Exercise 13.2 Bivariate data d. Weak, negative, linear
1. e. Non-linear, moderate, positive
Explanatory Response
6. a. Positive, moderate, linear
a. Number of hours Test results
b. Non-linear, strong, negative
b. Rainfall Attendance
c. Strong, negative, linear
c. Hours in gym Visits to the doctor
d. Weak, positive, linear
d. Lengths of essay Memory taken
e. Non-linear, moderate, positive
2. Explanatory Response
a. Cost of care Attendance
b. Age of property Cost of property
c. Number of applicants Cut-off OP score
d. Running speed Heart rate
*14. a. y
400
New Covid-19 cases
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0 x
ch
il
ay
er
r
Ju
us
be
be
be
Ju
pr
ob
ar
ug
em
em
em
A
M
ct
A
pt
ov
ec
Se
D
N
Month

7. a. y 9. a. y
12 100
11 90
Total score (%)

10 80
Number of bags sold
9 70
8 60
7 50
6 40
5 30
4 20
3 10
2 x
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1
Number of questions completed
0 x
30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 b. Strong, positive, linear correlation
Cost ($)
c. Various answers; some students are of different ability
b. Negative, linear, moderate. The price of the bag levels and they may have attempted the questions but had
appeared to affect the numbers sold; that is, the more incorrect answers.
expensive the bag, the fewer sold.
10. a. y
Number of accidents
8. a. y 6
420 5
400 4
380 3
360 2
340 1
Price ($1000)
320
0 x
300 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
280 Number of lessons
260 b. Weak, negative, linear relation
240 c. Various answers; some drivers are better than others, live
220 in lower traffic areas, traffic conditions etc.
200
11. B
180
160 12. C
140 13. D
0 x 14. a. See figure at the bottom of the page.*

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Number of bedrooms This scatterplot does not support the claim.
b.
15. a. T b. F c. T d. F e. T
b. Moderate positive linear correlation. There is evidence to
show that the larger the number of bedrooms, the higher 16. a. Mandy (iii) b. William (iv) c. Charlotte (viii)
the price of the house. d. Dario (vii) e. Edward (vi) f. Cindy (v)
c. Various answers; location, age, number of people g. Georgina (i) h. Harrison (ii)
interested in the house, and so on.
*14. a. y
12
A C
10
Number of handballs
G
8
H
6 D
E
4
B
2
F
0 x
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26
Number of kicks

Exercise 13.3 Lines of best fit by eye 5. a. C
Note: Answers may vary slightly depending on the line of best 165
fit drawn. 160
1. a
155
P
14 150
13 145
12 140
11 135
10 130
Cost of food ($)

Petrol used (L)
9 125
8 120
7 115
6 110
5 105
4 100
3 95
2 90
1 85
80
0 d 75
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Distance travelled (km) 70
5 16 65
b. Using, (23, 3) and (56, 8), the equation is P = d− . n
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
33 33 Number of people
2. a. 38 b. 18
b. Using (1, 75) and (5, 150), the equation is
3. a. i. 510 ii. 315 iii. 125 C = 18.75n + 56.25
b. i. 36.5 ii. 26 iii. 8 c. On average, weekly cost of food increases by $18.75 for
c. y = −13x + 595 every extra person.
d. y-values (a): d. i. $206.25 ii. $225.00 iii. $243.75
i. 594 6. a. 35 to 90
ii. 309 b. 30 to 105
iii. 127 7. a. M
x-values (b): 3.6
i. 36.54 3.4
ii. 25.55 3.2
iii. 5.86 3.0
2.8
4. a E 2.6
Mass (kg)
140
2.4
130
2.2
120
2.0
110
1.8
100
1.6
Earnings ($)
90
1.4
80
1.2
70
1.0
60
0.8
50 t
30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
40 Time (weeks)
30 Positive, strong, linear correlation
20
b. Using (32, 1.470) and (35, 2.230), M = 0.25t − 6.5.
10
c. With every week of gestation the mass of the baby
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 h increases by approximately. 250 g.
Hours worked d. 3.75 kg; 4 kg
b. Using (8, 47) and (12, 74), the equation is E = 6.75h − 7. e. Approximately 1 kg
c. On average, students were paid $6.75 per hour. f. Between 35 and 36 weeks
8. a. D b. C
9. E

10. a. M 12. a.
18 8
Best jump (metres)

17 7
6
16
5
15
4
14
3
13
2
12 1
11
Mass (g)
10 0 1 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
9 Age
8 b.
7 8
Best jump (metres)

6 7
6
5
5
4
4
3
3
2 2
1 1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 d 0 1 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Day Age
b. Using (2, 3.7) and (10, 11.2), M = 0.88d + 1.94. c. B
c. Each day Rachel’s crystal gains 0.88 g in mass. Line of 8
Best jump (metres)

7
best fit appears appropriate.
6
d. 7.22 g; 8.10 g; 13.38 g and 14.26 g; interpolation (within 5
the given range of 1−16) 4
e. 16.9 g and 17.78 g; predictions are not reliable, since 3
they were obtained using extrapolation. 2
1
11. a. See figure at the bottom of the page.*
b. L = 1.07n + 18.9 0 a
1 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Age
c. 24.25 cm; 26.39 cm; 28.53 cm; 30.67 cm; 31.74 cm;
34.95 cm; 36.02 cm; 38.16 cm; 39.23 cm d. Yes. Using points (9, 4.85) and (16, 7.24),
d. Interpolation (within the given range of 1–20) B = 0.34a + 1.8; estimated best jump = 8.6 m.
e. 41.37 cm; 42.44 cm; 43.51 cm e. No, trends work well over the short term but in the long
term are affected by other variables.
f. Not reliable, because extrapolation has been used.
*11. a. L
40
39
38
37
36
35
34
33
32
Length (cm)
31
30
29
28
27
26
25
24
23
22
21
20
19
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 n
Week

24 years old: 9.97 m; 28 years old: 11.33 m. It is
f. 9. A
unrealistic to expect his jumping distance to increase 10. D
indefinitely. 11. a. Yousef: y = 39x + 1, Gavin: y = 37x + 1
g. Equal first.
b. Yousef 39, Gavin 37
13. No. He would have to get 108% which would be impossible
c. Time to eat each apple.
on a test.
d. Gavin
Exercise 13.4 Linear regression using 12. a. y = −0.094x + 3.35 b. y = −0.24x + 5.58
technology (10A) c. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions

13. a. y = 0.0508x + 2.96
b. No correlation
the online resources. c. y = −0.913x + 4.32
3. a. $174 b. $418 d. Correlation is linear, negative and moderate/strong.

c. a. Reliable, but b. not reliable. e. Regression line from part c.
4. a. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions 14. 128 cm
in the online resources. 15. a. y = 2.8x b. Gradient doubles.
b. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions c. Add 5
in the online resources. 16. a. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions
c. 3.8. hours d. 2.5 hours in the online resources.
e. c. not reliable, d. reliable
5. a. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions in the online resources.
b. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions Exercise 13.5 Time series
in the online resources. 1. a. Linear, downward
c. 26 kg d. 19 kg
b. Non-linear, upward
e. c. not reliable, d. reliable
c. Non-linear, stationary in the mean
6. a. y = 0.553x + 31 b. 72.4°C
d. Linear, upward
c. Not possible. Extrapolation not reliable.
2. a. Non-linear, downward
7. a. y = 0.55x + 5.3 b. 14
b. Non-linear, downward
c. No because no connection.
c. Non-linear, downward
d. Linear, upward
3. a. See figure at the bottom of the page.*
b. Yard size explanatory, price response
c. y = 0.173x + 49.1 d. $50 b. Linear downward trend
*3. a. May temperature

y
18.0
17.8
17.6
17.4
17.2
17.0
16.8
Temperature (°C)
16.6
16.4
16.2
16.0
15.8
15.6
15.4
15.2
15.0
14.8
14.6
14.4
14.2
14.0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 x
Day

4. a. y 7. a. y
130 120
125 110
120 100
115 90
110 80
Enrolment
105 70
Sales (× $1000)
100 60
95 50
90 40
85 30
80 20
75 10
70
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 y
65
60 Week
55 Upward linear.
50 b. In the 15th year the expected amount = 122.
0 x 8. a.
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
14
2006 2007 2008 2009
13
Number of children
Quarter year
12 (8, 11)
b. Sheepskin products more popular in the third quarter 11
(presumably winter) — discount sales, increase in sales, 10
and so on. 9
c. No trend. 8 (1, 7)
5. a. See figure at the bottom of the page.* 7
6
b. General upward trend with peaks around December and
5
troughs around April.
ne
ly
ug
p
ct
ov
ec
n
b
ar
M r
ay
p
Se
Ja
Fe
O
Ju
M
A
Peaks around Christmas where people have lots of
D
Ju
N
c.
parties, troughs around April where weather gets colder Time (month)
and people less inclined to go out. b. Yes, the graph shows an upward trend.
d. Yes. Peaks in December, troughs in April. 4 45
6. a. Peaks around Christmas holidays and a minor peak at c. y= x+
7 7
Easter. No camping in colder months.
d. i. 15 ii. 18
e. The assumption made was that business will continue on
a linear upward trend.
9. The trend is non-linear, therefore unable to forecast
future sales.
*5. a. y
100
90
80
Revenue ($1000)
70
60
50
40
35
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 x
2007 2008 2009
Month Year

10. a. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions 5. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions in
in the online resources. the online resources. Students should describe their graph
b. Extrapolation is not reliable. and comment on its trend.
11. a. 90 seconds 6. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions in
b. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions the online resources. Students should draw a line of best fit
in the online resources. and predict the next few data values.
7. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions
in the online resources. in the online resources. Students should take the actual
measurements during the hours they have made predictions
d. Approximately 920 seconds.
for and then compare the predictions with the actual
e. Approximately 15.3 minutes. measurements. Also comment on the accuracy of your
12. a. See bottom of the page* predictions.
b. Secondhand car sales per quarter have shown a general
upward trend but with some major fluctuations. Exercise 13.6 Review questions
c. More cars are sold in the third and fourth quarters 1. a. Number of questions: explanatory;
compared to the first and second quarters. test result: response
13. a. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions b. y
b. Trend: non-linear, increasing; Pattern: seasonal 90
80
Test result
Project 70
60
50
the online resources. Students could choose any subject
40
given in the list that can be observed and measure for one
30
day or over the period of a week or more.
20
the online resources. Students need to create a data table
0 x
for their recording. Students should use appropriate regular 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
time intervals. Number of questions
3. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions in Strong, positive, linear correlation; the larger the number
c.
the online resources. For a selected subject, student’s need of completed revision questions, the higher the mark on
to take their measurements at the selected time intervals and the test.
record them in the table. d. Different abilities of the students
4. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions in 2. a. i. 12.5 ii. 49
the online resources. Students could use Excel or CAS to
b. i. 12 ii. 22.5
plot the time series.
*12. a. y
140
135
130
125
120
115
Cars sold
110
105
100
95
90
85
80
75
70
65
0 x
Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4
2012 2013 2012
Quarter year

22 7 10. About 170 cm; data was first plotted as a scatter plot.
c. y= x− (145, 160) was identified as an outlier and removed from the
15 3
data set. A line of best fit was then fitted to the remaining
d. i. 12.33 ii. 49
data and its equation determined as d = 0.5h + 80, where
i. 11.82 ii. 22.05
d is the distance stretched and h is the height. Substitution
3. a. Linear downwards was used to obtain the estimate.
b. The trend is linear. The estimation requires extrapolation and cannot be
c. About 60–65 occupants considered reliable. The presence of the outlier may indicate
d. Assumes that the current trend will continue. variation in flexibility rather than a strong linear correlation
between the data. Estimate is based on a small set of data.
4. a. P = 31.82a + 13070.4, where P is the sale price and a is
the land area.
b. The price of land is approximately $31.82 per
square metre.
c. $64 000
2
d. 1160 m
5. a. C = 0.15p + 11.09, where C is the money spent at the
canteen and p represents the pocket money received.
b. Students spend 15 cents at the canteen per dollar
received for pocket money.
c. $18
d. $26. This involves extrapolation, which is considered
unreliable. It does not seem reasonable that, if a student
receives more money, they will eat more or have to
purchase more than any other student.
6. a. P = 0.91t + 2.95, where P is the number of pirouettes
and t is the number of hours of training.
b. Ballet students can do approximately 0.91 pirouettes for
each hour of training.
c. Approximately 15 pirouettes.
d. Approximately 30 pirouettes. This estimate is based on
extrapolation, which is considered unreliable. To model
this data linearly as the number of hours of training
becomes large is unrealistic.
7. a. y = 3.31x + 3.05
b. Approximately 53 hours.
8. Overall the data appears to be following a seasonal trend,
with peaks at either end of the year and a trough in
the middle.
9. a. Outliers can unfairly skew data and as such dramatically
alter the line of best fit. Identify and remove any outliers
from the data before determining the line of best fit.
b. Extrapolation involves making estimates outside the
data range and this is considered unreliable. When
extrapolation is required, consider the data and the
likelihood that the data would remain linear if extended.
When giving results, make comment on the validity of
the estimation.
c. A small range may not give a fair indication if a data
set shows a strong linear correlation. Try to increase the
range of the data set by taking more measurements or
undertaking more research.
d. A small number of data points may not be able to
establish with confidence the existence of a strong linear
correlation. Try to increase the number of data points
by taking more measurements or undertaking more
research.

“c14Polynomials_PrintPDF” — 2021/9/4 — 7:36 — page 887 — #1
10A
14 Polynomials
LEARNING SEQUENCE
14.1 Overview ...............................................................................................................................................................888
14.2 Polynomials ......................................................................................................................................................... 890
14.3 Adding, subtracting and multiplying polynomials ................................................................................ 894
14.4 Long division of polynomials ........................................................................................................................ 898
14.5 Polynomial values ............................................................................................................................................. 904
14.6 The remainder and factor theorems .......................................................................................................... 908
14.7 Factorising polynomials ..................................................................................................................................911
14.8 Solving polynomial equations ...................................................................................................................... 917
14.9 Review ................................................................................................................................................................... 920
14.1 Overview
Why learn this?
Just as your knowledge of numbers is learned in stages, so
too are graphs. You have been building your knowledge of
graphs and functions over time. First, you encountered linear
functions. You saw how straight lines are everywhere in
our daily lives. Then you learned about quadratic functions,
or parabolas. Again, you saw, in everyday situations, how
bridges and arches can be based on quadratic or parabolic
functions. Circles and hyperbolas are other functions that you
have studied. A polynomial is an algebraic expression with
integer powers that are greater than or equal to zero, such as
a parabola. Polynomial functions are represented by smooth
and continuous curves. They can be used to model situations in
many different fields, including business, science, architecture,
design and engineering. An engineer and designer would use
polynomials to model the curves on a rollercoaster. Economists
use polynomials to model changes and fluctuations in the
stock market. Scientists and researchers use polynomials when
looking at changes in the behaviour of objects in different
circumstances. Designers and architects incorporate polynomial
functions in many areas of their designs in buildings and in
landscaping. This topic introduces the building blocks of
polynomials.
Where to get help

Fully worked
solutions
eLessons
to every
question
Digital
eWorkbook
documents


1. State the degree of the following polynomials.
1
a. 3x2 − 5x + 1 b. 2x3 − 4x2 + 3x c. x+7 d. 4
2
2. MC Choose which of the following is a polynomial.

x3 + x √ √ 1
A. B. x−2 − 7 C. −x2 + 3 x D. 6x4 − E. 2x − 5x + 1
2 x
2
3. If x2 + 4x − 2 ≡ (x + 1) + a (x − 1) + b, determine the values of a and b.
4. MC Select the expanded and simplified expression of (2x) (−3x) (x + 1).

A. −6x3 + 1 B. −6x2 + 1 C. −6x2 − 6x D. −6x3 − 6x2 E. 6x3 + 1
5. MC Select the expanded and simplified expression for (1 − 2x) (3 − x) (4x + 1) (x − 5).
A. 8x4 − 66x3 + 135x2 − 22x − 15 B. 8x4 − 66x3 + 135x2 − 12x − 10
4 2 2
C. 9x − 66x + 135x − 8x − 10 D. 8x3 − 66x2 + 135x2 − 22x − 15
5 2 2
E. 8x − 66x + 165x − 22x − 15
6. Consider the polynomial −3x3 + 2x2 + 4x − 1. State:

a. the degree of the polynomial b. the leading coefficient
c. the value of the constant term d. the coefficient of x2 .
7. MC Select the simplified expression for (x6 + 2x3 + 3x + 1) − (x5 − 2x2 + 4x − 2).
A. x6 − x5 + 2x3 + 2x2 − x + 3 B. 2x3 + 2x2 − 2x + 3 C. x6 − x5 + 4x3 − x + 3
6 5 3 2 5
D. x − x + 2x + 2x − 3x E. 4x − 2x + 3
8. Calculate the quotient when x3 + 2x2 + x − 1 is divided by x + 1.
9. Determine the remainder when x3 − x2 + 4x − 3 is divided by x − 2.
10. If P(x) = 3x4 − 2x3 + x2 − 4x + 8, calculate P (−1).
11. MC If P(x) = x3 − x2 + x + 1, select the value of P(x + 1):

A. x + 2x2 + 5x + 4
3
B. 2x + 3 C. x3 + 4x2 + 5x + 4
D. x3 + 3x2 + 3x + 1 E. x3 + 2x2 + 2x + 2
12. When x3 − 2x2 + bx + 3 is divided by x − 1 the remainder is 4. Calculate the value of b.
13. MC Select the correct factor for x3 − x2 − 5x − 3:

A. x B. x + 1 C. x − 1 D. x + 3 E. x − 5
14. MC Select the factorised from of x3 + 4x2 + x − 6.

A. (x + 1)(x − 2)(x + 3) B. (x + 1)(x − 2)(x − 3) C. (x − 1)(x + 2)(x + 3)
D. (x − 1)(x − 2)(x − 3) E. (x − 1)(x + 2)(x − 3)
15. Evaluate the correct value of x, for 2x3 + 15x2 + 19x + 6 = 0.
TOPIC 14 Polynomials 889

14.2 Polynomials
LEARNING INTENTION
• identify polynomial expressions
• state the degree, leading term and leading coefficient of a polynomial.
14.2.1 Polynomials
eles-4975
A polynomial in x, sometimes denoted P(x), is an expression containing only non‐negative integer powers of x.
• The degree of a polynomial in x is the highest power of x in the expression.
For example:
3x + 1 is a polynomial of degree 1, or linear polynomial.
x2 + 4x − 7 is a polynomial of degree 2, or quadratic polynomial.
x
−5x3 + is a polynomial of degree 3, or cubic polynomial.
2
10 is a polynomial of degree 0 (think of 10 as 10x0 ).
• Expressions containing a term similar to any of the following terms are not polynomials:
1 √
, x−2 , x, 2x , sin x, and so on.
x
For example, the following are not polynomials.
2 √
3x2 − 4x + − 5x4 + x3 − 2 x x2 + sin x + 1
x
• In the expression 6x3 + 13x2 − x + 1

x is the variable.
6 is the coefficient of x3 .
13 is the coefficient of x2 .
−1 is the coefficient of x.
6x3 , 13x2 , −x and +1 are all terms.
The constant term is +1.
The degree of the polynomial is 3.
• The leading term is 6x3 because it is the term that contains the highest power of x.
• The leading coefficient is 6.
• Any polynomial with a leading coefficient of 1 is called monic.

WORKED EXAMPLE 1 Identifying degrees and variables of polynomials
Answer the following questions.

i. State the degree of each of the following polynomials.
ii. State the variable for each of the following polynomials.
a. x3 + 3x2 + x − 5 b. y4 + 4y3 − 8y2 + 2y − 8 c. a3 + 34a6 − 12a − 72
THINK WRITE
a. i. Determine the highest power of x in the a. i. In the expression x3 + 3x2 + x − 5, the
expression. highest power of x is 3. Therefore, this
polynomial is of degree 3.
ii. Determine the variable (unknown ii. x is the variable in this expression.
quantity) in the expression.
b. i. Determine the highest power of y in the b. i. In the expression y4 + 4y3 − 8y2 + 2y − 8
expression. the highest power of y is 4. Therefore,
this polynomial is of degree 4.
ii. Determine the variable (unknown ii. y is the variable in this expression.
c. i. Determine the highest power of a in the c. i. In the expression a3 + 34a6 − 12a − 72,
expression. the highest power of a is 6. Therefore,
this polynomial is of degree 6.
ii. Determine the variable (unknown ii. a is the variable in this expression.
WORKED EXAMPLE 2 Determining coefficients and terms of polynomials
Consider the polynomial P(x) = 3x4 − 5x3 + 2x2 + x − 12

a. State the degree and variable of the polynomial.
b. State the coefficient of x3 .
c. State the value of the constant term.
d. Determine the term that has a coefficient of 2.
e. Determine the leading term.
THINK WRITE
a. Determine the highest power of x and a. The highest power of x is 4 and therefore, the
the variable (unknown quantity) in the degree is 4.
expression. x is the variable in this expression.
b. Determine the term with x3 in the b. The coefficient in the term −5x3 is −5.
expression.
c. Determine the term without variable in c. The value of the constant term is −12.
the expression.
d. Determine the term that has a coefficient d. The term that has a coefficient of 2 is 2x2 .
of 2 in the expression.
e. Determine the term that contains the e. The leading term is 3x4 .
highest power of x in the expression.

An example where polynomials are useful is in the construction of a greenhouse. The surface area, S, of a
greenhouse of length L and height x can be approximated by the polynomial S(x) = 𝜋x2 + L𝜋x − 4.
Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivity Degrees of polynomials (int-6203)
Exercise 14.2 Polynomials

Individual pathways
1, 4, 5, 8, 11, 14 2, 6, 9, 12, 15 3, 7, 10, 13, 16
Fluency
WE1 For questions 1 to 3, answer the following questions.
i. State the degree of each of the following polynomials.
ii. State the variable for each of the following polynomials.
1. a. x3 − 9x2 + 19x + 7 b. 65 + 2x7 c. 3x2 − 8 + 2x
1 5 u4
2. a. x6 − 3x5 + 2x4 + 6x + 1 b. y8 + 7y3 − 5 c. u − + 2u − 6
2 3
e5
3. a. 18 − b. 2g − 3 c. 1.5f 6 − 800f
6
4. Identify the polynomials in questions 1 to 3 that are:
a. linear b. quadratic c. cubic d. monic.

For questions 5 to 7, state whether each of the following is a polynomial (P) or not (N).
5 x2
5. a. 7x + 6x2 + b. 33 − 4p c. +x
x 9
√ 1
6. a. 3x4 − 2x3 − 3 x−4 b. k−2 + k − 3k3 + 7 c. 5r − r9 +
3
4c6 − 3c3 + 1
7. a. b. 2x − 8x + 1 c. sin x + x2
2
Understanding
8. WE2 Consider the polynomial P(x) = −2x3 + 4x2 + 3x + 5.
a. State the degree of the polynomial. b. State the variable.
c. State the coefficient of x2 . d. State the value of the constant term.
e. State the term that has a coefficient of 3. f. Determine the leading term.
9. Consider the polynomial P(w) = 6w7 + 7w6 − 9.

a. State the degree of the polynomial. b. State the variable.
c. State the coefficient of w6 . d. Determine the coefficient of w.
e. State the value of the constant term. f. State the term that has a coefficient of 6.
10. Consider the polynomial f(x) = 4 − x2 + x4 .

a. State the degree of the polynomial. b. State the coefficient of x4 .
c. Determine the leading term. d. State the leading coefficient.
Reasoning
11. Write the following polynomials as simply as possible, arranging terms in descending powers of x.
a. 7x + 2x2 − 8x + 15 + 4x3 − 9x + 3
b. x2 − 8x3 + 3x4 − 2x2 + 7x + 5x3 − 7
c. x3 − 5x2 − 11x − 1 + 4x3 − 2x + x2 − 5
12. A sports scientist determines the following equation for the velocity of a breaststroke swimmer during one
complete stroke:
v(t) = 63.876t6 − 247.65t5 + 360.39t4 − 219.41t3 + 53.816t2 + 0.4746t.
a. Determine the degree of the polynomial.

b. State the variable.
c. State the number of terms that are there.
d. Use a graphics calculator or graphing software to draw
the graph of this polynomial.
e. Match what happens during one complete stroke with
points on the graph.

13. The distance travelled by a body after t seconds is given by d(t) = t3 + 2t2 − 4t + 5. Using a graphing
calculator or suitable computer software, draw a graph of the above motion for 0 ≤ t ≤ 3.
Use the graph to help you answer the following:
a. State what information the constant term gives.
b. Evaluate the position of the body after 1 second.
c. Describe in words the motion in the first 2 second.
Problem solving
14. If x2 − 3x + 5 = x2 + (a + b) x + (a − b), determine the values of a and b.
2
15. If x2 + 2x − 1 ≡ (x − 1) + a(x + 1) + b, evaluate a and b.
2
16. If x3 + 9x2 + 12x + 7 ≡ x3 + (ax + b) + 3, evaluate a and b.
14.3 Adding, subtracting and multiplying polynomials

LEARNING INTENTION
• add, subtract and multiply polynomial expressions.
14.3.1 Operations with polynomials

eles-4976
• To add or subtract polynomials, simply add or subtract any like terms in the expressions.
WORKED EXAMPLE 3 Simplifying polynomial expressions

a. (5x3 + 3x2 − 2x − 1) + (x4 + 5x2 − 4) b. (5x3 + 3x2 − 2x − 1) − (x4 + 5x2 − 4)
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Write the expression. a. (5x3 + 3x2 − 2x − 1) + (x4 + 5x2 − 4)
2. Remove any grouping symbols, = 5x3 + 3x2 − 2x − 1 + x4 + 5x2 − 4
watching any signs.
3. Re-order the terms with descending degrees = x4 + 5x3 + 3x2 + 5x2 − 2x − 1 − 4
of x.
4. Simplify by collecting like terms. = x4 + 5x3 + 8x2 − 2x − 5
b. 1. Write the expression. b. (5x3 + 3x2 − 2x − 1) − (x4 + 5x2 − 4)

2. Remove any grouping symbols, = 5x3 + 3x2 − 2x − 1 − x4 − 5x2 + 4
watching any signs.
3. Re-order the terms with descending degrees = −x4 + 5x3 + 3x2 − 5x2 − 2x − 1 + 4
of x.
4. Simplify by collecting like terms. = −x4 + 5x3 − 2x2 − 2x + 3


In a new document, on a On the Main screen, tap:
• MENU • Transformation
• 1: Actions • simplify
• 1: Define Complete the entry lines as:
Complete the entry lines as: simplify ((5x3 + 3x2 − 2x − 1)
Define +(x4 + 5x2 − 4))
p1(x) = 5x3 + 3x2 − 2x − 1 simplify ((5x3 + 3x2 − 2x − 1)
Define −(x4 + 5x2 − 4))
p2(x) = x4 + 5x2 − 4 p1(x) + p2(x) Press EXE after each entry.
p1(x) + p2(x) x4 + 5x3 + 8x2 − 2x − 5
= x4 + 5x3 + 8x2 − 2x − 5
p1(x) − p2(x) −x4 + 5x3 − 2x2 − 2x + 3
p1(x) − p2(x)
entry. = −x4 + 5x3 − 2x2 − 2x + 3
• To expand linear factors, for example (x + 1)(x + 2)(x − 7), use FOIL from quadratic expansions.
WORKED EXAMPLE 4 Expanding polynomial expressions
Expand and simplify:

a. x(x + 2)(x − 3) b. (x − 1)(x + 5)(x + 2).
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Write the expression. a. x(x + 2)(x − 3)
2. Expand the last two linear factors, using = x(x2 − 3x + 2x − 6)

FOIL and simplify = x(x2 − x − 6)
3. Multiply the expression in brackets by x. = x3 − x2 − 6x
b. 1. Write the expression. b. (x − 1)(x + 5)(x + 2)
2. Expand the last two linear factors, using = (x − 1)(x2 + 2x + 5x + 10)

FOIL, and simplify
( )
3. Multiply the expression in the second bracket = (x − 1) x2 + 7x + 10
by x and then by −1. = x3 + 7x2 + 10x − x2 − 7x − 10
4. Collect like terms. = x3 + 6x2 + 3x − 10


On a Calculator page, On the Main screen,
press: tap:
• MENU • Action
• 3: Algebra • Transformation
• 3: Expand • expand
Complete the entry Complete the entry
lines as: lines as:
expand expand
(x × (x + 2) × (x − 3)) (x × (x + 2) × (x − 3))
expand x(x + 2)(x − 3) = x3 − x2 − 6x expand
(x × (x − 1) × (x + 5) × (x − 1)(x + 5)(x + 2) = x3 + 6x2 ((x − 1) × (x + 5) ×
(x + 2)) + 3x − 10 (x + 2))
Press ENTER after each Press EXE after each
x(x + 2)(x − 3) = x3 − x2 − 6x
entry. entry.
On the TI, the (x − 1)(x + 5)(x + 2) = x3 + 6x2
multiplication sign is + 3x − 10
displayed as a dot.
Resources
Resourceseses
Digital document SkillSHEET Expanding the product of two linear factors (doc-5366)
Interactivity Adding and subtracting polynomials (int-6204)
Exercise 14.3 Adding, subtracting and multiplying polynomials

Individual pathways
1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 13, 16 2, 4, 6, 10, 14, 17 8, 11, 12, 15, 18
Fluency
1. WE3a Simplify each of the following.
a. (x4 + x3 − x2 + 4) + (x3 − 14) b. (x6 + x4 − 3x3 + 6x2 ) + (x4 + 3x2 + 5)
3 2 3 2
c. (x + x + 2x − 4) + (4x − 6x + 5x − 9) d. (2x4 − 3x3 + 7x2 + 9) + (6x3 + 5x2 − 4x + 5)
4 2 5 4 2
e. (15x − 3x + 4x − 7) + (x − 2x + 3x − 4x − 3)
2. WE3b Simplify each of the following.

a. (x + x3 + 4x2 + 5x + 5) − (x3 + 2x2 + 3x + 1)
4
b. (x6 + x3 + 1) − (x5 − x2 − 1)
c. (5x + 6x − 4x + 8x + 5x − 3) − (6x + 8x − 3) d. (10x4 − 5x2 + 16x + 11) − (2x2 − 4x + 6)
7 5 3 2 5 2
e. (6x3 + 5x2 − 7x + 12) − (4x3 − x2 + 3x − 3)

3. WE4a Expand and simplify each of the following.

a. x(x + 6)(x + 1)
b. x(x − 9)(x + 2)
c. x(x − 3)(x + 11)
d. 2x(x + 2)(x + 3)
e. −3x(x − 4)(x + 4)
4. Expand and simplify each of the following.
a. 5x(x + 8)(x + 2) b. x2 (x + 4) c. −2x2 (7 − x)
2
d. (5x)(−6x)(x + 9) e. −7x(x + 4)
WE4b For questions 5 to 10, expand and simplify each of the following.
5. a. (x + 7)(x + 2)(x + 3) b. (x − 2)(x + 4)(x − 5) c. (x − 1)(x − 4)(x + 8)
d. (x − 1)(x − 2)(x − 3) e. (x + 6)(x − 1)(x + 1)
2
6. a. (x − 7)(x + 7)(x + 5) b. (x + 11)(x + 5)(x − 12) c. (x + 5)(x − 1)
2
d. (x + 2)(x − 7) e. (x + 1)(x − 1)(x + 1)
7. a. (x − 2)(x + 7)(x + 8) b. (x + 5)(3x − 1)(x + 4) c. (4x − 1)(x + 3)(x − 3)(x + 1)

d. (5x + 3)(2x − 3)(x − 4) e. (1 − 6x)(x + 7)(x + 5)
2
8. a. 3x(7x − 4)(x − 4)(x + 2) b. −9x(1 − 2x)(3x + 8) c. (6x + 5)(2x − 7)
d. (3 − 4x)(2 − x)(5x + 9)(x − 1) e. 2(7 + 2x)(x + 3)(x + 4)
Understanding
3 3 3
9. a. (x + 2) b. (x + 5) c. (x − 1)
4 3 4
10. a. (x − 3) b. (2x − 6) c. (3x + 4)
11. Simplify the expression 2(ax + b) − 5(c − bx).
12. Expand and simplify the expression (x + a)(x − b)(x2 − 3bx + 2a).
Reasoning
4
13. If (x − 3) = ax4 + bx3 + cx2 + dx + e, determine the values of a, b, c, d and e. Show your working.
3 2
14. Simplify the expression (2x − 3) − (4 − 3x) .
3(x − 1)
15. Determine the difference in volume between a cube of side and a cuboid whose sides are x, (x + 1)
2
and (2x + 1). Show your working.
Problem solving
5x + 1 a b
16. Determine the values of the pronumerals a and b if: ≡ +
(x − 1) (x + 2) (x − 1) (x + 2)
5x − 7 a b c
17. Evaluate the constants a, b and c if: ≡ + + .
(x − 1)(x + 1)(x − 2) (x − 1) (x + 1) (x − 2)
3x − 5 ax + b c
18. Write
2
in the form 2 + and hence determine the values of a, b and c.
(x + 1)(x − 1) (x + 1) (x − 1)

14.4 Long division of polynomials

LEARNING INTENTION
• divide polynomials by linear expressions using long division
• determine the quotient and remainder when dividing polynomials by linear expressions.
14.4.1 Long division of polynomials

eles-4977
• The reverse of expanding is factorising (expressing a polynomial as a product of its linear factors).
• To factorise polynomials we need to use a form of long division.
• The following steps show how to divide a polynomial by a linear factor using long division.
( )
Consider x3 + 2x2 − 13x + 10 ÷ (x − 3).
Step 1 Write the division out using long division notation.
x – 3 x3 + 2x2 – 13x + 10
Step 2 Consider the leading terms only. Determine how many times x
x – 3 x3 + 2x2 – 13x + 10
goes into x3 .
Step 3 x into x3 goes x2 times. Write x2 above the x2 term of the x2
polynomial. x – 3 x3 + 2x2 – 13x + 10
( )
Step 4 Multiply the term at the top x2 by the linear factor (x − 3): x2
x2 × (x − 3) = x3 − 3x2 . x – 3 x3 + 2x2 – 13x + 10
Write the result beneath the first two terms of the polynomial.
x3 – 3x2
Step 5 Subtract the first two terms of the polynomial by the terms x2
written below them. ( ) x – 3 x3 + 2x2 – 13x + 10
x3 − x3 = 0 and 2x2 − −3x2 = 5x2
x3 – 3x2
5x2
Step 6 Bring the next term of the polynomial down to sit next to 5x2 . x2
x − 3 x + 2x2 − 13x + 10
3
x3 − 3x2
5x2 − 13x
• The process now restarts, looking at the newly created 5x2 − 13x expression.

Step 7 Consider the leading terms only. Determine how x2

many times x goes into 5x2 . x − 3 x + 2x2 − 13x + 10
3
x3 − 3x2
5x2 − 13x
Step 8 x into 5x2 goes 5x times. Write 5x above the x term of x2 + 5x
the polynomial. x − 3 x + 2x2 − 13x + 10
3
x3 − 3x2
5x2 − 13x
Step 9 Multiply the term at the top (5x) by the linear factor x2 + 5x
(x − 3): 5x × (x − 3) = 5x2 − 15x. x – 3 x3 + 2x2 – 13x + 10
Write the result beneath the two terms written in
x3 – 3x2
step 6.
5x2 – 13x
5x2 – 15x
Step 10 Subtract the two terms of the polynomial by the terms x2 + 5x
written below them. x – 3 x3 + 2x2 – 13x + 10
5x2 − 5x2 = 0 and (−13x) − (−15x) = 2x
x3 – 3x2
5x2 – 13x
5x2 – 15x
2x
Step 11 Bring the next term of the polynomial down to sit x2 + 5x
next to 2x. x − 3 x 2x2 − 13x + 10
3+
x3 − 3x2
5x2 − 13x
5x2 − 15x
2x + 10
• Once again the process restarts, looking at the newly created 2x + 10 expression.

Step 12 Consider the leading terms only.

x2 + 5x
Determine how many times x goes
into 2x. x − 3 x3 + 2x2 − 13x + 10
x3 − 3x2
5x2 − 13x
5x2 − 15x
2x + 10
Step 13 x into 2x goes 2 times. Write 2 above the
x2 + 5x + 2
constant term of the polynomial.
x − 3 x + 2x2 − 13x + 10
3
x3 − 3x2
5x2 − 13x
5x2 − 15x
2x + 10
Step 14 Multiply the term at the top (2) by the
x2 + 5x + 2
linear factor (x − 3): 2 × (x − 3) = 2x − 6.
Write the result beneath the two terms x − 3 x 2x2 − 13x + 10
3+
written in step 11. x3 − 3x2

5x2 − 13x
5x2 − 15x
2x + 10
2x – 6
Step 15 Subtract the two terms of the polynomial
x2 + 5x + 2
by the terms written below them.
2x − 2x = 0 and 10 − (−6) = 16 x − 3 x3 + 2x2 − 13x + 10
x3 − 3x2
5x2 − 13x
5x2 − 15x
2x + 10
2x – 6
16
Step 16 The division is now complete!
x2 + 5x + 2 Quotient
The top line is the quotient (Q), and the
bottom number is the remainder (R). x − 3 x3 + 2x2 − 13x + 10
x3 − 3x2
5x2 − 13x
5x2 − 15x
2x + 10
2x − 6
16 Remainder
Write the answer: (x3 + 2x2 − 13x + 10) ÷ (x − 3) = x2 + 5x + 2 remainder 16

WORKED EXAMPLE 5 Performing long division of cubic polynomials
Perform
( 3 the following
) long divisions and state the quotient and remainder.
2
a. x + 3x + x + 9 ÷ (x + 2)
( )
b. x3 − 4x2 − 7x − 5 ÷ (x − 1)
( )
c. 2x3 + 6x2 − 3x + 2 ÷ (x − 6)
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Write the question in long division format. a. x2 +x−1 Q
2. Perform the long division process. x + 2 x3 + 3x2 +x+9
x3 + 2x2
x2 +x
x2 + 2x
−x + 9
−x − 2
11 R
3. Write the quotient and remainder. Quotient is x2 + x − 1; remainder is 11.
b. 1. Write the question in long division format. b. x2 − 3x − 10 Q

2. Perform the long division process. x−1 x3
− 4x2 − 7x − 5
3 − x2
x
−3x2 − 7x
−3x2 + 3x
−10x − 5
−10x + 10
−15 R
3. Write the quotient and remainder. Quotient is x2 − 3x − 10; remainder is −15.
c. 1. Write the question in long division format. c. 2x2 + 18x + 105 Q

2. Perform the long division process. x −6 2x3 +
6x2 − 3x + 2
2x − 12x2
3
18x2 − 3x
18x2 − 108x
105x + 2
105x − 630
632 R
3. Write the quotient and remainder. Quotient is 2x2 + 18x + 105; remainder is 632.

WORKED EXAMPLE 6 Determining the quotient and remainder of a degree 4 polynomial
Determine the quotient and the remainder when x4 − 3x3 + 2x2 − 8 is divided by the linear
expression x + 2.
THINK WRITE
1. Set out the long division with each polynomial in
descending powers of x. If one of the powers of x x + 2 x4 − 3x3 + 2x2 + 0x − 8
is missing, include it with 0 as the coefficient.
2. Divide x into x4 and write the result above. x3
x + 2 x4 − 3x3 + 2x2 + 0x − 8
3. Multiply the result x3 by x + 2 and write the x3
result underneath. x + 2 x4 − 3x3 + 2x2 + 0x − 8
x4 + 2x3
4. Subtract and bring down the remaining terms to x3
complete the expression. x + 2 x4 − 3x3 + 2x2 + 0x − 8
x4 + 2x3
−5x3 + 2x2 + 0x − 8
5. Divide x into −5x3 and write the result above. x3 − 5x2 + 12x − 24
6. Continue this process to complete the long x + 2 x4 − 3x3 + 2x2 + 0x − 8
division. x4 + 2x3
−5x3 + 2x2 + 0x − 8
−5x3 − 10x2
12x2 + 0x − 8
12x2 + 24x
−24x − 8
−24x − 48
40
7. The polynomial x3 − 5x2 + 12x − 24, at the top, is The quotient is x3 − 5x2 + 12x − 24.
the quotient.
8. The result of the final subtraction, 40, is the The remainder is 40.
remainder.
Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivity Long division of polynomials (int-2793)

Exercise 14.4 Long division of polynomials

Individual pathways
1, 3, 5, 9, 14, 17 2, 4, 7, 10, 12, 15, 18 6, 8, 11, 13, 16, 19
Fluency
1. WE5a Perform the following long divisions and state the quotient and remainder.
a. (x + 4x2 + 4x + 9) ÷ (x + 2)
3
b. (x3 + 2x2 + 4x + 1) ÷ (x + 1)
c. (x3 + 6x2 + 3x + 1) ÷ (x + 3) d. (x3 + 3x2 + x + 3) ÷ (x + 4)
2. Perform the following long divisions and state the quotient and remainder.
a. (x3 + 6x2 + 2x + 2) ÷ (x + 2) b. (x3 + x2 + x + 3) ÷ (x + 1)
c. (x3 + 8x2 + 5x + 4) ÷ (x + 8) d. (x3 + x2 + 4x + 1) ÷ (x + 2)
3. WE5b State the quotient and remainder for each of the following.
3
a. (x + 2x2 − 5x − 9) ÷ (x − 2) b. (x3 + x2 + x + 9) ÷ (x − 3)
c. (x3 + x2 − 9x − 5) ÷ (x − 2) d. (x3 − 4x2 + 10x − 2) ÷ (x − 1)
4. State the quotient and remainder for each of the following.

a. (x3 − 5x2 + 3x − 8) ÷ (x − 3) b. (x3 − 7x2 + 9x − 7) ÷ (x − 1)
c. (x3 + 9x2 + 2x − 1) ÷ (x − 5) d. (x3 + 4x2 − 5x − 4) ÷ (x − 4)
WE5c For questions 5 to 8, divide the first polynomial by the second and state the quotient and remainder.
5. a. 3x3 − x2 + 6x + 5, x + 2 b. 4x3 − 4x2 + 10x − 4, x + 1
c. 2x3 − 7x2 + 9x + 1, x − 2
6. a. 2x3 + 8x2 − 9x − 1, x + 4 b. 4x3 − 10x2 − 9x + 8, x − 3

c. 3x3 + 16x2 + 4x − 7, x + 5
7. a. 6x3 − 7x2 + 4x + 4, 2x − 1 b. 6x3 + 23x2 + 2x − 31, 3x + 4

c. 8x3 + 6x2 − 39x − 13, 2x + 5
8. a. 2x3 − 15x2 + 34x − 13, 2x − 7 b. 3x3 + 5x2 − 16x − 23, 3x + 2

c. 9x3 − 6x2 − 5x + 9, 3x − 4
Understanding
For questions 9 to 11, state the quotient and remainder for each of the following.
−x3 − 6x2 − 7x − 16 −3x3 + 7x2 + 10x − 15
9. a. b.
x+1 x−3
−2x3 + 9x2 + 17x + 15 4x3 − 20x2 + 23x − 2
c. d.
2x + 1 −2x + 3
10. a. (x3 − 3x + 1) ÷ (x + 1) b. (x3 + 2x2 − 7) ÷ (x + 2)

c. (x3 − 5x2 + 2x) ÷ (x − 4) d. (−x3 − 7x + 8) ÷ (x − 1)

11. a. (5x2 + 13x + 1) ÷ (x + 3) b. (2x3 + 8x2 − 4) ÷ (x + 5)

c. (−2x3 − x + 2) ÷ (x − 2) d. (− 4x3 + 6x2 + 2x) ÷ (2x + 1)
12. WE6 Determine the quotient and the remainder when each polynomial is divided by the linear
expression given.
a. x4 + x3 + 3x2 − 7x, x − 1 b. x4 − 13x2 + 36, x − 2
c. x5 − 3x3 + 4x + 3, x + 3
13. Determine the quotient and the remainder when each polynomial is divided by the linear expression given.
a. 2x6 − x4 + x3 + 6x2 − 5x, x + 2 b. 6x4 − x3 + 2x2 − 4x, x − 3
c. 3x4 − 6x3 + 12x, 3x + 1
Reasoning
14. Determine the quotient and remainder when
3x4 − 6x3 + 12x + a is divided by 3x + 6. Show your working.
15. Determine the quotient and remainder when ax2 + bx + c is
divided by (x − d). Show your working.
16. A birthday cake in the shape of a cube had side length
(x + p) cm. The cake was divided between (x − p) guests. The
left-over cake was used for lunch the next day. There were
q3 guests for lunch the next day and each received c3 cm3 of
cake, which was then all finished.
Determine an expression for q in terms of p and c. Show
your working.
Problem solving
17. When x3 − 2x2 + 4x + a is divided by x − 1 the remainder is zero. Use long division to determine the
value of a.
18. When x3 + 3x2 + a is divided by x + 1, the remainder is 8. Use long division to determine the value of a.
19. When 2x2 + ax + b is divided by x − 1 the remainder is zero but when 2x2 + ax + b is divided by x − 2 the
remainder is 9. Use long division to determine the value of the pronumerals a and b.
14.5 Polynomial values

LEARNING INTENTION
• determine the value of a polynomial for a given value.
14.5.1 Polynomial values

eles-4978
• Consider the polynomial P(x) = x3 − 5x2 + x + 1.
• The value of the polynomial when x = 3 is denoted by P(3) and P(3) = (3)3 − 5(3)2 + (3) + 1
is found by substituting x = 3 into the equation in place of x, P(3) = 27 − 5(9) + 3 + 1
as shown. P(3) = 27 − 45 + 4
P(3) = −14

WORKED EXAMPLE 7 Evaluating polynomials for values of x
If P (x) = 2x3 + x2 − 3x − 4, determine the value of:

a. P(1) b. P(−2) c. P(a) d. P(2b) e. P(x + 1).
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Write the expression. a. P(x) = 2x3 + x2 − 3x − 4
2. Replace x with 1. P(1) = 2(1)3 + (1)2 − 3(1) − 4

3. Simplify and write the answer. =2+1−3−4
= −4
b. 1. Write the expression. b. P(x) = 2x3 + x2 − 3x − 4

2. Replace x with −2. P(−2) = 2(−2)3 + (−2)2 − 3(−2) − 4
3. Simplify and write the answer. = 2 (−8) + (4) + 6 − 4
= −16 + 4 + 6 − 4
= −10
c. 1. Write the expression. c. P(x) = 2x3 + x2 − 3x − 4

2. Replace x with a. P(a) = 2a3 + a2 − 3a − 4
3. No further simplification is
possible.
d. 1. Write the expression. d. P(x) = 2x3 + x2 − 3x − 4
2. Replace x with 2b. P(2b) = 2(2b)3 + (2b)2 − 3(2b) − 4
( )
3. Simplify and write the answer. = 2 8b3 + 4b2 − 6b + 4
= 16b3 + 4b2 − 6b + 4
e. 1. Write the expression. e. P(x) = 2x3 + x2 − 3x − 4

2. Replace x with (x + 1). P(x + 1) = 2(x + 1)3 + (x + 1)2 − 3(x + 1) − 4
3. Expand the right-hand side = 2 (x + 1) (x + 1) (x + 1) + (x + 1) (x + 1) − 3 (x + 1) − 4
and collect like terms. ( 2 ) 2
= 2 (x
( 3+ 1) x2 + 2x +2 1 + x +)2x +2 1 − 3x − 3 − 4
= 2 (x + 2x + x + x )+ 2x + 1 + x − x − 6
= 2 x3 + 3x2 + 3x + 1 + x2 − x − 6
= 2x3 + 6x2 + 6x + 2 + x2 − x − 6
4. Write the answer. = 2x3 + 7x2 + 5x − 4


a–e. a–e. a–e. a–e.
On a Calculator page, press: On the Main screen, tap:
• MENU • Action
• 1: Actions • Command
• 1: Define • Define
Complete the entry lines as: Complete the entry lines as:
Define Define
p(x) = 2x3 + x2 − 3x − 4 p(x) = 2x3 + x2 − 3x − 4
p(1) p(1)
p(−2) p(−2)
p(a) P(1) = −4 p(a)
p(2b) P(−2) = −10 p(2b)
p(x + 1) p(x + 1)
P(a) = 2a3 + a2 − 3a − 4
Press ENTER after each expand (p(x + 1)) P(1) = −4
entry. P(2b) = 16b3 + 4b2 − 6b − 4 Press EXE after each entry.
P(−2) = −10
P(x + 1) = 2x3 + 7x2 + 5x − 4
P(a) = 2a3 + a2 − 3a − 4
P(2b) = 16b3 + 4b2 − 6b − 4
P(x + 1) = 2x3 + 7x2 + 5x − 4
Resources
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Digital document SkillSHEET Substitution into quadratic equations (doc-5367)
Exercise 14.5 Polynomial values

Individual pathways
1, 3, 7, 11, 12, 15 2, 5, 8, 9, 13, 16 4, 6, 10, 14, 17
Fluency
WE7 For questions 1 to 6, P(x) = 2x3 − 3x2 + 2x + 10. Calculate the following.
1. a. P(0) b. P(1)
2. a. P(2) b. P(3)
3. a. P(−1) b. P(−2)
4. a. P(−3) b. P(a)
5. a. P(2b) b. P(x + 2)
6. a. P(x − 3) b. P(−4y)

Understanding
7. For the polynomial P(x) = x3 + x2 + x + 1, calculate the following showing your full working.
a. P(1)
b. P(2)
c. P(−1)
d. The remainder when P(x) is divided by (x − 1).
e. The remainder when P(x) is divided by (x − 2).
f. The remainder when P(x) is divided by (x + 1).
8. For the polynomial P(x) = x3 + 2x2 + 5x + 2, calculate the following showing your full working.
a. P(1)
b. P(2)
c. P(−2)
9. For the polynomial P(x) = x3 − x2 + 4x − 1, calculate the following showing your full working.
a. P(1)
b. P(2)
c. P(−2)
10. For the polynomial P(x) = x3 − 4x2 − 7x + 3, calculate the following showing your full working.
a. P(1)
b. P(−1)
c. P(−2)
e. The remainder when P(x) is divided by (x + 1).
Reasoning
11. Copy and complete:
a. A quick way of determining the remainder when P(x) is divided by (x + 8) is to calculate ______.
b. A quick way of determining the remainder when P(x) is divided by (x − 7) is to calculate ______.
c. A quick way of determining the remainder when P(x) is divided by (x − a) is to calculate ______.
5
12. If P(x) = 2(x − 3) + 1, determine:
a. P(2) b. P(−2) c. P(a)
13. If P(x) = −2x3 − 3x2 + x + 3, evaluate:

a. P(a) + 1 b. P(a + 1).
14. When x2 + bx + 2 is divided by (x − 1), the remainder is b2 − 4b + 7. Determine the possible values of b.
Problem solving
15. If P (x) = 2x3 − 3x2 + 4x + c, determine the value of c if P (2) = 20.
16. If P(x) = 3x3 − 2x2 − x + c and P(2) = 8P(1), calculate the value of c.
17. If P(x) = 5x2 + bx + c and P(−1) = 12 while P(2) = 21, determine the values of b and c.

14.6 The remainder and factor theorems

LEARNING INTENTION
• identify factors of polynomials using the factor theorem.
eles-4979
14.6.1 The remainder theorem
• In the previous exercise, you may have noticed that:
the remainder when P(x) is divided by (x − a) is equal to P(a).
• This fact is summarised in the remainder theorem.
The remainder theorem

When P (x) is divided by (x − a), the remainder R = P (a).
• If P(x) = x3 + x2 + x + 1 is divided by (x − 2), the quotient is x2 + 3x + 7 and the remainder is P(2), which
equals 15. That is:
( ) 15
x3 + x2 + x + 1 ÷ (x − 2) = x2 + 3x + 7 +
x−2
( 3 2
) ( 2 )
and x + x + x + 1 = x + 3x + 7 (x − 2) + 15
Dividing a polynomial by a linear factor
If P(x) is divided by (x − a), the quotient is Q(x) and the remainder is

R = P(a), we can write:
R
P (x) ÷ (x − a) = Q (x) +
(x − a)
⇒ P (x) = (x − a) Q (x) + R
WORKED EXAMPLE 8 Calculating remainders using the remainder theorem
Without actually dividing, determine the remainder when x3 − 7x2 − 2x + 4 is divided by:
a. x − 3 b. x + 6.
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Name the polynomial. a. Let P(x) = x3 − 7x2 − 2x + 4.
2. The remainder when P(x) is divided by R = P (3)

(x − 3) is equal to P(3). = 33 − 7(3)2 − 2 (3) + 4
= 27 − 7 (9) − 6 + 4
= 27 − 63 − 6 + 4
3. Write the remainder. = −38

b. 1. The remainder when P(x) is divided by b. R = P (−6)

(x + 6) is equal to P(−6). = (−6)3 − 7(−6)2 − 2 (−6) + 4
= −216 − 7 (36) + 12 + 4
= 216 − 252 + 12 + 4
2. Write the remainder. = −452
eles-4980
14.6.2 The factor theorem
• The remainder when 12 is divided by 4 is zero, since 4 is a factor of 12.
• Similarly, if the remainder (R) when P(x) is divided by (x − a) is zero, then (x − a) is a factor of P(x).
• Since R = P(a), determine the value of a that makes P(a) = 0, then (x − a) is a factor.
This is summarised in the factor theorem.
The factor theorem

If P (a) = 0, then (x − a) is a factor of P (x).
• P(x) could be factorised as follows:
P(x) = (x − a)Q(x), where Q(x) is ‘the other’ factor of P(x).
WORKED EXAMPLE 9 Applying the factor theorem to determine constants
(x − 2) is a factor of x3 + kx2 + x − 2. Determine the value of k.
THINK WRITE
1. Name the polynomial. Let P(x) = x3 + kx2 + x − 2.
2. The remainder when P(x) is divided by (x − 2) 0 = P (2)
is equal to P(2) = 0. = 23 + k(2)2 + 2 − 2
0 = 8 + 4k
3. Solve for k and write its value. 4k = −8

k = −2
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Exercise 14.6 The remainder and factor theorems

Individual pathways
1, 3, 5, 8, 9, 16, 18, 21 2, 4, 6, 10, 11, 14, 17, 19, 22 7, 12, 13, 15, 20, 23, 24
Fluency
WE6 For questions 1 and 2, without actually dividing, determine the remainder when x3 + 3x2 − 10x − 24 is
divided by:
1. a. x − 1 b. x + 2 c. x − 3 d. x + 5
2. a. x − 0 b. x − k c. x + n d. x + 3c
For questions 3 to 7, determine the remainder when the first polynomial is divided by the second without
performing long division.
3. a. x3 + 2x2 + 3x + 4, (x − 3) b. x3 − 4x2 + 2x − 1, (x + 1)
4. a. x3 + 3x2 − 3x + 1, (x + 2) b. x3 − x2 − 4x − 5, (x − 1)
5. a. x3 + x2 + 8, (x − 5) b. −3x3 − 2x2 + x + 6, (x + 1)
6. a. −x3 + 8, (x + 3) b. x3 − 3x2 − 2, (x − 2)
7. a. 2x3 + 3x2 + 6x + 3, (x + 5) b. x3 + 2x2 , (x − 7)
Understanding
8. WE9 The remainder when x3 + kx + 1 is divided by (x + 2) is −19. Calculate the value of k.
9. The remainder when x3 + 2x2 + mx + 5 is divided by (x − 2) is 27. Determine the value of m.
10. The remainder when x3 − 3x2 + 2x + n is divided by (x − 1) is 1. Calculate the value of n.
11. The remainder when ax3 + 4x2 − 2x + 1 is divided by (x − 3) is −23. Determine the value of a.
12. The remainder when x3 − bx2 − 2x + 1 is divided by (x + 1) is 0. Calculate the value of b.
13. The remainder when −4x2 + 2x + 7 is divided by (x − c) is −5. Determine a possible whole number
value of c.
14. The remainder when x2 − 3x + 1 is divided by (x + d) is 11. Calculate the possible values of d.
15. The remainder when x3 + ax2 + bx + 1 is divided by (x − 5) is −14. When the cubic polynomial is divided by
(x + 1), the remainder is −2. Determine the values of a and b.
16. MC Answer the following. Note: There may be more than one correct answer.
a. When x3 + 2x2 − 5x − 5 is divided by (x + 2), the remainder is:
A. −5 B. −2 C. 2 D. 5 E. 7
b. Choose a factor of 2x3 + 15x2 + 22x − 15 from the following.
A. (x − 1) B. (x − 2) C. (x + 3) D. (x + 5) E. (x − 3)

c. When x3 − 13x2 + 48x − 36 is divided by (x − 1), the remainder is:
A. −3 B. −2 C. −1 D. 0 E. 1
d. Select a factor of x3 − 5x2 − 22x + 56from the following.
A. (x − 2) B. (x + 2) C. (x − 7) D. (x + 4) E. (x − 4)
17. Determine one factor of each of the following cubic polynomials.

a. x3 − 3x2 + 3x − 1 b. x3 − 7x2 + 16x − 12 c. x3 + x2 − 8x − 12 d. x3 + 3x2 − 34x − 120
Reasoning
For questions 18 and 19, without actually dividing, show that the first polynomial is exactly divisible by the
second (that is, the second polynomial is a factor of the first).
18. a. x3 + 5x2 + 2x − 8, (x − 1) b. x3 − 7x2 − x + 7, (x − 7)
c. x3 − 7x2 + 4x + 12, (x − 2) d. x3 + 2x2 − 9x − 18, (x + 2)
19. a. x3 + 3x2 − 9x − 27, (x + 3) b. −x3 + x2 + 9x − 9, (x − 1)

c. −2x3 + 9x2 − x − 12, (x − 4) d. 3x3 + 22x2 + 37x + 10, (x + 5)
20. Prove that each of the following is a linear factor of x3 + 4x2 − 11x − 30 by substituting values into the cubic
function: (x + 2), (x − 3), (x + 5).
Problem solving
( )
21. When (x3 + ax2 − 4x + 1) and x3 − ax2 + 8x − 7 are each divided by (x − 2), the remainders are equal.
Determine the value of a.
22. When x4 + ax3 − 4x2 + b and x3 − ax2 − 7x + b are each divided by (x − 2), the remainders are 26 and 8
respectively. Calculate the values of a and b.
23. Both (x − 1) and (x − 2) are factors of P(x) = x4 + ax3 − 7x2 + bx − 30. Determine the values of a and b and
the remaining two linear factors.
24. The remainder when 2x − 1 is divided into 6x3 − x2 + 3x + k is the same as when it is divided into
4x3 − 8x2 − 5x + 2. Calculate the value of k.
14.7 Factorising polynomials

LEARNING INTENTION
• factorise polynomials using long division
• factorise polynomials using short division or inspection.
14.7.1 Using long division

eles-4981
• Once one factor of a polynomial has been found (using the factor theorem as in the previous section), long
division may be used to find other factors.
• In the case of a cubic polynomial, one — possibly two — other factors may be found.

WORKED EXAMPLE 10 Factorising polynomials using long division
Use long division to factorise the following.

a. x3 − 5x2 − 2x + 24 b. x3 − 19x + 30 c. −2x3 − 8x2 + 6x + 4
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Name the polynomial. a. P(x) = x3 − 5x2 − 2x + 24
2. Look for a value of x such that P(x) = 0. For P (1) = 13 − 5 × 12 − 2 × 1 + 24

3
cubics containing a single x , try a factor of = 1 − 5 − 2 + 24
the constant term (24 in this case). = 18
Try P(1). ≠0
P(1) ≠ 0, so (x − 1) is not a factor. P(2) = 23 − 5 × 22 − 2 × 2 + 24
Try P(2). = 8 − 20 − 4 + 24
≠0
P(2) ≠ 0, so (x − 2) is not a factor. P(−2) = (−2)3 − 5 × (−2)2 − 2 × (−2) + 24
Try P(−2). = −8 − 20 + 4 + 24
= −28 + 28
=0
So, (x + 2) is a factor.
P(−2) does equal 0, so (x + 2) is a factor.
3. Divide (x + 2) into P(x) using long division x2 − 7x + 12
to determine a quadratic factor. x+2 x3
− 5x2 − 2x + 24
x + 2x2
3
−7x2 − 2x
−7x2 − 14x
12x + 24
12x + 24
0
4. Write P(x) as a product of the two factors P(x) = (x + 2)(x2 − 7x + 12)
found so far.
5. Factorise the quadratic factor if possible. P(x) = (x + 2)(x − 3)(x − 4)
b. 1. Name the polynomial. b. P(x) = x3 − 19x + 30
2 2
Note: There is no x term, so include 0x . P(x) = x3 + 0x2 − 19x + 30
2. Look at the last term in P(x), which is 30. P (−5) = (−5)3 − 19 × (−5) + 30
This suggests it is worth trying P(5) or P(−5). = −125 + 95 + 30
Try P(−5). P(−5) = 0 so (x + 5) is a factor. =0
So, (x + 5) is a factor.
3. Divide (x + 5) into P(x) using long division to
x2 − 5x + 6
find a quadratic factor.
x + 5 x + 0 x2 − 19x + 30
3
x3 + 5 x2
−5 x2 − 19x
−5 x2 − 25x
6x + 30
6x + 30
0
4. Write P(x) as a product of the two factors P(x) = (x + 5)(x2 − 5x + 6)
found so far.

5. Factorise the quadratic factor if possible. P(x) = (x + 5)(x − 2)(x − 3)

c. 1. Write the given polynomial. c. Let P(x) = −2x3 − 8x2 + 6x + 4
2. Take out a common factor of −2. = −2(x3 + 4x2 − 3x − 2)
(We could take out +2 as the common factor,
but taking out −2 results in a positive leading
term in the part still to be factorised.)
3. Let Q(x) = x3 + 4x2 − 3x − 2 Let Q(x) = x3 + 4x2 − 3x − 2
(We have already used P earlier.)
4. Evaluate Q(1). Q (1) = 1 + 4 − 3 − 2
Q(1) = 0, so (x − 1) is a factor. =0
So, (x − 1) is a factor.
5. Divide (x − 1) into Q(x) using long division to
x2 + 5x + 2
determine a quadratic factor.
x−1 x3
+ 4x2 − 3x − 2
x3 − x2
5x2 − 3x
5x2 − 5x
2x − 2
2x − 2
0
6. Write the original polynomial P(x) as a P(x) = −2(x − 1)(x2 + 5x + 2)
product of the factors found so far.
In this case, it is not possible to further
factorise P(x).
• Note: In some of these examples, P(x) may have been factorised without long division by finding all three
values of x that make P(x) = 0 (and hence the three factors).
14.7.2 Using short division, or by inspection

eles-4982
• Short division, or factorising by inspection, is a quicker method than long division.
• Consider P (x) = x3 + 2x2 − 13x + 10
Using the factor theorem:
P (1) = 0 so (x − 1) is a factor.
∴ P (x) = (x − 1) Q
( (x), where Q) (x) is the quadratic quotient.
2
so, P (x) = (x − 1) ax + bx + c
Expanding and equating:
Term in x3 : (x − 1) ax2 + bx + c Equating with P (x):

x × ax2 ax3 = x3
∴ a=1
Terms in x2 : (x − 1) ax2 + bx + c Equating with P (x):
−1 × ax2 + bx2 −1 × 1x2 + bx2 = 2x2
−1 + b = 2
∴ b=3
Constant term: (x − 1) ax2 + bx + c Equating with P (x):
−1 × c −c = 10
∴ c = −10

( )
∴ P (x) = (x − 1) x2 + 3x − 10
Factorising the quadratic gives:
P (x) = (x − 1) (x + 5) (x − 2)
• Note: In this example, the values of a and c can be seen simply by inspecting P (x).
( )
Hence, P (x) = (x − 1) x2 + bx − 10 , leaving only the value of b unknown.
• The following worked example is a repeat of a previous one, but explains the use of short, rather than
long, division.
WORKED EXAMPLE 11 Factorising using short division
Use short division to factorise x3 − 5x2 − 2x + 24.

THINK WRITE
1. Name the polynomial. Let P(x) = x3 − 5x2 − 2x + 24
2. Look for a value of x such that P(x) = 0. P (−2) = (−2)3 − 5 × (−2)2 − 2 × (−2) + 24
Try P(−2). = −8 − 20 + 4 + 24
= −28 + 28
=0
P(−2) does equal 0, so (x + 2) is a factor. So, (x + 2) is a factor.
( )
3. Look again at the original and equate the x3 − 5x2 − 2x + 24 = (x + 2) ax2 + bx + c
factorised form to the expanded form. ( )
= (x + 2) x2 + bx + 12
The values of a and c can be determined
simply by inspection.
Since the coefficient of the x3 term is 1, a = 1.
Since the constant term is 24, c = 12.
4. Expand the brackets and equate the x3 − 5x2 − 2x + 24 = x3 + bx2 + 12x + 2x2 + 2bx + 24
2
coefficients of the x terms. We can then −5x2 = bx2 + 2x2
solve for b.
−5x2 = (b + 2) x2
b + 2 = −5
b = −7
( )
P(x) = (x + 2) x2 − 7x + 12
5. Factorise the expression in the second pair P(x) = (x + 2)(x − 3)(x − 4)

of brackets if possible.


On a Calculator page, press: On the Main screen, tap:
• MENU • Action
• 2: Number • Transformation
• 3: Factor • factor
Complete the entry lines as: • factor
factor (x3 − 5x2 − 2x + 24) Complete the entry line as:
Then press ENTER. factor
(x3 − 5x2 − 2x + 24)
Then press EXE.
x3 − 5x2 − 2x + 24
= (x − 4)(x − 3)(x + 2)
x3 − 5x2 − 2x + 24
= (x + 2)(x − 3)(x − 4)
Resources
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Digital document SkillSHEET Factorising quadratic trinomials (doc-5368)
Exercise 14.7 Factorising polynomials

Individual pathways
1, 2, 8, 11, 15, 18 3, 4, 5, 9, 12, 16, 19 6, 7, 10, 13, 14, 17, 20
Fluency
WE10 For question 1 to 7 apply long division to factorise each dividend.
1. a. x + 1 x3 + 10x2 + 27x + 18 b. x + 2 x3 + 8x2 + 17x + 10
2. a. x + 9 x3 + 12x2 + 29x + 18 b. x + 1 x3 + 8x2 + 19x + 12
3. a. x + 3 x3 + 14x2 + 61x + 84 b. x + 7 x3 + 12x2 + 41x + 42
4. a. x + 2 x3 + 4x2 + 5x + 2 b. x + 3 x3 + 7x2 + 16x + 12
5. a. x + 5 x3 + 14x2 + 65x + 100 b. x x3 + 13x2 + 40x
6. a. x x3 + 7x2 + 12x b. x + 5 x3 + 10x2 + 25x

7. a. x + 1 x3 + 6x2 + 5x b. x + 6 x3 + 6x2
WE11 For questions 8 to 10, factorise the following as fully as possible.

8. a. x3 + x2 − x − 1 b. x3 − 2x2 − x + 2 c. x3 + 7x2 + 11x + 5 d. x3 + x2 − 8x − 12
9. a. x3 + 9x2 + 24x + 16 b. x3 − 5x2 − 4x + 20 c. x3 + 2x2 − x − 2 d. x3 − 7x − 6
10. a. x3 + 8x2 + 17x + 10 b. x3 + x2 − 9x − 9 c. x3 − x2 − 8x + 12 d. x3 + 9x2 − 12x − 160
Understanding
For questions 11 to 14, factorise as fully as possible.
11. a. 2x3 + 5x2 − x − 6
b. 3x3 + 14x2 + 7x − 4
c. 3x3 + 2x2 − 12x − 8
d. 4x3 + 35x2 + 84x + 45
12. a. x3 + x2 + x + 1
b. 4x3 + 16x2 + 21x + 9
c. 6x3 − 23x2 + 26x − 8
d. 7x3 + 12x2 − 60x + 16
13. a. 3x3 − x2 − 10x b. 4x3 + 2x2 − 2x c. 3x3 − 6x2 − 24x d. −2x3 − 12x2 − 18x
14. a. −x3 − 7x2 − 12x b. −x3 − 3x2 + x + 3 c. −2x3 + 10x2 − 12x d. −5x3 + 24x2 − 36x + 16
Reasoning
15. Factorise x4 − 9x2 − 4x + 12.
16. Factorise −x5 + 6x4 + 11x3 − 84x2 − 28x + 240.
17. Two of the factors of x3 + px2 + qx + r are (x + a) and (x + b). Determine the third factor.
Problem solving
18. Factorise x5 − 5x4 + 5x3 + 5x2 − 6x.
19. (x − 1) and (x − 2) are known to be factors of x5 + ax4 − 2x3 + bx2 + x − 2. Determine the values of a and b
and hence fully factorise this fifth-degree polynomial.
20. The polynomial x4 − 6x3 + 13x2 − 12x − 32 has three factors, one of which is x2 − 3x + 8. Evaluate the other
two factors.

14.8 Solving polynomial equations

LEARNING INTENTION
• solve polynomial equations by applying the Null Factor Law.
14.8.1 Solving polynomial equations

eles-4983
• To solve the polynomial equation of the form P (x) = 0:
Step 1: factorise P (x)

Step 2: apply the Null Factor Law
Step 3: state the solutions.
• The Null Factor Law applies to polynomial equations just as it does for quadratics.
• If P (x) is of degree n , then P (x) = 0 has up to n solutions.
Solving each of these equations produces the solutions (roots).
x=a x=b x = c.
• If P(x) = k(lx − a)(mx − b)(nx − c) = 0, then the solutions can be found as follows. Let each factor = 0:
lx − a = 0 mx − b = 0 nx − c = 0
Solving each of these equations produces the solutions.

Note: The coefficient k used in this example does not produce a solution because k ≠ 0.
a b c
x= x= x= .
l m n
WORKED EXAMPLE 12 Solving polynomial equations
Solve:
a. x3 = 9x b. −2x3 + 4x2 + 70x = 0 c. 2x3 − 11x2 + 18x − 9 = 0.
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Write the equation. a. x3 = 9x
2. Rearrange so all terms are on the left. x3 − 9x = 0
3. Take out a common factor of x. x(x2 − 9) = 0
4. Factorise the quadratic expression using the x(x + 3)(x − 3) = 0
difference of two squares.
5. Use the Null Factor Law to solve. x = 0, x + 3 = 0 or x − 3 = 0
6. Write the values of x. x = 0, x = −3 or x = 3
b. 1. Write the equation. b. −2x3 + 4x2 + 70x = 0
2. Take out a common factor of −2x. −2x(x2 − 2x − 35) = 0
3. Factorise the quadratic expression. −2x(x − 7)(x + 5) = 0
4. Use the Null Factor Law to solve. −2x = 0, x − 7 = 0 or x + 5 = 0
5. Write the values of x. x = 0, x = 7 or x = −5

c. 1. Name the polynomial. c. Let P(x) = 2x3 − 11x2 + 18x − 9.
2. Use the factor theorem to determine a factor P (1) = 2 − 11 + 18 − 9

(search for a value a such that P(a) = 0). =0
Consider factors of the constant term (that So (x − 1) is a factor.
is, factors of 9 such as 1 and 3). The simplest
value to try is 1.
3. Use long or short division to determine
2 x2 − 9x + 9
another factor of P(x).
x − 1 2 x3 − 11 x2 + 18x − 9
2 x3 − 2 x2
−9 x2 + 18x
−9 x2 + 9x
9x − 9
9x − 9
0
P(x) = (x − 1)(2x2 + 9x − 9)
4. Factorise the quadratic factor. P(x) = (x − 1)(2x − 3)(x − 3)
(x − 1)(2x − 3)(x − 3) = 0
5. Use the Null Factor Law to solve. x − 1 = 0, 2x − 3 = 0 or x − 3 = 0
3
6. Write the values of x. x = 1, x = or x = 3
2
Resources
Resourceseses
Digital documents SkillSHEET Factorising difference of two squares expressions (doc-5369)
SkillSHEET Solving quadratic equations (doc-5370)
Exercise 14.8 Solving polynomial equations

Individual pathways
1, 5, 8, 10, 14, 17 2, 6, 9, 11, 12, 15, 18 3, 4, 7, 13, 16, 19
Fluency
WE12a,b For questions 1 to 4, solve the following.
1. a. x3 − 4x = 0 b. x3 − 16x = 0 c. 2x3 − 50x = 0
2. a. −3x3 + 81 = 0 b. x3 + 5x2 = 0 c. x3 − 2x2 = 0
3. a. −4x3 + 8x = 0 b. 12x3 + 3x2 = 0 c. 4x2 − 20x3 = 0

4. a. x3 − 5x2 + 6x = 0 b. x3 − 8x2 + 16x = 0 c. x3 + 6x2 = 7x
WE12c For questions 5 to 7, apply the factor theorem to solve the following.
5. a. x − x2 − 16x + 16 = 0
3
b. x3 − 6x2 − x + 30 = 0
c. x3 − x2 − 25x + 25 = 0 d. x3 + 4x2 − 4x − 16 = 0
6. a. x3 − 4x2 + x + 6 = 0 b. x3 − 4x2 − 7x + 10 = 0
c. x3 + 6x2 + 11x + 6 = 0 d. x3 − 6x2 − 15x + 100 = 0
7. a. x3 − 3x2 − 6x + 8 = 0 b. x3 + 2x2 − 29x + 42 = 0

c. 2x3 + 15x2 + 19x + 6 = 0 d. −4x3 + 16x2 − 9x − 9 = 0

Select a solution to x3 − 7x2 + 2x + 40 = 0 from the following.
A. 5 B. −4 C. −2 D. 1 E. 3
9. MC A solution of x3 − 9x2 + 15x + 25 = 0 is x = 5. Select the number of other (distinct) solutions there are.
A. 0 B. 1 C. 2 D. 3 E. 4
Understanding
10. Solve P(x) = 0 for each of the following.
a. P(x) = x3 + 4x2 − 3x − 18 b. P(x) = 3x3 − 13x2 − 32x + 12
c. P(x) = −x3 + 12x − 16 d. P(x) = 8x3 − 4x2 − 32x − 20
11. Solve P(x) = 0 for each of the following.

a. P(x) = x4 + 2x3 − 13x2 − 14x + 24 b. P(x) = −72 − 42x + 19x2 + 7x3 − 2x4
c. P(x) = x4 + 2x3 − 7x2 − 8x + 12 d. P (x) = 4x4 + 12x3 − 24x2 − 32x

a. x3 − 3x2 − 6x + 8 = 0 b. x3 + x2 − 9x − 9 = 0 c. 3x4 + 3x3 − 18x = 0

a. 2x4 + 10x3 − 4x2 − 48x = 0 b. 2x4 + x3 − 14x2 − 4x + 24 = 0 c. x4 − 2x3 + 1 = 0
Reasoning
14. Solve for a if x = 2 is a solution of ax3 − 6x2 + 3x − 4 = 0.
p
15. Solve for p if x = is a solution of x3 − 5x2 + 2x + 8 = 0.
2
16. Show that it is possible for a cuboid of side lengths x cm, (x − 1) cm and (x + 2) cm to have a volume that is
4 cm3 less than twice the volume of a cube of side length x cm. Comment on the shape of such a cuboid.
Problem solving
17. Solve the following equation for x.
x3 + 8 = x(5x − 2)
18. Solve the following equation for x.
( )
2 x3 + 5 = 13x (x − 1)
19. Solve the following equation for z.
z(z − 1)3 = −2(z3 − 5z2 + z + 3)

14.9 Review
Polynomials The remainder theorem
• Polynomials are expressions with only non-negative • When P(x) is divided by (x – a), the remainder, R,
integer powers. is given by:
• The degree of a polynomial is the highest power of R = P(a)
the variable that it contains. e.g.
• The leading term is the term with highest power of The remainder when P(x) = 2x3 + 3x2 – 4x – 5 is
the variable. divided by (x + 2) is P(–2).
P(–2) = 2(–2)3 + 3(–2)2 – 4(–2) – 5
• Polynomials are often denoted P(x). = 2(–8) + 3(4) + 8 – 5
• The value of a polynomial can be determined by = –16 + 12 + 8 – 5
substituting the x-value into the expression. = –1
e.g. P(x) = x4 – 3x2 + 8 is a monic
x2
term is –3 and the constant term is 8.
POLYNOMIALS
Factorising polynomials
• The factor theorem states the following:
Operations on polynomials
If P(a) = 0, then (x – a) is a factor of P(x).
• To add or subtract polynomials simply add or subtract
like terms. other factors can be found using the
e.g. methods used to factorise quadratics.
(2x3 – 5x + 1) + (–6x3 + 8x2 + 3x – 11) e.g.
= (2x3 – 6x3 ) + 8x2 + (–5x + 3x) + (1 – 11) P(x) = x3 – 2x2 – 5x + 6
= –4x3 + 8x 2 – 2x – 10 P(1) = (1)3 – 2(1)2 – 5(1) + 6
• To multiply polynomials use the same methods as with =1–2–5+6
quadratic expressions. Use FOIL and then simplify. =0
• For polynomials of degree 3 and higher you may need Therefore, (x – 1) is a factor of P (x).
to use FOIL multiple times. P(x) = (x – 1)(x2 – x – 6)
e.g. = (x – 1)(x – 3)(x + 2)
(x + 3)(x – 1)(2x + 4) = (x + 3)(2x2 + 4x – 2x – 4)
= (x + 3)(2x2 + 2x – 4)
= 2x3 + 2x2 – 4x + 6x2 + 6x – 12
= 2x3 + 8x2 + 2x – 12 Solving polynomial equations
• To solve a polynomial equation:
1. express in the form P(x) = 0
2. factorise P(x)
Long division 3. solve using the Null Factor Law.
• Polynomials can be divided using long division. e.g.
• The example below shows the division of 2x3 + 7x2 = 9
P(x) = x3 + 2x2 – 13x + 10 by x – 3.
3
2x + 7x2 – 9 = 0
x3 + 5x + 2 Quotient Let P(x) = 2x3 + 7x2 – 9.
x – 3⟌ x + 2x2 – 13x + 10
3 P(1) = 2(1)3 + 7(1)2 – 9
x3 – 3x =2+7–9
5x2 – 13x =0
5x2 – 15x Therefore, (x – 1) is a factor of P (x).
P(x) = (x – 1)(2x2 + 9x + 9)
2x + 10
= (x – 1)(2x – 3)(x + 3)
2x – 6
16 Remainder Using the Null Factor Law:
• The result is: 3
x = 1, x = – – or x = –3
P(x) = (x – 3)(x2 + 5x + 2) + 16 2


14.2 I can identify polynomial expressions.
I can state the degree, leading term and leading coefficient of a

polynomial.
14.3 I can add, subtract and multiply polynomial expressions.
14.4 I can divide polynomials by linear expressions using long division.
I can determine the quotient and remainder when dividing polynomials by

linear expressions.
14.5 I can determine the value of a polynomial for a given value.
14.6 I can identify factors of polynomials using the factor theorem.
14.7 I can factorise polynomials using long division.
I can factorise polynomials using short division or inspection.
14.8 I can solve polynomial equations by applying the Null Factor Law.
14.9.3 Project
Investigating polynomials
A polynomial is a function involving the sum of integer powers of a variable (for example,
y = −4x3 + 3x2 − 4). The highest power of the variable determines the degree of the polynomial. In the case
of the given example, the degree is 3.
A polynomial of the first degree is a linear function (for example, y = 3x − 8), and a second-degree function
is a quadratic (for example, y = 5x2 − 6x + 7). Let us investigate how the degree of a polynomial affects the
shape of its graph.

In order to simplify the graphing of these functions, the polynomials will be expressed in factor form. A
graphics calculator or some other digital technology will make the graphing process less tedious.
It will be necessary to adjust the window of the calculator from time to time in order to capture the relevant
features of the graph.
1. Consider the following polynomials.
a. y1 = (x + 1)
b. y2 = (x + 1)(x − 2)
c. y3 = (x + 1)(x − 2)(x + 3)
d. y4 = (x + 1)(x − 2)(x + 3)(x − 4)
e. y5 = (x + 1)(x − 2)(x + 3)(x − 4)(x + 5)
f. y6 = (x + 1)(x − 2)(x + 3)(x − 4)(x + 5)(x − 6)
For each of the functions:

i. give the degree of the polynomial
ii. sketch the graph, marking in the x-intercepts
iii. describe how the degree of the polynomial affects the shape of the graph.
Complete question 1 on a separate sheet of paper.
2. Let us now look at the effect that the exponent of each factor has on the shape of the graph of the
polynomial. Consider the following functions.
a. y1 = (x + 1)(x − 2)(x + 3)
2
b. y2 = (x + 1) (x − 2)(x + 3)
2 2
c. y3 = (x + 1) (x − 2) (x + 3)
2 3
d. y4 = (x + 1) (x − 2)(x + 3)
3 4
e. y5 = (x + 1) (x − 2)(x + 3)
5 3 2
f. y6 = (x + 1) (x − 2) (x + 3)
i. On a separate sheet of paper, draw a sketch of each of the polynomials, marking in the x-intercepts.
ii. Explain how the power of the factor affects the behaviour of the graph at the x-intercept.
3. Create and draw a sketch of polynomials with the following given characteristics. Complete your graphs
on a separate sheet of paper.
a. A first-degree polynomial that:
i. crosses the x-axis ii. does not cross the x-axis.
b. A second-degree polynomial that:
i. crosses the x-axis twice ii. touches the x-axis at one and only one point.
c. A third-degree polynomial that crosses the x-axis:
i. three times ii. twice iii. once.
d. A fourth-degree polynomial that crosses the x-axis:
i. four times ii. three times iii. twice iv. once.
4. Considering the powers of factors of polynomials, write a general statement outlining the conditions
under which the graph of a polynomial will pass through the x-axis or just touch the x-axis.
Resources
Resourceseses


Fluency
1. MC Select which of the following is not a polynomial.
x2 √
A. x3 − + 7x − 1 B. a4 + 4a3 + 2a + 2 C. x2 + 3x + 2
3
D. 5 E. 2x2 + 4x − 8
1
2. Consider the polynomial y = − x4 + x5 + 3.
7
a. State the degree of y.
b. State the coefficient of x4 .
c. State the constant term.
d. Determine the leading term.
3. MC The expansion of (x + 5)(x + 1)(x − 6) is:

3
A. x − 30 B. x3 + 12x2 − 31x + 30 C. x3 − 31x − 30
3 2
D. x + 5x − 36x − 30 E. x3 − 31x2 − 30
4. MC x3 + 5x2 + 3x − 9 is the expansion of:

3 2
A. (x + 3) B. x(x + 3)(x − 3) C. (x − 1)(x + 3)
D. (x − 1)(x + 1)(x + 3) E. (x − 1)(x + 3)
5. Expand each of the following.

2 3
a. (x − 2) (x + 10) b. (x + 6)(x − 1)(x + 5) c. (x − 7) d. (5 − 2x)(1 + x)(x + 2)
6. MC Consider the following long division.

x2 + x + 2
x − 4 x3+ 5x2 + 6 x − 1
x3 + 4x2
x2 + 6x
x2 + 4x
2x − 1
2x + 8
−9
a. The quotient is:
A. −9 B. 9 C. x + 4 D. x2 + x + 2 E. x2 + 2
b. The remainder is:
A. −9 B. 2 C. 4 D. 2x − 1 E. 6
7. Determine the quotient and remainder when the first polynomial is divided by the second in each case.
a. x3 + 2x2 − 16x − 3, (x + 2) b. x3 + 3x2 − 13x − 7, (x − 3) c. −x3 + x2 + 4x − 7, (x + 1)
8. MC If P(x) = x3 − 3x2 + 7x + 1, then P(−2) equals:

A. −34 B. −33 C. −9 D. 9 E. 33

9. If P(x) = −3x3 + 2x2 + x − 4, calculate:

a. P(1) b. P(−4) c. P(2a)
10. Without dividing, determine the remainder when x3 + 3x2 − 16x + 5 is divided by (x − 1).
11. Show that (x + 3) is a factor of x3 − 2x2 − 29x − 42.
12. Factorise x3 + 4x2 − 100x − 400.
13. Solve:
2
a. (2x + 1)(x − 3) = 0 b. x3 − 9x2 + 26x − 24 = 0 c. x4 − 4x3 − x2 + 16x − 12 = 0
Problem solving
14. Let P(x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + … + a1 x + a0 be a polynomial where the coefficients are integers. Also let
P(w) = 0 where w is an integer. Show that w is a factor of a0 .
15. Evaluate the area of a square whose sides are (2x − 3) cm. Expand and simplify your answer. If the area
is 16 cm2 , determine the value of x.
16. A window is in the shape of a semicircle above a rectangle. The

height of the window is (6x + 1) cm and its width is (2x + 2) cm.
a. Evaluate the total area of the window.
b. Expand and simplify your answer.
c. Determine the perimeter of the window.

a. Determine the volume of a cube of side (x + 4) cm.
b. Evaluate the surface area of the cube.
c. Determine the value of x for which the volume and surface are numerically equal.
d. Calculate the value of x if the numerical value of the volume is 5 less than the numerical value of the
surface area.
18. Determine the quotient and remainder when mx2 + nx + q is divided by (x − p).
19. When P(x) is divided by (x − n), the quotient is x2 − 2x + n and

the remainder is (n + 1). Evaluate the value of P(x).

eWorkbook
Download the workbook for this topic, which includes
worksheets, a code puzzle and a project (ewbk-2040) ⃞
Solutions
Digital documents
14.3 SkillSHEET Expanding the product of two linear factors
(doc-5366) ⃞
14.5 SkillSHEET Substitution into quadratic equations
(doc-5367) ⃞
14.7 SkillSHEET Factorising quadratic trinomials (doc-5368) ⃞
14.8 SkillSHEET Factorising difference of two squares
expressions (doc-5369) ⃞
SkillSHEET Solving quadratic equations (doc-5370) ⃞
Video eLessons
14.2 Polynomials (eles-4975) ⃞
14.3 Operations with polynomials (eles-4976) ⃞
14.4 Long division of polynomials (eles-4977) ⃞
14.5 Polynomial values (eles-4978) ⃞
14.6 The remainder theorem (eles-4979) ⃞
The factor theorem (eles-4980) ⃞
14.7 Using long division (eles-4981) ⃞
Using short division, or by inspection (eles-4982) ⃞
14.8 Solving polynomial equations (eles-4983) ⃞
Interactivities
14.2 Degrees of polynomials (int-6203) ⃞
14.3 Adding and subtracting polynomials (int-6204) ⃞
14.4 Long division of polynomials (int-2793) ⃞
Teacher resources
online.

Answers 13. a. 5 units to the right of the origin

4 units to the right of the origin
b.
Topic 14 Polynomials c. The body moves towards the origin, then away.
14. a = 1, b = −4
15. a = 4, b = − 6
1. a. 2 b. 3 c. 1 d. 0
16. a = ±3, b = ±2
2. A
3. a = 2, b = −1 Exercise 14.3 Adding, subtracting and
4. D multiplying polynomials
5. A 1. a. x4 + 2x3 − x2 − 10
6. a. 3 b. −3 c. −1 d. 2 b. x6 + 2x4 − 3x3 + 9x2 + 5
7. A c. 5x3 − 5x2 + 7x − 13
8. x2 + x d. 2x4 + 3x3 + 12x2 − 4x + 14
9. 9 e. x5 + 13x4 − 10
10. 18 2. a. x4 + 2x2 + 2x + 4 6 5 3 2
b. x − x + x + x + 2
11. E c. 5x7 − 4x3 + 5x 4 2
d. 10x − 7x + 20x + 5
12. b=2 e. 2x3 + 6x2 − 10x + 15
13. B 3. a. x3 + 7x2 + 6x b. x3 − 7x2 − 18x
3 2 3 2
14. C c. x + 8x − 33x d. 2x + 10x + 12x
1 3
e. 48x − 3x
15. x = −1, − or − 6
2 4. a. 5x3 + 50x2 + 80x b. x3 + 4x2
Exercise 14.2 Polynomials c. 2x3 − 14x2 d. −30x3 − 270x2
3 2
e. −7x − 56x − 112x
1. a. i. 3 ii. x
5. a. x3 + 12x2 + 41x + 42 b. x3 − 3x2 − 18x + 40
b. i. 7 ii. x 3 2 3 2
c. x + 3x − 36x + 32 d. x − 6x + 11x − 6
c. i. 2 ii. x 3 2
e. x + 6x − x − 6
2. a. i. 6 ii. x 6. a. x3 + 5x2 − 49x − 245 b. x3 + 4x2 − 137x − 660
b. i. 8 ii. y c. x3 + 3x2 − 9x + 5 d. x3 − 12x2 + 21x + 98
3 2
c. i. 5 ii. u e. x + x − x − 1
3. a. i. 5 ii. e 7. a. x3 + 13x2 + 26x − 112

b. i. 1 ii. g b. 3x3 + 26x2 + 51x − 20
c. i. 6 ii. f c. 4x4 + 3x3 − 37x2 − 27x + 9
d. 10x3 − 49x2 + 27x + 36
4. a. Polynomial 3b b. Polynomial 1c
c. Polynomial 1a d. Polynomials 1a, 2a and 2b e. −6x3 − 71x2 − 198x + 35
8. a. 21x4 − 54x3 − 144x2 + 96x
5. a. N b. P c. P
b. 54x3 + 117x2 − 72x
6. a. N b. N c. P
c. 24x3 − 148x2 + 154x + 245
7. a. P b. N c. N d. 20x4 − 39x3 − 50x2 + 123x − 54
8. a. 3 b. x c. 4 e. 4x3 + 42x2 + 146x + 168
d. 5 e. 3x f. −2x3 9. a. x3 + 6x2 + 12x + 8 3 2
b. x + 15x + 75x + 125
9. a. 7 b. w c. 7 c. x3 − 3x2 + 3x − 1
d. 0 e. −9 f. 6w7 10. a. x4 − 12x3 + 54x2 − 108x + 81
4 3 2
10. a. 4 b. 1 c. x d. 1 b. 8x − 72x + 216x − 216
4 3 2
11. a.
3 2
4x + 2x − 10x + 18 b. 3x − 3x − x2 + 7x − 7
4 3 c. 81x + 432x + 864x + 768x + 256
3 2
c. 5x − 4x − 13x − 6 11. (2a + 5b)x + (2b − 5c)
4 3 2 2
12. a. 6 12. x + (a − 4b)x + (2a − 4ab + 3b )x +
b. t (2a2 − 2ab + 3ab2 )x − 2a2 b
c. 6 13. a = 1, b = −12, c = 54, d = −108, e = 81
d. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions 14. 8x3 − 45x2 + 78x − 43
15. (11x3 − 105x2 + 73x − 27)
e. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions 8
in the online resources. 16. a = 2, b = 3

17. a = 1, b = −2 and c = 1 7. a. 4 b. 15 c. 0
18. a = 1, b = 4 and c = −1 d. 4 e. 15 f. 0
8. a. 10 b. 28 c. −8
Exercise 14.4 Long division of polynomials d. 10 e. 28 f. −8
1. a. x2 + 2x, 9 b. x2 + x + 3, −2 9. a. 3 b. 11 c. −21
2 2
c. x + 3x − 6, 19 d. x − x + 5, −17 d. 3 e. 11 f. −21
2. a. x2 + 4x − 6, 14 b. x2 + 1, 2 10. a. −7 b. 5 c. −7
2 2
c. x + 5, −36 d. x − x + 6, −11 d. −7 e. 5 f. −7
3. a. x2 + 4x + 3, −3 b. x2 + 4x + 13, 48 11. a. P(−8) b. P(7) c. P(a)
c. x2 + 3x − 3, −11 d. x2 − 3x + 7, 5 12. a. −1 b. −6249 c. 2(a − 3)5 + 1
2 2
4. a. x − 2x − 3, −17 b. x − 6x + 3, −4 13. a. −2a3 − 3a2 + a + 4 b. −2a3 − 9a2 − 11a − 1
c. x2 + 14x + 72, 359 d. x2 + 8x + 27, 104
14. b = 1, 4
5. a. 3x2 − 7x + 20, −35 b. 4x2 − 8x + 18, −22 15. c=8
2
c. 2x − 3x + 3, 7
16. c = 2
6. a. 2x2 − 9, 35 b. 4x2 + 2x − 3, −1 17. b = −2, c = 5
2
c. 3x + x − 1, −2
7. a. 3x2 − 2x + 1, 5 b. 2x2 + 5x − 6, −7 Exercise 14.6 The remainder and factor

2
c. 4x − 7x − 2, −3 theorems
8. a. x2 − 4x + 3, 8 b. x2 + x − 6, −11 1. a. −30 b. 0 c. 0 d. −24
2
c. 3x + 2x + 1, 13 2. a. −24 3 2
b. k + 3k − 10k − 24
9. a. −x2 − 5x − 2, −14 b. −3x2 − 2x + 4, −3 c. −n3 + 3n2 + 10n − 24 d. −27c3 + 27c2 + 30c − 24
2 2
c. −x + 5x + 6, 9 d. −2x + 7x − 1, 1 3. a. 58 b. −8
2 2
10. a. x − x − 2, 3 b. x , −7 4. a. 11 b. −9
c. x2 − x − 2, −8 d. −x2 − x − 8, 0
5. a. 158 b. 6
11. a. 5x − 2, 7 b. 2x2 − 2x + 10, −54 6. a. 35 b. −6
2 2
c. −2x − 4x − 9, −16 d. −2x + 4x − 1, 1
7. a. −202 b. 441
12. a. x3 + 2x2 + 5x − 2, −2
3 2 8. 6
b. x + 2x − 9x − 18, 0
4 3 2 9. 3
c. x − 3x + 6x − 18x + 58, −171
5 4 3 2 10. 1
13. a. 2x − 4x + 7x − 13x + 32x − 69, 138
3 2 11. −2
b. 6x + 17x + 53x + 155, 465
7 2 7 20 20 12. 2
3
c. x − x + x + 3 , −3 13. 2
3 9 27 27
14. Quotient: x3 − 4x2 + 8x − 12 14. −5, 2
Remainder: (a + 72) 15. a = −5, b = −3
15. Quotient = ax + (b + ad) 16. a. D b. C, D c. D d. A, C, D
Remainder = Rc + d(b + ad) 17. a. (x − 1) b. (x − 3) or (x − 2)
2p c. (x − 3) or (x + 2) d. (x − 6) or (x + 4) or (x + 5)
16. q=
c 18. a–d. Sample responses can be found in the worked
17. a = −3 solutions in the online resources.
18. a=6 19. a–d. Sample responses can be found in the worked
19. a = 3, b = −5 solutions in the online resources.
Exercise 14.5 Polynomial values the online resources.
1. a. 10 b. 11 21. a=2
2. a. 18 b. 43 22. a = 3, b = 2
3. a. 3 b. −22 23. a = −5, b = 41, (x + 3) and (x − 5)
4. a. −77 b.
3 2
2a − 3a + 2a + 10 24. k = –4
3 2
5. a. 16b − 12b + 4b + 10 Exercise 14.7 Factorising polynomials
2x3 + 9x2 + 14x + 18
b.
1. a. (x + 1)(x + 3)(x + 6) b. (x + 1)(x + 2)(x + 5)
3 2
6. a. 2x − 21x + 74x − 77
3 2
2. a. (x + 1)(x + 2)(x + 9) b. (x + 1)(x + 3)(x + 4)
b. −128y − 48y − 8y + 10

1
10. a. −3, 2 b. −2, , 6
3. a. (x + 3)(x + 4)(x + 7) b. (x + 2)(x + 3)(x + 7) 3
4. a. (x + 1)2 (x + 2) b. (x + 2)2 (x + 3) 5
c. −4, 2 d. −1,
2
5. a. (x + 4)(x + 5)2 b. x(x + 5)(x + 8)
3
6. a. x(x + 3)(x + 4) b. x(x + 5)2 11. a. −4, −2, 1, 3 b. −2, − , 3, 4
2
2
7. a. x(x + 1)(x + 5) b. x (x + 6) c. −3, −2, 1, 2 d. −4, −1, 0, 2
2
8. a. (x − 1)(x + 1) b. (x − 2)(x − 1)(x + 1) 12. a. −2, 1, 4 b. −3, −1, 3 c. −3, 0, 2
2 2
c. (x + 1) (x + 5) d. (x − 3)(x + 2) 3
13. a. −4, −3, 0, 2 b. −2, , 2 c. −1, 1
9. a. (x + 1)(x + 4)2 b. (x − 5)(x − 2)(x + 2) 2
c. (x − 1)(x + 1)(x + 2) d. (x − 3)(x + 1)(x + 2) 14. 2.75
10. a. (x + 1)(x + 2)(x + 5) b. (x − 3)(x + 1)(x + 3) 15. −2, 4, 8
c. (x − 2)2 (x + 3) d. (x − 4)(x + 5)(x + 8) 16. x = 1.48 (to 2 decimal places)
11. a. (2x + 3)(x − 1)(x + 2) b. (3x − 1)(x + 1)(x + 4) 17. x = −1, 4 and 2
c. (3x + 2)(x − 2)(x + 2) d. (4x + 3)(x + 3)(x + 5) −1
18. x= , 2, 5
12. a. (x + 1)(x2 + 1) b. (x + 1)(2x + 3)
2 2
19. z = −1, 1, −2 and 3
c. (x − 2)(2x − 1)(3x − 4) d. (7x − 2)(x − 2)(x + 4)
13. a. x(x − 2)(3x + 5) b. 2x(x + 1)(2x − 1) Project
c. 3x(x − 4)(x + 2) d. −2x(x + 3)2 1. a. i. 1
14. a. −x(x + 4)(x + 3) b. −(x − 1)(x + 1)(x + 3) ii. y
2
c. −2x(x − 3)(x − 2) d. −(x − 2) (5x − 4)
15. (x − 1)(x + 2)(x + 2)(x − 3)
16. −(x − 2)(x + 2)(x + 3)(x − 4)(x − 5)
0 x
17. (x − p + (a + b)) –1
18. x(x − 1)(x + 1)(x − 2)(x − 3)
19. a = −2, b = 4, (x − 1)2 (x + 1)2 (x − 2) The graph is linear and crosses the x-axis once
iii.
(at x = −1).
20. The other two factors are (x − 4) and (x + 1).
b. i. 2
Exercise 14.8 Solving polynomial equations ii. y
1. a. −2, 0, 2 b. −4, 0, 4 c. −5, 0, 5

2. a. 3 b. −5, 0 c. 0, 2
√ √ 1 1 0
2
x
3. a. − 2, 0, 2 b. − , 0 c. 0, –1
4 5
4. a. 0, 2, 3 b. 0, 4 c. −7, 0, 1 The graph is quadratic and crosses the x-axis twice
iii.
5. a. −4, 1, 4 b. −2, 3, 5 (at x = −1 and x = 2).
c. −5, 1, 5 d. −4, −2, 2 c. i. 3
6. a. −1, 2, 3 b. −2, 1, 5 ii. y

c. −3, −2, −1 d. −4, 5
7. a. −2, 1, 4 b. −7, 2, 3 x
1 1 3 –3 –1 0 2
c. −6, − , −1 d. − , , 3
2 2 2
8. A, C
The graph is a curve and crosses the x-axis 3 times
iii.
9. B (at x = −1, x = 2 and x = −3).
d. i. 4
ii. y
x
–3 –1 0 2 4
iii. The graph is a curve and crosses the x-axis 4 times

(at x = −1, x = 2, x = −3 and x = 4).

e. i. 5 e. i. y
ii. y
0 x
x 2
–5 –3 –10
–3 –1
2 4
The graph is a curve and crosses the x-axis 5 times

iii. ii. The power 3 on the factor (x + 1) causes the curve
(at x = −1, x = 2, x = −3, x = 4 and x = −5). to run along the axis at x = −1, then cross the axis.
f. i. 6 The power 4 on the factor (x + 3) causes the curve to
ii. y be directed back on itself without crossing the axis at
x = −3.
f. i. y
x
–5 –3 –1 0 2 4 6
iii. The graph is a curve and crosses the x-axis 6 times 0 x

–3 –1 2
(at x = −1, x = 2, x = −3, x = 4, x = −5 and x = 6).
2. a. i. y
ii. The power 5 on the factor (x + 1) causes the curve to
run along the axis at x = −1, then cross the axis.
x 3. Answers will vary. Possible answers could be as follows.
–3 –1 0 2
a. i. y = 3x + 2
ii. y = 4
ii. Each factor is raised to the power 1. The polynomial b. i. y = (x + 1)(x + 2)
is of degree 3 and the graph crosses the x-axis in 3 ii. y = (x + 1)
2
places(−3, −1 and 2). c. i. y = (x + 1)(x + 2)(x + 3)

b. i. y ii. Not possible
2
iii. y = (x + 1) (x + 2)
0 x d. i. y = (x + 1)(x + 2)(x + 3)(x + 4)
–3 –1 2
ii. Not possible
2 3
iii. y = (x + 1) (x + 2)(x + 3), y = (x + 1) (x + 2)
ii. The factor (x + 1) is raised to the power 2 while the
other two factors are raised to the power 1. The power iv. Not possible
2 causes the curve not to cross the x-axis at x = −1 but 4. If the power of the factor of a polynomial is an odd integer,
to be curved back on itself. the curve will pass through the x-axis. If the power is 1, the
c. i. y
curve passes straight through. If the power is 3, 5. . ., the
curve will run along the x-axis before passing through it. On
the other hand, an even power of a factor causes the curve to
just touch the x-axis then move back on the same side of the
x-axis.
0 x
2
–3 –1
ii. The power 2 on the two factors (x + 1) and (x − 2) 1. C
causes the curve to be directed back on itself and not to 1
cross the x-axis at those two points (x = −1 and x = 2). 2. a. 5 b. − c. 3 d. x5
7
d. i. y 3. C
4. C
5. a. x3 + 6x2 − 36x + 40
0 x b. x3 + 10x2 + 19x − 30
–3 –1 2
c. x3 − 21x2 + 147x − 343
d. −2x3 − x2 + 11x + 10
ii. The power 3 on the factor (x + 3) causes the curve to 6. a. D b. A
run along the axis at that point then to cross the axis (at
7. a. x2 − 16, 29 b. x2 + 6x + 5, 8 c. −x2 + 2x + 2, −9
x = −3).
8. B
9. a. −4
b. 216
3 2
c. −24a + 8a + 2a − 4

10. −7
12. (x − 10)(x + 4)(x + 10)
1
13. a. − , 3 b. 2, 3, 4 c. −2, 1, 2, 3
2
14. For example, given P(x) = x3 − x2 − 34x − 56 and
P(7) = 0 ⇒ (x − 7) is a factor and 7 is a factor of 56.
1 7
15. 4x2 − 12x + 9; x = − ,
2 2
1 2 𝜋
16. a. Area = ( 𝜋 + 10)x + (𝜋 + 10)x +
2 2
1 2 𝜋
b. Area = ( 𝜋 + 10)x + (𝜋 + 10)x +
2 2
c. Perimeter = (12 + 𝜋)x + (2 + 𝜋)
3
17. a. (x + 4)
2
b. 6(x + 4)
c. x = 2
√
−3 + 3 5
d. −3,
2
18. mx + (n + mp); q + p(n + mp)
19. x3 − (2 + n)x2 + 3nx − (n2 − n − 1)

“c15FunctionsAndRelations_PrintPDF” — 2021/9/4 — 5:01 — page 931 — #1
10A
Functions and
15 relations
LEARNING SEQUENCE
15.1 Overview ...............................................................................................................................................................932
15.2 Functions and relations .................................................................................................................................. 938
15.3 Exponential functions ...................................................................................................................................... 951
15.4 Cubic functions ..................................................................................................................................................961
15.5 Quartic functions ............................................................................................................................................... 969
15.6 Transformations ................................................................................................................................................. 974
15.7 Review ................................................................................................................................................................... 983
15.1 Overview
Why learn this?
Functions and relations are broad and interesting topics of study.
They are topics with many real-world applications and are very
important topics to understand as you head towards higher studies
in mathematics. You will have already seen some functions and
relations in your maths classes; linear equations, quadratics and
polynomials are all examples of functions, and circles are examples
of relations.
In your previous study of quadratics you learned about graphs with
an x2 term, but have you wondered what a graph would look like
if it had an x3 term or an x4 term? You will be learning about these
and other graphs in this topic. Have you ever heard the phrases
‘exponential growth’ or ‘exponential decay’? In this topic you will
also learn exactly what these phrases mean and how to graph and
interpret various exponential situations.
An understanding of how to apply and use functions and relations is
relevant to many professionals. Medical teams working to map the
spread of diseases, engineers designing complicated structures such
as the Sydney Opera House, graphic designers creating a new logo,
video game designers developing a new map for their game — all
require the use and understanding of functions and relations.
This topic builds on what you already know and extends it into new areas of mathematics. By the end of this
topic you will know all about different types of functions and relations, and how to graph them, interpret them
and transform them.
Where to get help

Fully worked
solutions
eLessons
to every
question
Digital
eWorkbook
documents


1. MC Choose the type of relation that the graph y

represents.
A. One-to-one relation
B. One-to-many relation
C. Many-to-one relation
D. Many-to-many relation 0 x
E. None of these
2. MC A function is a relation that is one-to-one or:

A. many-to-one B. many-to-many
C. one-to-many D. one-to-two
E. none of these
3. MC The graph below is a function.

y
State whether this is true or false.
4. MC Select the correct domain of the relation shown in y

the graph.
10
A. x ∈ R
(2, 8)
B. x ∈ [−1, 2] 8
C. x ∈ [2, 8]
D. x ∈ [0, 8] 6
E. x ∈ [−1, 8]
4
(–1, 2)
2
0 x
–4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4
–2
–4
TOPIC 15 Functions and relations 933

1
5. MC Select the correct range of the function f (x) = + 1.
x−2
A. y ∈ R B. y ∈ R\ {1}
C. y ∈ R\ {−1} D. y ∈ R\ {2}
E. y ∈ R\ {−2}
6. MC Select the correct equation of the inverse function f (x) = (x + 1)2 − 2, x ≤ −1.
√ √
A. f−1 (x) = x + 2 − 1, x ≥ −1 B. f−1 (x) = x + 2 − 1, x ≤ −2
√ √
C. f−1 (x) = − x + 2 − 1, x ≥ −1 D. f−1 (x) = − x + 2 − 1, x ≥ −2
√
E. f−1 (x) = − x − 1 + 2, x ≥ −2
7. MC For a function to have an inverse function, it must be:

A. one-to-one B. one-to-many C. many-to-one
D. many-to-many E. all of these
8. MC Select the correct asymptote for the graph y = 2x−1 + 3.

A. y = −1 B. x = 1 C. x = 3 D. y = 1 E. y = 3
9. MC Select the correct equation for the graph shown. y

2 5
A. y = x(x − 2)
4
B. y = x (x − 2)
2 3
C. y = x(x + 2) 2
D. y = x2 (x − 2) 1
E. y = x2 (x + 2)
0 x
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1
–1 1 2 3 4 5
–2
–3
–4
–5
10. MC The graph of x2 + y2 = 4 is translated 1 unit to the left parallel to the x-axis and 2 units upwards,
parallel to the y-axis.
y
4
3
2
1
0 x
–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 6
–1
–2
–3
–4
Select the new transformed equation.

2 2 2 2 2 2
A. (x + 1) + (y + 2) = 7 B. (x + 1) + (y − 2) = 7 C. (x + 1) + (y + 2) = 4
2 2 2 2
D. (x + 1) + (y − 2) = 4 E. (x − 1) + (y + 2) = 1

( )
11. MC Consider the function f (x) = x2 − 9 (x − 2) (1 − x).
The graph of f (x) is best represented by:
A. y B. y
60 60
50
40 40
30
20 20
10
0 x 0 x
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5
–10
–20 –20
–30
–40 –40
–50
–60 –60
C. y D. y
60 60
40 40
20 20
0 x 0 x
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5
–20 –20
–40 –40
–60 –60
E. y
60
40
20
0 x
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5
–20
–40
–60
12. MC The quartic function has two x-intercepts at −1 and 4 and passes through the point (0, −8).
Select the equation that best represents the function.
1 2 2 1 2 2 1 2 2
A. f (x) = − (x + 1) (x − 4) B. f (x) = (x + 1) (x − 4) C. f (x) = − (x − 1) (x + 4)
2 2 2
2 2 2 2
D. f (x) = −2(x + 1) (x − 4) E. f (x) = 2(x + 1) (x − 4)

13. MC If the graph shown is represented by the equation y = P(x), select the correct graph for the
equation y = P(x − 1).
y
–5
–4
–3
–2
–1
x
–5 –4 –3 –2 –11 1 2 3 4 5
2
3
4
5
A. y B. y
–5 –5
–4 –4
–3 –3
–2 –2
–1 –1
x x
–5 –4 –3 –2 –11 1 2 3 4 5 –5 –4 –3 –2 –11 1 2 3 4 5
2 2
3 3
4 4
5 5
C. y D. y
–5 –5
–4 –4
–3 –3
–2 –2
–1 –1
x x
–5 –4 –3 –2 –11 1 2 3 4 5 –5 –4 –3 –2 –11 1 2 3 4 5
2 2
3 3
4 4
5 5
E. y
–5
–4
–3
–2
–1
x
–5 –4 –3 –2 –11 1 2 3 4 5
2
3
4
5

14. MC If the graph shown is represented by the equation y = P(x), y

select the correct graph for the equation y = −P(x) + 2. 3
2
1
0 x
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1
–1 1 2 3 4 5
–2
–3
A. y B. y
3 3
2 2
1 1
0 x 0 x
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1
–1 1 2 3 4 5 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1
–1 1 2 3 4 5
–2 –2
–3 –3
C. y D. y
3 3
2 2
1 1
0 x 0 x
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1
–1 1 2 3 4 5 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1
–1 1 2 3 4 5
–2 –2
–3 –3
E. y
3
2
1
0 x
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1
–1 1 2 3 4 5
–2
–3
15. MC Consider the sketch of y = P(x) and the graph of a transformation of y = P(x).
y y
3 3
2 2
y = P(x)
1 1
0 x 0 x
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1
–1 1 2 3 4 5 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1
–1 1 2 3 4 5
–2 –2
–3 –3
Select the possible equation in terms of P(x) for the transformation of y = P(x).
A. y = P (x) + 2 B. y = P (x − 2) C. y = P (x + 2) D. y = −P (x) − 2 E. y = −P (x) + 2

15.2 Functions and relations

LEARNING INTENTION
• identify the type of a relation
• determine the domain and range of a function or relation
• identify the points of intersection between two functions
• determine the inverse function of a one-to-one function.
15.2.1 Types of relations

eles-4984
• A relation is defined as a set of ordered pairs (x, y) which are related by a rule expressed as an algebraic
equation. Examples of relations include y = 3x, x2 + y2 = 4 and y = 2x .
• There are four types of relations, which are defined as follows.
Types of relations Definition Example

One-to-one relations • A one-to-one relation exists if for any y
x-value there is only one corresponding
y-value and vice versa.
0 x
One-to-many relations • A one-to-many relation exists if for y

any x-value there is more than one
y-value, but for any y-value there is only
one x-value. 0 x
Many-to-one relations • A many-to-one relation exists if there y

is more than one x-value for any y-value
but for any x-value there is only one
y-value.
0 x
Many-to-many • A many-to-many relation exists if y y
relations there is more than one x-value for any
y-value and vice versa.
0 x 0 x
Determining the type of a relation
To determine the type of a relation:

• Draw a horizontal line through the graph so that it cuts the graph the maximum number of times.
Determine whether the number of cuts is one or many.
• Draw a vertical line through the graph so that it cuts the graph the maximum number of times.
Determine whether the number of cuts is one or many.

WORKED EXAMPLE 1 Identifying the types of relations
State the type of relation that each graph represents.

a. y b. y c. y
0 x
0 x 0 x
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Draw a horizontal line through the graph. a. y
The line cuts the graph one time.
y=1
0 x
One-to- ______ relation

2. Draw a vertical line through the graph. y
The line cuts the graph many times.
x = –1
0 x
One-to-many relation
b. 1. Draw a horizontal line through the graph. b. y

0 x
One-to-____ relation
0 x
One-to-one relation
c. 1. Draw a horizontal line through the graph. c. y

The line cuts the graph many times.
0 x
Many-to-____ relation


0 x
Many-to-many relation
15.2.2 Functions
eles-4985
• Relations that are one-to-one or many-to-one are called functions. That is, a function is a relation in which
for any x-value there is at most one y-value.
Vertical line test

• To determine if a graph is a function, a vertical line is drawn anywhere on the graph. If it does not intersect
with the curve more than once, then the graph is a function.
For example, in each of the two graphs below, each vertical line intersects the graph only once.
1. y 2. y
0 x x
0
WORKED EXAMPLE 2 Identifying whether a relation is a function
State whether or not each of the following relations are functions.

a. y b. y
0 x
0 x
THINK WRITE
a. It is possible for a vertical line to intersect with a. Not a function
the curve more than once.
b. It is not possible for any vertical line to intersect b. Function
with the curve more than once.

Function notation
• Consider the relation y = 2x, which is a function.
The y-values are determined from the x-values, so we say ‘y is a function of x’, which is abbreviated
to y = f (x).
So, the rule y = 2x can also be written as f (x) = 2x.
• For a given function y = f(x), the value of y when x = 1 is written as f (1), the value of y when x = 5 is
written as f (5), the value of y when x = a as f (a), etc.
• For the function f (x) = 2x:
when x = 1, y = f (1)
= 2×1
= 2.
when x = 2, y = f (2)
= 2×2
= 4, and so on.
Domain and range

• The domain of a function is the set of all allowable values of x. It is sometimes referred to as the
maximal domain.
• The range of a function is the set of y-values produced by the function.
• The following examples show how to determine the domain and range of some graphs.
Graph Domain Range

y The domain is all x values The range is all y values
4 except 0. except 0.
Domain: x ∈ R\ {0} Range: y ∈ R\ {0}
2
0 x
–6 –4 –2 2 4 6
–2
–4
y The domain is all x values. The range is all y values that

3 Domain: x ∈ R are greater than or equal to −3.
Range: y ≥ −3
2
0 x
–3 –2 –1 1 2 3
–1
–2
–3

WORKED EXAMPLE 3 Evaluating a function using function notation
If f (x) = x2 − 3, calculate:
a. f (1) b. f (a) c. 3f (2a) d. f (a) + f (b) e. f (a + b) .
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Write the rule. a. f (x) = x2 − 3
2. Substitute x = 1 into the rule. f (1) = 12 − 3

3. Simplify and write the answer. = 1−3
= −2
b. 1. Write the rule. b. f (x) = x2 − 3
2. Substitute x = a into the rule. f (a) = a2 − 3
c. 1. Write the rule. c. f (x) = x2 − 3
2. Substitute x = 2a into the rule and simplify. f (2a) = (2a)2 − 3

= 22 a2 − 3
= 4a2 − 3
3. Multiply the answer by 3 and simplify. 3f (2a) = 3(4a2 − 3)
4. Write the answer. = 12a2 − 9
d. 1. Write the rule. d. f (x) = x2 − 3
2. Evaluate f (a). f (a) = a2 − 3
3. Evaluate f (b). f (b) = b2 − 3
4. Evaluate f (a) + f (b). f (a) + f (b) = a2 − 3 + b2 − 3
5. Write the answer. = a2 + b2 − 6
e. 1. Write the rule e. f (x) = x2 − 3
2. Evaluate f (a + b). f (a + b) = (a + b)2 − 3

= (a + b) (a + b) − 3
3. Write the answer. = a2 + 2ab + b2 − 3


a-e. a-e. a-e. a-e.
In a new document, on a On the Main screen, tap:
• MENU • Command
• 1: Actions • Define
• 1: Define
Complete the entry lines as:
Complete the entry lines as: Define f (x) = x2 − 3
Define f (x) = x2 − 3 f (1)
f (1) f (a)
f (a) 3f (2a)
3f (2a) f(1) = −2 f (a) + f (b)
f (a) + f (b) f (a) = a2 − 3 f (a + b)( )
( )
f (a + b) 3f (2a) = 3 4a2 − 3 expand (a + b)2 − 3
Press ENTER after each entry. f (a) + f (b) = a2 + b2 − 6 Press EXE after each entry. f(1) = −2
f (a + b) = a2 + 2ab + b2 − 3 f (a) = a2 − 3
( )
3f (2a) = 12a2 − 9
f (a) + f (b) = a2 + b2 − 6
f (a + b) = a2 + 2ab + b2 − 3
15.2.3 Identifying features of functions

eles-4986
Behaviour of functions as they approach extreme values

• We can identify features of certain functions by observing what happens to the function value (y value)
when x approaches a very small value such as 0 (x → 0) or a very large value such as ∞ (x → ∞).
WORKED EXAMPLE 4 Identifying end behaviour of a function
Describe what happens to these functions as the value of x increases, that is, as x → ∞.
1
a. y = x2 b. f (x) = 2−x c. f (x) = + 1
x
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Write the function. a. y = x2

2. Substitute large x values into the function, f (10 000) = 100 000 000
such as x = 10 000 and x = 1 000 000. f (1000 000) = 1 × 1012
3. Write a conclusion. As x → ∞, f (x) also increases; that is, f (x) → ∞.

b. 1. Write the function. b. f (x) = 2−x
2. Substitute large x values into the function, f (10 000) ≈ 0

such as x = 10 000 and x = 1 000 000. f (1000 000) ≈ 0
3. Write a conclusion. As x → ∞, f (x) → 0.
1
c. 1. Write the function. c. f (x) = +1
x
2. Substitute large x values into the function, f (10 000) = 1.0001
such as x = 10 000 and x = 1 000 000. f (1000 000) = 1.000 001
3. Write a conclusion. As x → ∞, f (x) → 1.

Points of intersection
• A point of intersection between two functions is a point at which the two graphs cross paths.
• To determine points of intersection, equate the two graphs and solve to calculate the coordinates of the
points of intersection.
y
5
4
Points of
intersection 3
0 x
–3 –2 –1 1 2 3
–1
–2
WORKED EXAMPLE 5 Determining points of intersection
1
Determine any points of intersection between f(x) = 2x + 1 and g(x) = .
x
THINK WRITE
1. Write the two equations. f (x) = 2x + 1

1
g(x) =
x
2. Points of intersection are common values For points of intersection:

between the two curves. To solve the 1
2x + 1 =
equations simultaneously, equate both x
functions.
3. Rearrange the resulting equation and solve 2x2 + x = 1
for x.
2x2 + x − 1 = 0
(2x − 1) (x + 1) = 0
1
x= or − 1
2
( )
1 1
4. Substitute the x values into either function to f = 2× +1=2
calculate the y values. 2 2
f (−1) = 2 × −1 + 1 = −1
( )
1
5. Write the coordinates of the two points of The points of intersection are ,2 and (−1, −1).
intersection. 2


1. In a new problem, on a 1. On the Main screen, complete
Calculator page, press: the entry line as:
• MENU ( )
1
• 1: Actions solve 2x + 1 = , x
• 1: Define x
2x + 1 | x = −1
Complete the entry lines as:
1
Define f 1 (x) = 2x + 1 2x + 1 | x =
1 2
Define f 2 (x) = Press EXE after each entry.
x
The points of intersection
( ) are
Press ENTER after each 1
entry. Then press: (−1, −1) and ,2 .
• MENU 2
• 3: Algebra The points of intersection
( )
1
• 1: Solve are (−1, −1) and ,2 .
2
Complete( the entry lines)as:
solve f 1 (x) = f 2 (x) , x
f 1 (−1)
( )
1
f2
2
entry.
2. Alternatively, open a Graphs 2. Alternatively, tap the graphing
page in the current document. icon.
Since the functions have Highlight each side of the
already been entered, just equation separately and drag
select the functions and press it down to the axis below.
ENTER.
The graphs will be displayed.
3. To locate the points of 3. To locate the points of

intersection between the two intersection, tap:
functions, press: • Analysis
• MENU • G-Solve
• 6: Analyze Graph • Intersection
• 4: Intersection
To find the other intersection
Move the cursor to the left point, tap the right arrow.
of the intersection point and
press ENTER. Then move The points of intersection
the cursor to the right of the are (−1, −1) and (0.5, 2).
intersection point and press
ENTER. The intersection
point is displayed. Repeat for
the other intersection point. The points of intersection
are (−1, −1) and (0.5, 2).

eles-4987
15.2.4 Inverse functions
• An inverse function is when a function is reflected across the line y = x.
• The inverse of f (x) is written as f −1 (x).
• To determine the equation of the inverse function, swap x and y and rearrange to make y the subject.
For example, for f (x) = 2x:
• rewrite the equation as y = 2x
• swap x and y to get x = 2y
1
• rearrange to make y the subject to get y = x
2
1
• rewrite the inverse in function notation f −1 (x) = x.
2
y f(x) = 2x
y =x
f ‒1(x) = 1− x
2
0 x
• Not all functions have inverses that are functions.

√
For example, the inverse of the function y = x2 is x = y2 or y = ± x which is a one-to-many relation.
y
y = x2
y=x
0 x
x = y2
• For a function to have an inverse function it must be a one-to-one function.

• To determine whether a function has an inverse which is a function we can use the horizontal line test.
• Only when a function is one-to-one, will it have an inverse function. This can be tested by drawing a
horizontal line to see if it cuts the graph once (has an inverse function) or more than once (does not have
an inverse function).
• If a graph fails the horizontal line test its domain can be restricted so that it passes the test. The function
with the restricted domain will then have an inverse function.

Graph Result
y The graph of y = x2fails the horizontal line test.
Therefore, y = x2 does not have an inverse
function.
y = x2
0 x
y The graph of y = x2 passes the horizontal line test

when the domain is restricted to x ≥ 0.
Therefore, y = x2 , x ≥ 0 has an inverse function.
y = x2, x ≥ 0
0 x
WORKED EXAMPLE 6 Determining inverse functions of functions
Answer the following questions.

a. i. Show that the function f (x) = x (x − 5) will have not have an inverse function.
ii. Suggest a restriction that would result in an inverse function.
b. i. Show that the function f (x) = x2 + 4, x ≥ 0 will have an inverse function.
ii. Determine the equation of the inverse function.

THINK WRITE/DRAW
a. i. 1. Sketch the graph of f (x) = x (x − 5). a. i. y
100
f(x) = x(x – 5)
80
60
(10, 50)
40
20
(5, 0)
x
–6 –4 –2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
2. Draw a dotted horizontal line(s) through The graph does not satisfy the horizontal
the graph. line test, so the function f (x) = x (x − 5)
will not have an inverse function.
ii. Apply a restriction to the function so that ii. An inverse function will exist if
it will have an inverse. f (x) = x (x − 5) , x ≤ 2.5 or
f (x) = x (x − 5) , x ≥ 2.5.
b. i. 1. Sketch the graph of f (x) = x2 + 4, x ≥ 0. b. i. y
100 (10, 104)
80
60
40
f(x) = x2 + 4, x ≥ 0
20
(0, 4)
0 x
–15 –10 –5 5 10 15
2. Draw a dotted horizontal line through the The graph satisfies the horizontal line test,
graph. so the function f (x) = x2 + 4, x ≥ 0 has an
inverse function.
ii. 1. Determine the equation of the inverse ii. Let y = x2 + 4, x ≥ 0.
function by swapping x and y. Swap x and y.
x = y2 + 4
Make y the subject.
x = y2 + 4
x − 4 = y2
√
x−4 = y
√
y = x−4
2
2. Write the answer in correct form, noting
√ of f (x) = x + 4 is
The inverse
the domain. −1
f (x) = x − 4, x ≥ 4.

Resources
Resourceseses
Digital documents SkillSHEET Finding the gradient and y-intercept (doc-5378)
SkillSHEET Sketching straight lines (doc-5379)
SkillSHEET Sketching parabolas (doc-5380)
SkillSHEET Completing the square (doc-5381)
SkillSHEET Identifying equations of straight lines and parabolas (doc-5382)
SkillSHEET Finding points of intersection (doc-5383)
SkillSHEET Substitution into index expressions (doc-5384)
Interactivities Relations (int-6208)
Evaluating functions (int-6209)
Exercise 15.2 Functions and relations

Individual pathways
1, 4, 7, 10, 12, 15, 17, 22 2, 5, 8, 11, 13, 18, 19, 23 3, 6, 9, 14, 16, 20, 21, 24
Fluency
WE1 For questions 1 to 3, state the type of relation that each graph represents.
1. a. y b. y c. y d. y
0 x
0 x 0 x 0 x
2. a. y b. y c. y d. y
0 x 0 x 0 x 0 x
3. a. y b. y c. y d. y
0 x
0 x 0 x 0 x
WE2 For questions 4 to 6, answer the following questions.

4. a. Use the vertical line test to determine which of the relations in question 1 are functions.
b. Determine which of these functions have inverses that are also functions.

7. WE3 If f (x) = 3x + 1, calculate:

a. f (0) b. f (2) c. f (−2) d. f (5)
√
8. If g (x) = x + 4, calculate:
a. g (0) b. g (−3) c. g (5) d. g (−4)
1
9. If g (x) = 4 − , calculate:
x
( ) ( ) ( )
1 1 1
a. g (1) b. g c. g − d. g −
2 2 5
2
10. If f (x) = (x + 3) , calculate:
a. f (0) b. f (−2) c. f (1) d. f (a)
24
11. If h (x) = , calculate:
x
a. h (2) b. h (4) c. h (−6) d. h (12)
Understanding
12. State which of the following relations are functions.
a. y b. x2 + y2 = 9 c. y = 8x − 3 d. y
0 x 0 x
13. State which of the following relations are functions.

a. y = 2x + 1 b. y = x2 + 2 c. y = 2x
d. x2 + y2 = 25 e. x2 + 4x + y2 + 6y = 14 f. y = −4x
10
14. Given that f (x) = − x, determine:
x
a. f (2) b. f (−5) c. f (2x)
( )
d. f x2 e. f (x + 3) f. f (x − 1)
15. Calculate the value (or values) of x for which each function has the value given.
1
a. f (x) = 3x − 4, f (x) = 5 b. g (x) = x2 − 2, g (x) = 7 c. f (x) = , f (x) = 3
x
16. Calculate the value (or values) of x for which each function has the value given.
√
a. h (x) = x2 − 5x + 6, h (x) = 0 b. g (x) = x2 + 3x, g (x) = 4 c. f (x) = 8 − x, f (x) = 3
Reasoning
17. WE4 Describe what happens to:
1
a. f (x) = x2 + 3 as x → ∞ b. f (x) = 2x as x → −∞ c. f (x) = as x → ∞
x
d. f (x) = x3 as x → −∞ e. f(x) = −5x as x → −∞

18. WE5 Determine any points of intersection between the following curves.
2
a. f (x) = 2x − 4 and g (x) = x2 − 4 b. f (x) = −3x + 1 and g(x) = −
x
2 2 3 1 2 2
c. f (x) = x − 4 and g (x) = 4 − x d. f (x) = x − 6 and x + y = 25
4 4
19. Determine the equation of the inverse function of each of the following, placing restrictions on the original
values of x as required.
2
a. f (x) = 2x − 1 b. f (x) = x2 − 3 c. f (x) = (x − 2) + 4
20. WE6 Answer the following questions with full working.

a. Show that the function f (x) = x (x − 2) will not have an inverse function.
b. Suggest a restriction that would result in an inverse function.
21. Answer the following questions with full working.

a. Show that the function f (x) = −x2 + 4, x ≤ 0 will have an inverse function.
b. Determine the equation of the inverse function.
Problem solving
22. Determine the value(s) of for which:
1 √
a. f (x) = x2 + 7 and f (x) = 16 b. g (x) =and g (x) = 3 c. h (x) = 8 + x and h (x) = 6.
x−2
23. Compare the graphs of the inverse functions y = ax and y = loga x, choosing various values for a. Explain
why these graphs are inverses.
2
24. Consider the function defined by the rule f ∶ R → R, f (x) = (x − 1) + 2.
a. State the range of the function.
b. Determine the type of mapping for the function.
c. Sketch the graph of the function stating where it cuts the y-axis and its turning point.
d. Select a domain where x is positive such that f is a one-to-one function.
e. Determine the inverse function. Give the domain and range of the inverse function.
f. Sketch the graph of the inverse function on the same set of axes used for part c.
g. Determine where f and the function g (x) = x + 3 intersect each other.
15.3 Exponential functions

LEARNING INTENTION
• sketch graphs of exponential functions
• determine the equation of an exponential function.
15.3.1 Exponential functions

eles-4988
• Exponential functions can be used to model many real situations involving natural growth and decay.

Exponential growth Exponential decay

Exponential growth is when a quantity grows by Exponential decay is when a quantity decreases by
a constant percentage in each fixed period of time. a constant percentage in each fixed period of time.
Examples of exponential growth include growth of Examples of exponential decay include yearly loss of
investment at a certain rate of compound interest and value of an item (called depreciation) and radioactive
growth in the number of cells in a bacterial colony. decay.
y y
10 10
8 8
6 6
4 4
y = kax,0<a<1
2 2
y = kax, 0 a > 1
0 x 0 x
–4 –2 2 4 –4 –2 2 4
• Both exponential growth and decay can be modelled by exponential functions of the type
y = kax (y = k × ax ). The difference is in the value of the base a. When a > 1, there is exponential growth
and when 0 < a < 1 there is exponential decay.
When x is used to represent time, the value of k corresponds to the initial quantity that is growing
or decaying.
WORKED EXAMPLE 7 Modelling bacterial growth using exponential functions
The number of bacteria, N, in a Petri dish after x hours is

given by the equation N = 50 × 2x .
a. Identify the initial number of bacteria in the Petri dish.
b. Determine the number of bacteria in the Petri dish after
3 hours.
c. Draw the graph of the function of N against x.
d. Use the graph to estimate the length of time it will take
for the initial number of bacteria to treble.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a. 1. Write the equation. a. N = 50 × 2x
2. Substitute x = 0 into the given formula and When x = 0, N = 50 × 20

evaluate. (Notice that this is the value of x for = 50 × 1
equations of the form y = k × ax .) = 50
3. Write the answer in a sentence. The initial number of bacteria in the Petri dish
is 50.
3
b. 1. Substitute x = 3 into the formula and evaluate. b. When x = 3, N = 50 × 2
= 50 × 8
= 400
2. Write the answer in a sentence. After 3 hours there are 400 bacteria in the
Petri dish.

1
c. 1. Calculate the value of N when x = 1 c. At x = 1, N = 50 × 2
and x = 2. = 50 × 2
= 100
At x = 2, N = 50 × 22
= 50 × 4
= 200
2. Draw a set of axes, labelling the horizontal N
500
axis as x and the vertical axis as N. N = 50 × 2x
3. Plot the points generated by the answers to
400
parts a, b and c 1.
4. Join the points plotted with a smooth curve. 300
5. Label the graph.
200
100
(0, 50)
0 x
1 2 3
d. 1. Determine the number of bacteria required. d. Number of bacteria = 3 × 50

= 150
2. Draw a horizontal line from N = 150 to the N
curve and from this point draw a vertical line 500
N = 50 × 2x
to the x-axis. This will help us to the estimate
400
the time taken for the number of bacteria to
treble.
300
200
100
(0, 50)
0 x
1 2 3
3. Write the answer in a sentence. The time taken will be approximately 1.6 hours.


a-b. a-b. a-b. a-b.
In a new problem, on a On the Main screen, complete
Calculator page, press: the entry line as:
• MENU Define
• 1: Actions f 1 (x) = 50 × 2x | x ≥ 0
• 1: Define Then press EXE.
Complete the function entry Note that we need to include
line as: the x ≥ 0 as we want to sketch
Define only the graph for x ≥ 0.
f 1 (x) = 50 × 2x | x ≥ 0 To determine the initial
Then press ENTER. Initially there are 50 bacteria number of bacteria, type:
Note that the x ≥ 0 needs to present, and after 3 hours there are f 1 (0)
be included as the graph is 400 bacteria present. To determine the number of
only sketched for x ≥ 0. bacteria after 3 hours, type:
To determine the initial f 1 (3)
Initially there are 50 bacteria
number of bacteria, complete
present, and after 3 hours there
the entry line as:
are 400 bacteria present.
f 1 (0)
To determine the number
of bacteria after 3 hours,
complete the entry line as:
f 1 (3)
entry.
c. c. c. c.
Open a Graphs page in the On the Graph & Table screen,
current document. Since complete the function entry
the function has already line as:
been entered, just select y1 = 50 × 2x | x ≥ 0
the function and press Tick the y1 box and tap the
ENTER, and the graph will graphing icon.
be displayed. However, reset Reset the viewing window to
the viewing window to a a more appropriate scale as
more appropriate scale as shown.
shown.
d. d. d. d.
Now enter the function as: Enter the equation by typing
f 2 (x) = 150 |x ≥ 0 the entry line:
Then press ENTER. The y2 = 150 | x ≥ 0
graph will be displayed. To Tick the y2 box and tap the
find the point of intersection graphing icon.
between the two graphs, To find the point of
press: intersection, tap:
• 4: Intersection The point of intersection is at • Intersection
Move the cursor to the left (1.58, 150). The initial number
of the intersection point and of bacteria will treble after
press 1.58 hours. The point of intersection is at
ENTER. Then move the (1.58, 150). The initial number
cursor to the right of the of bacteria will treble after
intersection point and press 1.58 hours.
ENTER. The intersection
point is displayed.

WORKED EXAMPLE 8 Determining the equation of an exponential function
A new computer costs $3000. It is estimated that each year it will be losing 12% of the previous
year’s value.
a. Calculate the value, $V, of the computer after the first year.
b. Calculate the value of the computer after the second year.
c. Determine the equation that relates the value of the computer to the number of years, n, it has
been used.
d. Use your equation to calculate the value of the computer in 10 years’ time.
THINK WRITE
a. 1. State the original value of the computer. a. V0 = 3000
2. Since 12% of the value is being lost each V1 = 88% of 3000

year, the value of the computer will be 88% = 0.88 × 3000
or (100 − 12) % of the previous year’s value. = 2640
Therefore, the value after the first year (V1 ) is
88% of the original cost.
3. Write the answer in a sentence. The value of the computer after 1 year is $2640.
b. 1. The value of the computer after the second b. V2 = 88% of 2640
year, V2 , is 88% of the value after the = 0.88 × 2640
first year. = 2323.2
2. Write the answer in a sentence. The value of the computer after the second
year is $2323.20.
c. 1. The original value is V0 . c. V0 = 3000
2. The value after the first year, V1 , is obtained V1 = 3000 × 0.88

by multiplying the original value by 0.88.
3. The value after the second year, V2 , is V2 = (3000 × 0.88) × 0.88
obtained by multiplying V1 by 0.88, or by = 3000 × (0.88)2
multiplying the original value, V0 , by (0.88)2 .
4. The value after the third year, V3 , is obtained V3 = (3000 × 0.88)2 × 0.88
3
by multiplying V2 by 0.88, or V0 by (0.88) . = 3000 × (0.88)3
5. By observing the pattern we can generalise as Vn = 3000 × (0.88)n

follows: the value after the nth year, Vn , can
be obtained by multiplying the original value,
V0 , by 0.88 n times; that is, by (0.88)n .
d. 1. Substitute n = 10 into the equation obtained d. When n = 10,
in part c to calculate the value of the V10 = 3000 × (0.88)10
computer after 10 years. = 835.50
2. Write the answer in a sentence. The value of the computer after

10 years is $835.50.

15.3.2 Determining the equation of an exponential function using data

eles-5349
• If the initial value, k, is known, it is possible to substitute in a data point to determine the value of a and
thereby find the equation of the function.
• Sometimes the relationship between the two variables closely resembles an exponential pattern, but cannot
be described exactly by an exponential function. In such cases, part of the data are used to model the
relationship with exponential growth or the decay function.
WORKED EXAMPLE 9 Determining the equation of an exponential function using data
The population of a certain city is shown in the table below.
Year 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020

Population (×1000) 128 170 232 316 412
Assume that the relationship between the population, P, and the year, x, can be modelled by the
function P = kax , where x is the number of years after 2000.
Multiply the value of P by 1000 to determine the actual population.
a. State the value of k, which is the population, in thousands, at the start of the period.
b. Use a middle point in the data set to calculate the value of a, correct to 2 decimal places.
Hence, write the formula, connecting the population, P, with the number of years, x, since 2000.
c. For the years given, calculate the size of the population using the formula obtained in part b.
Compare it with the actual size of the population in those years.
d. Predict the population of the city in the years 2030 and 2035.
THINK WRITE
a. From the given table, state the value of k a. k = 128
that corresponds to the population of the city
in the year 2000.
b. 1. Write the given formula for the population b. P = kax
of the city.
2. Replace the value of k with the value found P = 128 × ax
in a.
3. Using a middle point of the data, replace x Middle point is (2010, 232).
with the number of years since 1985 and When x = 10, P = 232, so 232 = 128 × a10 .
P with the corresponding value
232
4. Solve the equation for a. a10 =
128
a10 = 1.8125
√
10
a= 1.8125
a = 1.0613...
5. Round the answer to 2 decimal places. a ≈ 1.06

6. Rewrite the formula with this value of a. So, P = 128 × (1.06)x .
c. 1. Draw a table of values and enter the given c.
Year 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020
years, the number of years since 2000, x, and
x 0 5 10 15 20
the population for each year, P. Round values
of P to the nearest whole number. P 128 171 229 307 411
2. Comment on the closeness of the fit. The values for the population obtained using
the formula closely resemble the actual data.

d. 1. Determine the value of x, the number of d. For the year, x = 30.

years after 2000.
2. Substitute this value of x into the formula P = 128 × (1.06)30
and evaluate. = 735.166 87...
3. Round to the nearest whole number. P ≈ 735
4. Write the answer in a sentence. The predicted population for 2030 is 735 000.
5. Repeat for the year 2035. For the year 2035, x = 35.
P = 128 × (1.06)35
= 983.819...
P ≈ 984
6. Write the answer in a sentence. The predicted population for 2035 is 984 000.
Resources
Resourceseses
Digital documents SkillSHEET Converting a percentage to a decimal (doc-5386)
SkillSHEET Decreasing a quantity by a percentage (doc-5387)
Interactivity Exponential growth and decay (int-6211)
Exercise 15.3 Exponential functions

Individual pathways
1, 4, 7, 10, 13 2, 5, 8, 11, 14 3, 6, 9, 12, 15
Fluency
1. WE7 The number of micro-organisms, N, in a culture dish after x hours is given
by the equation N = 2000 × 3x .
a. Identify the initial number of micro-organisms in the dish.
b. Determine the number of micro-organisms in a dish after 5 hours.
c. Draw the graph of N against x.
d. Use the graph to estimate the number of hours needed for the initial number
of micro-organisms to quadruple.
2. The value of an investment (in dollars) after n years is given by
A = 5000 × (1.075)n .
a. Identify the size of the initial investment.
b. Determine the value of the investment (to the nearest dollar) after 6 years.
c. Draw the graph of A against n.
d. Use the graph to estimate the number of years needed for the initial investment to double.

n
3. MC a. The function P = 300 × (0.89) represents an:
A. exponential growth with the initial amount of 300
B. exponential growth with the initial amount of 0.89
C. exponential decay with the initial amount of 300
D. exponential decay with the initial amount of 0.89
E. exponential decay with the initial amount of 300 × 0.89
t
b. The relationship between two variables, A and t, is described by the function A = 45 × (1.095) , where t is
the time, in months, and A is the amount, in dollars. This function indicates:
A. a monthly growth of $45
B. a monthly growth of 9.5 cents
C. a monthly growth of 1.095%
D. a monthly growth of 9.5%
E. a yearly growth of 9.5%
Understanding
4. WE8 A new washing machine costs $950. It is estimated that each year it will be losing 7% of the previous
year’s value.
a. Calculate the value of the machine after the first year.
b. Calculate the value of the machine after the second year.
c. Determine the equation that relates the value of the machine, $V, to the number of years, n, that it has
been used.
d. Use your equation to find the value of the machine in 12 years’ time.
5. A certain radioactive element decays in such a way that every 50 years the amount present decreases by
15%. In 1900, 120 mg of the element was present.
a. Calculate the amount present in 1950.
b. Calculate the amount present in the year 2000.
c. Determine the rule that connects the amount of the element present, A, with the number of 50-year
intervals, t, since 1900.
d. Calculate the amount present in the year 2010. Round your answer to 3 decimal places.
e. Graph the function of A against t.
f. Use the graph to estimate the half-life of this element (that is, the number of years needed for half the
initial amount to decay).
6. When a shirt made of a certain fabric is washed, it loses 2% of its colour.
a. Determine the percentage of colour that remains after:
i. two washes ii. five washes.

b. Write a function for the percentage of colour, C, remaining after w washings.
c. Draw the graph of C against w.
d. Use the graph to estimate the number of washes after which there is only 85% of the original colour left.

7. WE9 The population of a certain country is shown in the table.

Year Population (in millions)
2000 118
2005 130
2010 144
2015 160
2020 178
Assume that the relationship between the population, P and the year, n can be modelled by the formula
P = kan , where n is the number of years since 2000.
a. State the value of k.
b. Use the middle point of the data set to calculate the value of a rounded to 2 decimal places. Hence, write
the formula that connects the two variables, P and n.
c. For the years given in the table, determine the size of the population, using your formula. Compare the
numbers obtained with the actual size of the population.
d. Predict the population of the country in the year 2045.
8. The temperature in a room (in degrees Celsius), recorded at 10-minute intervals after the air conditioner was
turned on, is shown in the table below.
Time (min) 0 10 20 30 40
Temperature (°C) 32 26 21 18 17
Assume that the relationship between the temperature, T, and the time, t, can be modelled by the formula
T = cat , where t is the time, in minutes, since the air conditioner was turned on.
a. State the value of c.
b. Use the middle point in the data set to determine the value of a to 2 decimal places.
c. Write the rule connecting T and t.
d. Using the rule, calculate the temperature in the room, 10, 20, 30 and 40 minutes after the air conditioner
was turned on and compare your numbers with the recorded temperature. Comment on your findings.
(Give answers correct to 1 decimal place.)
9. The population of a species of dogs (D) increases exponentially and is
( )
described by the equation D = 60 1 − 0.6t + 3, where t represents the
time in years.
a. Calculate the initial number of dogs.
b. Calculate the number of dogs after 1 year.
c. Determine the time taken for the population to reach 50 dogs.
Reasoning
10. Fiona is investing $20 000 in a fixed term deposit earning 6% p.a. interest. When Fiona has $30 000 she
intends to put a deposit on a house.
a. Determine an exponential function that will model the growth of Fiona’s investment.
b. Graph this function.
c. Determine the length of time (correct to the nearest year) that it will take for Fiona’s investment to grow
to $30 000.
d. Suppose Fiona had been able to invest at 8% p.a. Explain how much quicker Fiona’s investment
would have grown to the $30 000 she needs.
e. Alvin has $15 000 to invest. Determine the interest rate at which Alvin must invest his money, if his
investment is to grow to $30 000 in less than 8 years.

11. A Petri dish containing a bacteria colony was exposed to an (‘000) B

antiseptic. The number of bacteria within the colony, B, over time, 120
t, in hours is shown in the graph.
100
a. Using the graph, predict the number of bacteria in the Petri dish
after 5 hours. (1, 84)
80
b. Using the points from the graph, show that if B (in thousands)
can be modelled by the function B = abt , then a = 120 and 60 (2, 58.8)
b = 0.7.
c. After 8 hours, another type of antiseptic was added to the Petri 40 (3, 41.16)
dish. Within three hours, the number of bacteria in the Petri
20 (4, 28.81)
dish had decreased to 50.
If the number of bacteria decreased at a constant rate, show that
the total of number of bacteria that had decreased within two 0 t
1 2 3 4 5
hours was approximately 6700. Hours
12. One hundred people were watching a fireworks display at a
local park. As the fireworks were set off, more people started
to arrive to see the show. The number of people, P, at time, t,
after the start of the fireworks display, can be modelled by the
function, P = abt .
a. If after 5 minutes there were approximately 249 people,
show that the number of people arriving at the park to
watch the fireworks increased by 20% each minute.
b. The fireworks display lasted for 40 minutes. After 40 minutes,
people started to leave the park. The number of people
leaving the park could be modelled by an exponential function.
15 minutes after the fireworks ceased there were only 700 people in the park.
Derive an exponential function that can determine the number of people, N, remaining in the park after
the fireworks had finished at any time, m, in minutes.
Problem solving
13. A hot plate used as a camping stove is cooling down. The formula that describes this cooling pattern is
T = 500 × 0.5t where T is the temperature in degrees Celsius and t is the time in hours.
a. Identify the initial temperature of the stove.
b. Determine the temperature of the stove after 2 hours.
c. Decide when the stove will be cool enough to touch and give reasons.
14. The temperature in a greenhouse is monitored when the door is

left open. The following measurements are taken.
Time (min) 0 5 10 15 20
Temperature (°C) 45 35 27 21 16
a. State the initial temperature of the greenhouse.

b. Determine an exponential equation to fit the collected data.
c. Evaluate the temperature after 30 minutes.
d. Explain whether the temperature will ever reach 0°C.
15. Carbon-14 decomposes in such a way that the amount present can be calculated using the equation
Q = Q0 (1 − 0.038)t , where Q is measured in milligrams and t in centuries.
a. If there is 40 mg present initially, evaluate how much is present in:
i. 10 years’ time ii. 2000 years’ time.
b. Determine how many years will it take for the amount to be less than 10 mg.

15.4 Cubic functions

LEARNING INTENTION
• plot the graph of a cubic function using a table of values
• sketch the graph of a cubic function by calculating its intercepts
• determine the equation of a cubic function by inspection.
eles-4989
15.4.1 Cubic functions
• Cubic functions are polynomials where the highest power of the variable is three or the product of
pronumeral makes up three.
• Some examples of cubic functions are y = x3 , y = (x + 1) (x − 2) (x + 3) and y = 2x2 (4x − 1).
• The following worked examples show how the graphs of cubic functions can be created by plotting points.
WORKED EXAMPLE 10 Plotting a cubic function using a table of values
Plot the graph of y = x3 − 1 by completing a table of values.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1. Prepare a table of values, taking x-values from
x −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
−3 to 3. Fill in the table by substituting each
x-value into the given equation to determine y −28 −9 −2 −1 0 7 26
the corresponding y-value.
2. Draw a set of axes and plot the points from the y
table. Join them with a smooth curve. 25
y = x3 – 1
20
15
10
5
x
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3
–5
–10
–15
–20
–25
WORKED EXAMPLE 11 Plotting a cubic function using a table of values
Plot the curve of y = x (x − 2) (x + 2) by completing a table of values.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1. Prepare a table of values, taking x-values from
x −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
−3 to 3. Fill in the table by substituting each
x-value into the given equation. y −15 0 3 0 −3 0 15

2. Draw a set of axes and plot the points from the y

table. Join them with a smooth curve. 15
x
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3
y = x (x – 2)(x + 2)
–15
15.4.2 Sketching cubic functions

eles-4990
• Graphs of cubic functions have either two turning points or one point of inflection.
• These two types of graphs are shown. Note that a point of inflection is a point where the gradient of the
graph changes from decreasing to increasing or vice versa.
• For the purposes of this topic, we will only consider the points of inflection where the graph
momentarily flattens out.
y Point of inflection
y
Turning
points
0 x
0 x
• Cubic functions can be positive or negative.

• A positive cubic function will have a positive x3 term and will have a general upward slope.
• A negative cubic function will have a negative x3 term and will have a general downward slope.
Example of a positive cubic function Example of a negative cubic function
y = (x + 2) (x − 1) (x + 3) y = (x + 2) (1 − x) (x + 3)
y y
5 10
5
0 x
–5 5
–5
0 x
–5 5
• To sketch the graph of a cubic function:

1. determine the y-intercept by setting x = 0 and solving for y
2. determine the x-intercepts by setting y = 0 and solving for x (you will need to use the Null Factor Law)
3. draw the intercepts on the graph, then use those points to sketch the cubic graph.

• There are two special cases when sketching a cubic graph in factorised form:
• Cubic functions of the form y = (x − a) (x − b)2 will have a turning point on the x-axis at the point (0, b).
• Cubic functions of the form y = (x − a)3 will have a point of inflection on the x-axis at the point (0, a).
WORKED EXAMPLE 12 Sketching a cubic graph by determining intercepts
Sketch the following, showing all intercepts.

2 3
a. y = (x − 2) (x − 3) (x + 5) b. y = (x − 6) (4 − x) c. y = (x − 2)
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a. 1. Write the equation. a. y = (x − 2) (x − 3) (x + 5)
2. The y-intercept occurs where x = 0. y-intercept: if x = 0,

Substitute x = 0 into the equation. y = (−2) (−3) (5)
= 30
Point: (0, 30)
3. Solve y = 0 to calculate the x-intercepts: if y = 0,
x-intercepts. x − 2 = 0, x − 3 = 0 or x + 5 = 0
x = 2, x = 3 or x = −5
Points: (2, 0) , (3, 0) , (−5, 0)
4. Combine the above steps to sketch. y
30
–5 0 2 3 x
2
b. 1. Write the equation. b. y = (x − 6) (4 − x)
2. Substitute x = 0 to calculate the y-intercept: if x = 0,

y-intercept. y = (−6)2 (4)
= 144
Point: (0, 144)
3. Solve y = 0 to calculate the x-intercept: if y = 0,
x-intercepts. x − 6 = 0 or 4 − x = 0
x = 6 or x = 4
Point: (6, 0) , (4, 0)
4. Combine all information and sketch y
the graph.
Note: The curve just touches the 144
x-axis at x = 6. This occurs with a
double factor such as (x − 6)2 .
0 4 6 x

3
c. 1. Write the equation. c. y = (x − 2)
2. Substitute x = 0 to calculate the y-intercept: if x = 0,
y‐intercept. y = (−2)3
= −8
3. Solve y = 0 to calculate the x-intercept: if x = 0,

x‐intercepts.
x−2 = 0
x=2
4. Combine all information and sketch y
the graph.
Note: The point of inflection is at
x = 2. This occurs with a triple factor 0 x
2
such as (x − 2)3 .
–8

a. a. a. a.
1. In a new problem, on a 1. On the Graph & Table
Calculator page, complete screen, complete the
the entry lines as: function entry line as:
Define y1 = (x − 2) (x − 3) (x + 5)
f1(x) = (x − 2) (x − 3) (x + 5) Touch the graphing icon
f1(0) ( ) and resize the graph. Touch
solve f1(x) = 0, x the Y = 0 icon for the
Press ENTER after each x-intercepts. Use the right
entry. arrow to move between the
Remember to include the x-intercepts.
implied multiplication sign
between the brackets.
2. Open a Graphs page in the 2. For the y-intercept, tap: The y-intercept is (0, 30)
current document. Since • Analysis and the x-intercepts are
the function has already • G-Solve (−5, 0) , (2, 0) and (3, 0).
been entered, just select • y-intercept
the function and press
ENTER and the graph
will be displayed. Reset
the viewing window to
a more appropriate scale
as shown. This graph The y- intercept is (0, 30)
does cross the x-axis at and the x-intercepts are
three distinct points. Find (−5, 0) , (2, 0) and (3, 0).
all the axial intercepts as
described earlier.

b. b. b. b.
1. On a Calculator page, 1. On the Graph & Table
complete the entry lines screen, complete the
as: function entry line as:
Define y1 = (x − 6)2 (4 − x)
f1(x) = (x − 6)2 (4 − x) Touch the graphing icon
f1(0) ( ) and resize the graph. Touch
solve f1(x) = 0, x the Y = 0 icon for the
Then press ENTER. x-intercepts. Use the right
Remember to include the arrow to move between the
implied multiplication sign x-intercepts.
between the brackets.
2. Open a Graphs page in the 2. For the y-intercept, tap: The y-intercept is (0, 144)
current document. Since • Analysis and the x-intercepts are
the function has already • G-Solve (4, 0) and (6, 0).
ENTER and the graph will
be displayed. Reset the
viewing window to a more
appropriate scale as shown.
This graph does cross The y-intercept is (0, 144) and
the x-axis at two distinct the x-intercepts are (4, 0) and
points; however, this is (6, 0).
not clear from the graph
shown. Find all the axial
intercepts as described
earlier.
c. c. c. c.
the entry lines as: function entry as:
Define f1 (x) = (x − 2)3 y1 = (x − 2)3
f1 (0) ( ) Touch the graphing icon
solve f1(x) = 0, x and resize the graph. Touch
Press ENTER after each the Y = 0 icon for the
entry. x-intercepts. Use the right
arrow to move between the
x-intercepts.
2. Open a Graphs page in the 2. For the y-intercept, tap: The y-intercept is (0, −8)
current document. Since • Analysis and the x-intercept is (2, 0).
the function has already • G-Solve For this example there is
been entered, just select • y-intercept only one x-intercept as it is
the function and press a triple factor; this point is
ENTER and the graph will called a point of inflection.
be displayed. Reset the
Find all the axial intercepts The y-intercept is (0, −8) and
as described earlier. the x-intercept is (2, 0). For this
example there is only one x-
intercept as it is a triple factor;
this point is called a point of
inflection.

Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivity Cubic polynomials (int-2566)
Exercise 15.4 Cubic functions

Individual pathways
1, 4, 9, 10, 13, 16 2, 5, 7, 11, 14, 17 3, 6, 8, 12, 15, 18
Fluency
WE10, 11, 12 For questions 1 to 3, sketch the following, showing all intercepts.
1. a. y = (x − 1) (x − 2) (x − 3) b. y = (x − 3) (x − 5) (x + 2)
c. y = (x + 6) (x + 1) (x − 7) d. y = (x + 4) (x + 9) (x + 3)
2. a. y = (x + 8) (x − 11) (x + 1) b. y = (2x − 6) (x − 2) (x + 1)
c. y = (2x − 5) (x + 4) (x − 3) d. y = (3x + 7) (x − 5) (x + 6)
3. a. y = (4x − 3) (2x + 1) (x − 4) b. y = (2x + 1) (2x − 1) (x + 2)

2 2
c. y = (x − 3) (x − 6) d. y = (x + 2) (x + 5)
For questions 4 to 6, sketch the following (a mixture of positive and negative cubics).
4. a. y = (2 − x) (x + 5) (x + 3) b. y = (1 − x) (x + 7) (x − 2)
c. y = (x + 8) (x − 8) (2x + 3) d. y = (x − 2) (2 − x) (x + 6)
5. a. y = x (x + 1) (x − 2) b. y = −2 (x + 3) (x − 1) (x + 2)
2
c. y = 3 (x + 1) (x + 10) (x + 5) d. y = −3x(x − 4)
6. a. y = 4x2 (x + 8) b. y = (5 − 3x) (x − 1) (2x + 9)

2
c. y = (6x − 1) (x + 7) d. y = −2x2 (7x + 3)
7. MC Select a reasonable sketch of y = (x + 2) (x − 3) (2x + 1) from the following.

A. y B. y C. y
0
–2 – 1–2 3 x
0
–3 0 1– 2 x –2 – 1–2 3 x
2
D. y E. None of these.
0 1– 2 3 x
2

y
8. MC The graph shown could be that of:
A. y = x2 (x + 2)
B. y = (x + 2)3 –2 0 2 x
C. y = (x − 2) (x + 2)2
D. y = (x − 2)2 (x + 2)
E. y = (x − 2) (x − 8) (x + 2)
–8
9. MC The graph shown has the equation: y

A. y = (x + 1) (x + 2) (x + 3)
B. y = (x + 1) (x − 2) (x + 3)
C. y = (x − 1) (x + 2) (x + 3) 0
2 x
y = (x − 1) (x + 2) (x − 3)
–3 –1
D.
E. y = (x − 3) (x − 1) (x − 6)
–6
10. MC If a, b and c are positive numbers, the equation of the graph shown could be:
A. y = (x − a) (x − b) (x − c) y
B. y = (x + a) (x − b) (x + c)
C. y = (x + a) (x + b) (x − c)
D. y = (x − a) (x + b) (x − c)
E. y = x (x + b) (x − c)
–b 0 c a x
Understanding
2
a. y = x(x − 1)
2
b. y = −(x + 1) (x − 1)

( )
a. y = (2 − x) x2 − 9
( )
b. y = −x 1 − x2
Reasoning
13. For the graph shown, explain whether: y
a. the gradient is positive, negative or zero to the left of the point of inflection.
b. the gradient is positive, negative or zero to the right of the point of inflection.
c. the gradient is positive, negative or zero at the point of inflection.
d. this is a positive or negative cubic graph.
14. The function f (x) = x3 + ax2 + bx + 4 has x-intercepts at (1, 0) and (−4, 0). Determine the values of a
and b. Show full working.
3
15. The graphs of the functions f (x) = x3 + (a + b) x2 + 3x − 4 and g (x) = (x − 3) + 1 touch. Express a in terms
of b.

Problem solving
16. Susan is designing a new rollercoaster ride using maths. For
the section between x = 0 and x = 3, the equation of the ride
is y = x(x − 3)2 .
a. Sketch the graph of this section of the ride.
b. Looking at your graph, identify where the ride touches
the ground.
c. The maximum height for this section is reached when
x = 1. Use algebra to calculate the maximum height.
17. Determine the rule for the cubic function shown.

y
50
40
30
20
10
x
–3 –2 –1 –100 1 2 3 4 5 6
–20
–30
–40
18. A girl uses 140 cm of wire to make a frame of a cuboid with a square base as shown.
x
x
The base length of the cuboid is x cm and the height is h cm.

a. Explain why the volume cm3 is given by V = 35x2 − 2x3 .
b. Determine possible values that x can assume.
c. Evaluate the volume of the cuboid when the base area is 81 cm2 .
d. Sketch the graph of V versus x.
e. Use technology to determine the coordinates of the maximum turning point.
Explain what these coordinates mean.

15.5 Quartic functions

LEARNING INTENTION
• factorise the equation of a quartic function
• sketch the graph of a quartic function from a factorised equation.
15.5.1 Quartic functions

eles-4991
• Quartic function are polynomials where the highest power of the variable is 4 or the product of
pronumeral makes up four.
• Some examples of quartic functions are y = x4 and y = (x + 1) (x − 2) (x + 3) (x − 4).
• There are three types of quartic functions: those with one turning point, those with three turning points and
those with one turning point and one point of inflection.
• The table below includes the standard types of positive quartic equations.
Type of quartic
function Standard positive quartic graphs and equations with a > 0
One turning point y = ax4 y = x2(ax2 + c), c ≥ 0
y y
0 x 0 x
Three turning y = ax2(x – b) (x – c) y = a(x – b)2 (x – c)2 y = a(x – b) (x – c) (x – d) (x – e)

points y y y
b 0 c x b c 0 d e x
b 0 c x
One turning point y = a(x – b) (x – c)3

y
and one point of
inflection
b 0 c x

• There are also negative equivalents to all of the above graphs when a < 0. y
The negative graphs have the same shape, but are reflected across the x-axis.
For example, the graph of y = ax4 for a < 0 is shown. 0 x
y = –x4
15.5.2 Sketching quartic functions

eles-4992
• To sketch a quartic function:
1. factorise the equation so that the equation is in the form matching one of the standard quartics. To
factorise, use the factor theorem and long division. (If the equation is already factorised, skip
this step.)
2. calculate all x- and y-intercepts
3. draw the intercepts on the graph, then use those points to sketch the cubic graph.
WORKED EXAMPLE 13 Factorising then sketching the graph of a quartic function
Sketch the graph of y = x4 − 2x3 − 7x2 + 8x + 12, showing all intercepts.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1. Calculate the y-intercept. When x = 0, y = 12.
2. Let P (x) = y. Let P (x) = x4 − 2x3 − 7x2 + 8x + 12.
3. Determine two linear factors of the quartic P (1) = (1)4 − 2(−1)3 − 7(1)2 + 8 (1) + 12
expressions, if possible, using the factor = 12
theorem. ≠0
P (−1) = (−1)4 − 2(−1)3 − 7(−1)2 + 8 (−1) + 12
=0
(x + 1) is a factor.
P (2) = (2)4 − 2(2)3 − 7(2)2 + 8 (2) + 12
=0
(x − 2) is a factor.
4. Calculate the product of the two linear factors (x + 1) (x − 2) = x2 − x − 2

5. Use long division to divide the quartic by
x2 − x − 6
the quadratic factor x2 − x − 2. x2 − x − 2⟌ −x4 2x3 −7x2 + 8x + 12
x4 − x3 − 2x2
− x3 − 5x2 + 8x
− x3 + x2 + 2x
− 6x2 + 6x + 12
− 6x2 + 6x + 12
0
( 2 )
6. Express the quartic in factorised form. y = (x + 1) (x − 2) x − x − 6
= (x + 1) (x − 2) (x − 3) (x + 2)

7. To calculate the x- intercepts, solve y = 0. If 0 = (x + 1) (x − 2) (x − 3) (x + 2)

x = −1, 2, 3, −2.
8. State the x-intercepts. The x-intercepts are −2, −1, 2, 3.
9. Sketch the graph of the quartic. y
12
0 x
–2 –1 2 3

the entry lines as: function entry line as:
Define f1(x) = x4 − 2x3 − y1 = x4 − 2x3 − 7x2 +
7x2 + 8x + 12 8x + 12
f1(0) ( ) Touch the graphing icon
solve f1(x) = 0, x and resize the graph.
Press ENTER after each Touch the Y = 0 icon
entry. for the x-intercepts. Use
the right arrow to move
between the x-intercepts.
2. Open a Graphs page in the 2. For the y-intercept, tap:
current document. Since • Analysis
the function has already • G-Solve
ENTER and the graph
will be displayed. Reset the
This graph does cross the The y-intercept is (0, 12) and the
x-axis at four distinct points. x-intercepts are (−2, 0), (−1, 0),
Find all the axial intercepts (2, 0) and (3, 0).
as described earlier. The y-intercept is (0, 12)
and the x-intercepts are
(−2, 0), (−1, 0), (2, 0) and (3, 0).
Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivity Quartic functions (int-6213)

Exercise 15.5 Quartic functions

Individual pathways
1, 4, 7, 10, 11, 16 2, 5, 9, 12, 13, 17 3, 6, 8, 14, 15, 18
Fluency
WE13 For questions 1 to 3, sketch the graph of each of the following showing all intercepts. You may like to
verify the shape of the graph using a graphics calculator or another form of digital technology.
1. a. y = (x − 2) (x + 3) (x − 4) (x + 1)
( )
b. y = x2 − 1 (x + 2) (x − 5)
2. a. y = 2x4 + 6x3 − 16x2 − 24x + 32

b. y = x4 + 4x3 − 11x2 − 30x
3. a. y = x4 − 4x2 + 4
b. y = 30x − 37x2 + 15x3 − 2x4
For questions 4 to 6, sketch each of the following.

2
4. a. y = x2 (x − 1)
2 2
b. y = −(x + 1) (x − 4)
3
5. a. y = −x(x − 3)
b. y = (2 − x) (x − 1) (x + 1) (x − 4)
6. y = (x − a) (b − x) (x + c) (x + d) , where a, b, c, d > 0
Understanding
7. MC A quartic touches the x-axis at x = −3 and x = 2. It crosses the y-axis at y = −9. A possible equation is:
1 2 2
A. y = (x + 3) (x − 2)
4
1 3
B. y = − (x + 3) (x − 2)
6
3
C. y = − (x + 3) (x − 2)3
8
1 2 2
D. y = − (x + 3) (x − 2)
4
1 2 2
E. y = − (x − 3) (x + 2)
4
8. MC Consider the function f (x) = x4 − 8x2 − 16. When factorised, f (x) is equal to:
A. (x + 2) (x − 2) (x − 1) (x + 4)
B. (x + 3) (x − 2) (x − 1) (x + 1)
C. (x − 2)3 (x + 2)
D. (x − 2)2 (x + 2)2
E. (x − 2) (x + 2)2

9. MC Consider the function f (x) = x4 − 8x2 − 16.

The graph of f (x) is best represented by:
A. y B. y C. y
16 16
–2 0 2 x
–2 0 2 x
–16 –2 0 2 x
D. y E. None of these
0 x
–2 2
Reasoning
For questions 10 to 12, sketch the graph of each of the following functions. Verify your answers using a
graphics calculator.
3 ( )
10. a. y = x(x − 1) b. y = (2 − x) x2 − 4 (x + 3)
3
11. a. y = (x + 2) (x − 3) b. y = 4x2 − x4
2 2
12. a. y = −(x − 2) (x + 1) b. y = x4 − 6x2 − 27
13. The functions y = (a − 2b) x4 − 3x − 2 and y = x4 − x3 + (a + 5b) x2 − 5x + 7 both have an x-intercept of 1.

Determine the value of a and b. Show your working.
14. Sketch the graph of each of the following functions. Verify your answers using a graphics calculator.
a. y = x4 − x2 b. y = 9x4 − 30x3 + 13x2 + 20x + 4
15. Patterns emerge when we graph polynomials with repeated factors, that is, polynomials of the form
P (x) = (x − a)n , n > 1. Discuss what happens if:
a. n is even b. n is odd.
Problem solving
16. The function f(x) = x4 + ax3 − 4x2 + bx + 6 has x-intercepts (2, 0) and (−3, 0). Determine the values
of a and b.
17. A carnival ride has a piece of the track modelled by the rule
1
h=− x(x − 12)2 (x − 20) + 15, 0 ≤ x ≤ 20
300
where x metres is the horizontal displacement from the origin

and h metres is the vertical displacement of the track above the
horizontal ground.
a. Determine how high above the ground level the track is at
the origin.
b. Use technology to sketch the function. Give the coordinates
of any stationary points (that is, turning points or points of
inflection).
c. Evaluate how high above ground level the track is when x = 3.
18. Determine the rule for the quartic function shown.
0 x
–4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4
y-intercept
(0, –8)
15.6 Transformations
LEARNING INTENTION
• sketch the graph of a function that has undergone some transformations
• describe a transformation using the words translation, dilation and reflection.
eles-4993
15.6.1 General transformations
• When the graph of a function has been moved, stretched and/or flipped, this is
y
called a transformation.
• There are three types of transformations:
• translations are movements of graphs left, right, up or down y = x2
• dilations are stretches of graphs to make them thinner or wider
• reflections are when a graph is flipped in the x- or y-axis.
• The following table summarises transformations of the general polynomial P (x)
0 (0, 0) x
with examples given for transformations of the basic quadratic function y = x2
shown here:
Equation and
Transformation explanation Example(s)
Vertical y = P(x) + c original function translated function
translation This is a vertical
y y
translation of c units. y = x2 + 2 y = x2
If c is positive the
y = x2 – 3
translation is up, if c is y = x2
negative the translation
is down.
0 x
(0, 2)
0 x
(0, –3)

Horizontal y = P(x − b) y y
translation This is a horizontal
y = (x + 1)2
translation of b units. y = x2 y = x2
If b is positive the
translation is right, (0, 1)
(0, 4) y = (x – 2)2
if b is negative the
translation is left. 0 (2, 0) x
(–1, 0) 0 x
Dilation y = aP(x) y y
This is a dilation by y = 2x 2
y = 1– x2
a factor of a in the x y = x2 4
y = x2
direction. If a > 1 the
graph becomes thinner,
if 0 < a < 1 the graph
becomes wider. (0, 0) x
(0, 0) x
Reflection y = −P(x) y
This is a reflection in y = x2
the x-axis.
y = P(−x)
This is a reflection in
the y-axis. x
(0, 0)
y = –x2
• Note that the graph y = x2 does not change when reflected across the y-axis because it is symmetrical about
the y-axis.
• With knowledge of the transformations discussed in this section, it is possible to generate many other
graphs without knowing the equation of the original function.
WORKED EXAMPLE 14 Sketching transformations
Use the sketch of y = P(x) shown to sketch:

a. y = P(x) + 1 b. y = P(x) − 1 c. y = −P(x).
0 x
y = P(x)

THINK WRITE/DRAW
a. 1. Sketch the original y = P(x). a.
y
2. Look at the equation y = P(x) + 1. This is a
translation of one unit in the vertical direction
— one unit up.
0 x
y = P(x)
3. Sketch the graph of y = P(x) + 1 using a y

similar scale to the original.
1
0 x
y = P(x) + 1
b. 1. Sketch the original y = P(x). b.

y
2. Look at the equation y = P(x) − 1. This is a
translation of negative one unit in the vertical
direction; that is, one unit down.
0 x
y = P(x)
3. Sketch the graph of y = P(x) − 1 using a y

similar scale to the original.
0 x
–1
y = P(x) – 1

c. 1. Sketch the original y = P(x). c.

y
2. Look at the equation y = −P(x). This is a
reflection across the x-axis.
0 x
y = P(x)
3. Sketch the graph of y = −P(x) using a similar y

scale to the original. y = –P(x)
0 x
15.6.2 Transformations of hyperbolas, exponential functions and

eles-4994
circles
1
• For transformations of hyperbolas, start with the standard hyperbola y = then transform using
x
a
y= + c where:
x−b
• translations are c units vertically and b units horizontally
• dilations are by a factor of a
a
• reflections across the x-axis happen when there is a negative at the front, for example y = − + c;
x−b
a
and reflections across the y-axis happen when there is x is negative, for example y = + c.
−x − b
Standard hyperbola Transformed hyperbola

1 2
y =— y = — +1
x (x – 1)
y y
6 6
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
–3 –2 –1
0 x x
–1 1 2 3 4 5 6 –2 –1–10 1 2 3 4 5 6
–2 –2
–3 –3
–4 –4

• For transformations of exponentials, start with the standard exponential y = ax where a ≠ 1 then transform
using y = ka(x−b) + c where:
• translations are c units vertically and b units horizontally.
• dilations are by a factor of k.
( ( ) )
• reflections across the x-axis happen when there is a negative out the front, y = − ka x−b + c and
reflections across the y-axis happen when there is a negative on the x, y = ka(−x−b) + c.
Standard exponential graph Transformed exponential graph

y= 2x y = 2(–x + 2) + 1
y y
18 18
17 17
16 16
15 15
14 14
13 13
12 12
11 11
10 10
9 9
8 8
7 7
6 6
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
x x
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5
• For transformations of circles, start with the standard circle x2 + y2 = r2 then transform using
(x − h)2 + (y − k)2 = r2 where:
• translations are h units horizontally and k units vertically.
Standard circle Transformed circle

y y
y P(x, y)
P(x, y)
r (y – k)
y k
0 x x (x – h)
0 h x x
WORKED EXAMPLE 15 Describing a transformation
Describe the transformations for the following graphs.

2 2
a. A transformation of the graph x2 + y2 = 4 to the graph (x − 3) + (y + 7) = 4
1 2
b. A transformation of the graph y = to the graph y = +5
x −x − 4
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Using the standard translated formula a. h = 3, k = −7.
(x − h)2 + (y − k)2 = r2 identify the value of The graph is translated 3 units in the horizontal
h for the horizontal translation and the value direction and –7 units in the vertical direction.
of k for the vertical translation.

b. 1. Using the standard translated formula b. b = 4, c = 5.

a The graph is translated 5 units vertically and 4
y= + c identify the value of c for the
x−b units horizontally.
vertical translation and the value of b for the
horizontal translation.
2. Using the standard translated formula a = 2.

a The graph is dilated by a factor of 2.
y= + c identify the value of a for the
x−b
dilation factor.
3. Look for y = −P(x) (reflection in the x-axis) The graph is reflected in the y-axis.
and/or y = P(−x) (reflection in the y-axis).
This equation has a negative on the x-value so
it is y = P(−x).
Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivities Horizontal translations of parabolas (int-6054)
Vertical translations of parabolas (int-6055)
Dilation of parabolas (int-6096)
Exponential functions (int-5959)
Reflection of parabolas (int-6151)
Hyperbolas (int-6155)
Translations of circles (int-6214)
Transformations of exponentials (int-6216)
Transformations of cubics (int-6217)
The rectangular hyperbola (int-2573)
Exercise 15.6 Transformations

Individual pathways
1, 4, 7, 10, 13 2, 5, 8, 11, 14 3, 6, 9, 12, 15
Fluency
1. WE14 Use the sketch of y = P(x) shown to sketch:
y
y = P(x)
0 x
a. y = P(x) + 1 b. y = −P(x)

2. Use the sketch of y = P(x) shown to sketch:
y
y = P(x)
0 x
a. y = P(x) − 2 b. y = 2P(x).
3. Consider the sketch of y = P(x) shown. Sketch:
y = P(x)
y
0 x
1
a. y = P(x) + 1 b. y = −P(x) c. y = P(x + 2).
4. WE15 Describe the transformations for the following graphs.

2 2
a. A transformation of the graph x2 + y2 = 9 to the graph (x − 2) + (y − 1) = 9
1 3
b. A transformation of the graph y = to the graph y = +7
x x−2
5. Describe the transformations for the following graphs.
1 5
a. A transformation of the graph y = to the graph y = +2
x x−1
( )
b. A transformation of the graph y = 3x to the graph y = 3 −x+2 + 4
6. Describe the transformations for the following graphs.

1 4
a. A transformation of the graph y = to the graph y = + 10
x −x + 3
( ( )
)
b. A transformation of the graph y = 5x to the graph y = − 5 −x+7 − 6
Understanding
7. Draw any polynomial y = P(x). Discuss the similarities and differences between the graphs of y = P(x)
and y = −P(x).
and y = 2P(x).
and y = P(x) − 2.

Reasoning
10. Consider the sketch of y = P(x) shown below.
y
0 x
–1
y = P(x)
Give a possible equation for each of the following in terms of P(x).

a. y
1
0 x
b. y
0 x
–3
–4
c. y
0 x
–2
11. y = x (x − 2) (x − 3) and y = −2x (x − 2) (x − 3) are graphed on the same set of axes. Describe the relationship
between the two graphs using the language of transformations.
12. If y = −hr−(x+p) − r, explain what translations take place from the original graph, y = rx .
Problem solving
13. a. Sketch the graph of y = 3 × 2x .
b. If the graph of y = 3 × 2x is transformed into the graph y = 3 × 2x + 4, describe the transformation.
c. Sketch the graph of y = 3 × 2x + 4.
d. Determine the coordinates of the y-intercept of y = 3 × 2x + 4.
1
14. The graph of y = is reflected in the y-axis, dilated by a factor of 2 parallel to the x-axis, translated
x
2 units to the left and up 1 unit. Determine the equation of the resultant curve. Give the equations of any
asymptotes.

15. The graph of an exponential function is shown.
y
175
150
(5, 165)
125
100
75
50
y-intercept
25
(0, 10)
0 2 3 4 5 6
x
–1 1
Its general rule is given by y = a (2x ) + b.

a. Determine the values of a and b.
b. Describe any transformations that had to be applied to the graph of y = 2x to achieve this graph.

15.7 Review
Relations
• There are four types of relations:
FUNCTIONS AND RELATIONS
one-to-one, one-to-many, many-to-one
and many-to-many.
• Relations that are one-to-one or Function notation Types of functions
many-to-one are called functions.
• Functions are denoted f(x). • Cubic functions are functions
• The value of a function at a where the highest power of x is 3.
Domain and range of functions point can be determined by Cubic functions have 2 turning
• The domain of a function is the set of substituting the x-value into
allowable values of x. the equation. • Quartic functions are functions
• The range of a function is the set of e.g. where the highest power of x is 4.
y-values it produces. f(x) = 2x3 – 3x + 5 Quartic functions have 1 turning
• Consider the function y = x2 – 1. The value of the function point, 3 turning points or 1
The domain of the function is x ∈ R. when x = 2 is: turning point and 1 point of
The range of the function is y ≥ –1. f(2) = 2(2)3 – 3(2) + 5
= 2(8) – 6 + 5 • Exponential functions are of the
y = 15 form f(x) = k × ax.
6 The y-intercept is y = k.
• Examples of a cubic (top), a
5
quartic (middle) and an
4 Transformations
exponential (bottom) function
3 are shown below.
• There are 3 types of
2
transformations that can y
1 be applied to functions
and relations: 5
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 x • Translations
–1
• Dilations
•
• The equation 0 x
1 –5 5
of a hyperbola f(x) = –
x
Inverse functions when transformed is
a –5
• Functions have an inverse function if they f(x) = – + c.
x–b
are one-to-one. • The equation of an
• The inverse of a function f(x) is denoted f –1(x). exponential (f(x) = ax)
• To determine the equation of the inverse y
when transformed is
function: f(x) = ka(x – b) + c.
1. Let y = f(x). • The equation of a circle
2. Switch x and y in the equation. (x2 + y2 = r2)
3. Rearrange for y. when transformed is
e.g. (x – h)2 + (y – k)2 = r 2. x
0
f(x) = 2x3 – 4 –3 3
y = 2x3 – 4
x = 2y3 – 4
y
x + 4 = 2y3
10
x+ 4
– = y3 8
2 x+ 4
y= 3 – 6
2
4
3 –x + 4 2
f –1(x) = 2
• Sometimes a function needs to have its domain restricted for the inverse 0 x
–2 2
to exist. For example, f(x) = x 2 is many-to-one, so does not have an inverse;
but f(x) = x 2, x ≥ 0 is one-to-one, and therefore does have an inverse function.


15.2 I can identify the type of a relation.
I can determine the domain and range of a function or relation.
I can identify the points of intersection between two functions.
I can determine the inverse function of a one-to-one function.
15.3 I can sketch graphs of exponential functions.
I can determine the equation of an exponential function.
15.4 I can plot the graph of a cubic function using a table of values.
I can sketch the graph of a cubic function by calculating its intercepts
I can determine the equation of a cubic function by inspection.
15.5 I can factorise the equation of a quartic function.
I can sketch the graph of a quartic function from a factorised equation.
15.6 I can sketch the graph of a function that has undergone some
transformations.
I can describe a transformation using the words translation, dilation
and reflection.
15.7.3 Project
Shaping up!
Many beautiful patterns are created by starting with a single

function or relation and transforming and repeating it over
and over.
In this task you will apply what you have learned about
functions, relations and transformations (dilations,
reflections and translations) to explore mathematical
patterns.

Exploring patterns using transformations

1. a. On the same set of axes, draw the graphs of:
i. y = x2 − 4x + 1
ii. y = x2 − 3x + 1
iii. y = x2 − 2x + 1
iv. y = x2 + 2x + 1
v. y = x2 + 3x + 1
vi. y = x2 + 4x + 1
b. Describe the pattern formed by your graphs. Use mathematical terms such as intercepts, turning point,
shape and transformations.
What you have drawn is referred to as a family of curves — curves in which the shape of the curve
changes if the values of a, b and c in the general equation y = ax2 + bx + c change.
c. Explore the family of parabolas formed by changing the values of a and c. Comment on your findings.
d. Explore exponential functions belonging to the family of curves with equation y = kax , families of
cubic functions with equations y = ax3 or y = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d, and families of quartic functions with
equations y = ax4 or y = ax4 + bx3 + cx2 + dx + e. Comment on your findings.
e. Choose one of the designs shown below and recreate it (or a simplified version of it). Record the
mathematical equations used to complete the design.
Coming up with your design

2. Use what you know about transformations to functions and relations to
create your own design from a basic graph. You could begin with a circle,
add some line segments and then repeat the pattern with some change.
Record all the equations and restrictions you use.
It may be helpful to apply your knowledge of inverse functions too.
A digital technology will be very useful for this task.
Create a poster of your design to share with the class.
Resources
Resourceseses


Fluency
1. State which of the following are functions.
a. y b. y
0 x 0 x
2. Identify which of the following are functions. For each identified as functions, state the equation of the
inverse function, if it exists.
√ 1
a. y = 2x − 7 b. x2 + y2 = 30 c. y = 2x d. y =
x+1
√
3. If f(x) = 4 − x2 :
a. calculate:
i. f (0) ii. f (1) iii. f (2)
−1
b. state whether f (x) exists. If so, determine its equation.
4. Sketch each of the following curves, showing all intercepts.

2
a. y = (x − 1) (x + 2) (x − 3) b. y = (2x + 1) (x + 5)
5. Give an example of the equation of a cubic that would just touch the x-axis and cross it at another point.
6. Match each equation with its type of curve.
a. y = x2 + 2 A. circle
b. x2 + y2 = 9 B. cubic
2 C. exponential
c. f (x) =
x+2
d. g (x) = 6−x D. parabola
e. h (x) = (x + 1) (x − 3) (x + 5) E. hyperbola
7. MC The equation for the graph shown could be:

A. y = (x − 5) (x + 1) (x + 3) B. y = (x − 3) (x − 1) (x + 5) C. y = (x − 3) (x + 1) (x + 5)
D. y = (5 − x) (1 + x) (3 + x) E. y = x (x − 3) (x − 1)
y
–3 –1 5 x

8. MC Select which of the following shows the graph of y = −2(x + 5)3 − 12.
A. y B. y C. y D. y
(5, 12)
x x
(–5, 12)
(–5, –12) x
(5, –12)
E. None of these
9. Sketch the following functions:

a. y = x (x − 2) (x + 11) b. y = x3 + 6x2 − 15x + 8 c. y = −2x3 + x2
10. MC The rule for the graph shown could be: y

3 2 f(x)
A. f (x) = x(x + 2) B. f (x) = −x(x − 2)
2 3
C. f (x) = x2 (x − 2) D. f (x) = x(x − 2)
E. None of these
0 2 x
11. MC The graph of y = (x + 3)2 (x − 1) (x − 3) is best represented by:

A. y B. y C. y D. y
0 x
–3 1 3 0 x 0 x
–3 1 3 –3 1 3
0 1 x
–3 3
E. None of these
Problem solving
12. Sketch the graph of y = x4 − 7x3 + 12x2 + 4x − 16, showing all intercepts.
13. Consider the sketch of y = P (x) shown. Sketch y = −P (x).
0 x
–1 1
14. Draw any polynomial y = P (x). Discuss the similarities and differences between the graphs of y = P (x)
and y = P (x) + 3.
15. Describe what happens to f(x) = −2x as x → ∞ and x → −∞.
16. Determine any points of intersection between f (x) = x2 − 4 and g (x) = x3 + x2 − 12.

kt
17. The concentration of alcohol (mg/L) in a bottle of champagne is modelled by C = C0 × 0.33 where
t represents the time in days after the bottle is opened.
If the initial concentration is 80 mg/L and the concentration after 1 day is 70 mg/L, evaluate the
concentration remaining after:
a. 3 days
b. 1 week
c. 18 hours.
18. The number of hyenas, H, in the zoo is given by

H = 20(100.1t ), where t is the number of years since
counting started. At the same time, the number of
dingoes, D, is given by D = 25(100.05t ).
a. Calculate the number of:
i. hyenas
ii. dingoes when counting began.
b. Calculate the numbers of each after:
i. 1 year
ii. 18 months.
c. Which of the animals is the first to reach a population of 40 and by how long?
d. After how many months are the populations equal and what is this population?
2
19. a. Consider the equation f(x) = a(x − h) + k. By restricting the x-values, find the equation of the
inverse function.
a
b. Show that the function f(x) = + b and its inverse function intersect on the line y = x.
x
20. A shend is a type of tropical pumpkin grown by the people of Outer Thrashia. The diameter (Dm) of a
shend increases over a number of months (m) according to the rule D = 0.25 × (10)0.01m .
a. Determine the diameter of the shend after 4 months.
b. If the shend is not harvested it will explode when it reaches a critical diameter of 0.5 metres. Show
that it takes approximately 30 months for an unharvested shend to explode.
21. The surface area of a lake is evaporating at a rate of 5%

per year due to climate change. To model this situation,
the surface area of the lake (S km2 ) over time is given
by S = 20 000 × 0.95x , where x is the time in years.
a. Explain whether this is an exponential relationship.
b. State the initial surface area of the lake.
c. Determine the surface area of the lake after 10 years.
d. Plot a graph for this relationship.
e. Determine the surface area of the lake in 100 years.
f. Explain whether this is a realistic model.

eWorkbook 15.6 Horizontal translations of parabolas (int-6054) ⃞

Vertical translations of parabolas (int-6055) ⃞
Download the workbook for this topic, which includes Dilation of parabolas (int-6096) ⃞
worksheets, a code puzzle and a project (ewbk-2041) ⃞ Exponential functions (int-5959) ⃞
Reflection of parabolas (int-6151) ⃞
Solutions Hyperbolas (int-6155) ⃞
Download a copy of the fully worked solutions to every Translations of circles (int-6214) ⃞
question in this topic (sol-0749) ⃞ Transformations of exponentials (int-6216) ⃞
Transformations of cubics (int-6217) ⃞
Digital documents The rectangular hyperbola (int-2573) ⃞
15.2 SkillSHEET Finding the gradient and y-intercept Sudoku puzzle (int-3893) ⃞
(doc-5378) ⃞
SkillSHEET Sketching straight lines (doc-5379) ⃞
SkillSHEET Sketching parabolas (doc-5380) ⃞ Teacher resources
SkillSHEET Completing the square (doc-5381) ⃞ There are many resources available exclusively for teachers
SkillSHEET Identifying equations of straight lines and online.
parabolas (doc-5382) ⃞
SkillSHEET Calculating points of intersection
(doc-5383) ⃞
SkillSHEET Substitution into index expressions
(doc-5384) ⃞
15.3 SkillSHEET Converting a percentage to a decimal
(doc-5386) ⃞
SkillSHEET Decreasing a quantity by a percentage
(doc-5387) ⃞
Video eLessons
15.2 Types of relations (eles-4984) ⃞
Functions (eles-4985) ⃞
Identifying features of functions (eles-4986) ⃞
Inverse functions (eles-4987) ⃞
15.3 Exponential functions (eles-4988) ⃞
Determining the equation of an exponential function
using data (eles-5349) ⃞
15.4 Cubic functions (eles-4989) ⃞
Sketching cubic functions (eles-4990) ⃞
15.5 Quartic functions (eles-4991) ⃞
Sketching quartic functions (eles-4992) ⃞
15.6 General transformations (eles-4993) ⃞
Transformations of hyperbolas, exponential functions
and circles (eles-4994) ⃞
Interactivities
15.2 Relations (int-6208) ⃞
Evaluating functions (int-6209) ⃞
15.3 Exponential growth and decay (int-6211) ⃞
15.4 Cubic polynomials (int-2566) ⃞
15.5 Quartic functions (int-6213) ⃞

√
Answers b. f −1 (x) =
−1
√
x + 3 for original x > 0.
c. f (x) = x − 4 + 2 for original x > 2
Topic 15 Functions and relations 20. a. The horizontal line test fails.
Exercise 15.1 Pre-test b. An inverse function will exist for f (x) = x (x − 2) , x ≤ 1

or f (x) = x (x − 2) , x ≥ 1.
1. B
21. a. The horizontal line test is upheld.
2. A. −1
√
b. f (x) = − 4 − x, x ≤ 4.
3. True
1
4. B 22. a. x = ±3 b. x = 2 c. x = 28
3
5. B
23. These graphs are inverse because they are the mirror images
6. D of each other through the line y = x.
7. A 24. a. Ran = [2, ∞)
8. E b. Many-to-one
9. D c. and f.
10. D y
11. B 5
12. A
4
13. B f(x) = (x – 1)2 + 2
Turning point
14. B 3 (1, 2)
15. E
2
Exercise 15.2 Functions and relations
1. a. One-to-many b. Many-to-one 1
f –1(x) = √ x – 2 + 1; x ≥ 1
c. Many-to-one d. One-to-one
One-to-one Many-to-one 0 x
2. a. b. –1 1 2 3 4 5 6
c. Many-to-many d. Many-to-one –1
3. a. One-to-one b. Many-to-one
d. Dom = [1, ∞)
c. One-to-one d. Many-to-one √
−1
e. f (x) = x − 2 + 1, Dom = [2, ∞), Ran = [1, ∞)
4. a. b, c, d b. d
g. (0, 3) and (3, 6)
5. a. a, b, d b. a
6. a. a, b, c, d b. a, c Exercise 15.3 Exponential functions
7. a. 1 b. 7 c. −5 d. 16 1. a. 2000
8. a. 2 b. 1 c. 3 d. 0 b. 486 000
c. y
9. a. 3 b. 2 c. 6 d. 9 500 000
10. a. 9 b. 1
c. 16 d. a2 + 6a + 9 450 000
11. a. 12 b. 6 c. −4 d. 2
400 000
12. a, c, d
13. a, b, c, f 350 000
5
14. a. 3 b. 3 c. − 2x
x 300 000
10 10 10
d. − x2 e. − x − 3 f. −x+1
x2 x+3 x−1 250 000
1
15. a. 3 b. −3 or 3 c. 200 000
3
16. a. 2 or 3 b. −4 or 1 c. −1
150 000
17. a. f (x) → ∞ b. f (x) → 0 c. f (x) → 0
d. f (x) → −∞ e. f (x) → 0 50 000
( )
2
18. a. (0, −4) , (2, 0) b. (1, −2) , − , 3
3 0 x
–1 1 2 3 4 5 6
c. (2, 0) , (−2, 0) d. (3, −4)
x+1 d. 1.26 hours
19. a. f −1 (x) =
2

2. a. $5000 b.
b. $7717 30 000
Investment ($)
25 000
c. A 20 000
14 000
15 000
12 000
10 000
10 000
5 000
8 000
6 000 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
4 000 Years
A = 5000 × (1.075)n
2 000 c. 7 years
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 d. 6 years —1 year quicker
d. 10 years e. 9.05% p.a.
3. a. C b. D 11. a. Approximately 20 000
b, c. Sample responses can be found in the worked
4. a. $883.50 b. $821.66
c. V = 950 × (0.93)n d. $397.67
12. a. a = 100, b = 1.20, increase = 20%/ min
5. a.102 mg m
b. N = 14 6977 × 0.70
b. 86.7 mg
t 13. a. 500 °C
c. A = 120 × (0.85)
b. 125 °C.
d. 83.927 mg
c. Between 5 and 6 hours once it has cooled to below
e. A 15 °C.
140
120 14. a. 45 °C
t
100 b. T = 45 × 0.95
A = 120 × (0.85)t
80 c. 10 °C
60 d. No. The line T = 0 is an asymptote.
40
15. a. 1. 39.85 mg 2. 18.43 mg
20
b. More than 35.78 centuries.
0 t
2 4 6 8 10 12 14
f. Approximately 213 years Exercise 15.4 Cubic functions
6. a. i. 96.04% ii. 90.39% 1. a. y b. y
w
b. C = 100(0.98)
30
c. C x
0 1 2 3
100
80
‒6
60
C = 100 × (0.98)w
40 0 x
‒2 3 5
20
0 w c. y d. y
5 10 15 20
d. 8 washings
108
7. a. 118 (million)
n ‒6 ‒1 0 7 x
b. a = 1.02; P = 118 × (1.02) ‒42
c. Year 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 0 x

‒9 ‒4 ‒3
Population 118 130 144 159 175
Calculated population is less accurate after 10 years. 2. a. y b. y

d. 288 (million) 12
‒8 ‒1 11
8. a. 32 ‒88 0 x
b. 0.98
c. T = 32 × (0.98)t
d. 26.1, 21.4, 17.5, 14.3; values are close except for t = 40.
0 x
9. a. 3 dogs b. 27 dogs c. 3 years ‒1 2 3
x
10. a. A = 20 000 × 1.06

c. y d. y 6. a. y b. y 5–
3
0 1 x
x ‒ 9–
0 2
–6 – 7–3 5 ‒45
60
–210
‒8 0 x
5–
2 c. y d. y
0 x
‒4 3
3. a. y b. y
0 x
12 3– 7 ‒ 3–
4 7
x 0 1 x
– 0
‒1
‒7
4 –
2 6
1 0 1– x 7. C
‒2 ‒–
2 2 8. C
‒2
9. B
c. y d. y 10. D
0 x 50 11. a. y
3 6
4
3
2
1
‒54 0 x
‒5 ‒2 0 x
–2 –1 1 2 3
–1
4. a. y b. y –2
30 x –3
0
‒7 ‒14 12 –4
–5
b. y
0 x 4
‒5 ‒3 2
3
c. y d. y
2
‒6 0 2 x 1
0 x
3 x ‒24 –2 –1 1 2 3
‒8 ‒ – 8 –1
2 –2
‒192 –3
–4
–5
12. a. y
5. a. y b. y 20
12 15
10
0 x 5
‒1 2
x
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
–5
0 1 x –10
‒3 ‒2
–15
c. y d. y –20
–25
150 0 x
4 –30
‒1
0 x
‒10 ‒5 ‒1

b. y 2. a. y b. y
4
3 32
2 0 x
‒5 ‒2 3
1 x
‒4 ‒2 0 1 2
0 x
–3 –2 –1 1 2 3
–1 3. a. y b. y
–2
–3 4
–4 0 x
–5 2 5– 3
x 2
0
13. a. Positive b. Positive ‒ 2 2
c. Zero d. Positive 4. a. y
14. a = 2, b = −7 4
− (27 + 11 b)
15. a = 3
11
16. a. y
5 2
(1, 4)
4 y = x(x – 3)2
3 1
2 (1, 0)
1 0 x
–2 –1 1 2 3 4
0 x
1 2 3 –1
x = 0 and x = 3
b.
–2
c. 4 units
17. y = 2 (x + 2) (x − 2) (x − 5) b. y
18. a. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions 2 (4, 0)
(–1, 0)
in the online resources. 0 x
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1
–2 1 2 3 4 5
b. 0 < x < 17.5
3
–4
c. 1377 cm –6
d. Turning point –8
(11.6667, 1587.963)
–10
y
–12
1500 (10, 1500) –14
–16
1250
(15, 1125) 5. a. y
1000
5
750
(5, 625) 4
500
3
250
x = 17.518 2
0 x
5 10 15 20
e. (11.6667, 1587.963); this is the value of x which creates 1
the maximum volume.
(3, 0)
0 x
Exercise 15.5 Quartic functions –4 –2 2 4 6
1. a. y b. y –1
24 10
0 x
x ‒2 ‒1 1 5
‒3 ‒10 2 4

b. y 12. a. y b. y
10 30
0 x
9 ‒1 2
8 (0, 8) 20
7 ‒16 10
(‒2, ‒16)
6
5 x
0 1 2 3
4 ‒3 ‒2 ‒1
‒10
3
2 ‒20
(–1, 0) 1 (1, 0) (2, 0) (4, 0)
‒30
x
–1 –10 1 2 3 4 5
–2
–3 13. a = 3, b = −1
–4 14. a. y b. y
–5 (‒2, 400) 400
300
6. y 200
0 x 100
‒1 1 (‒1, 36)
x
–2 –1 0 1 2 3
15. a. If n is even, the graph touches the x-axis.
b. If n is odd, the graph cuts the x-axis.
16. a = 4, b = −19
(–c, 0) 17. a. 15 m
b. y
(b, 0) 35 Turning point
(–d, 0) 0 (a, 0) x (3.4113, 28.9144)
30
25 Turning point
(17.5887, 19.4156)
20
(0, –abcd)
15
10 Turning point ( )1
– – x (x – 12)2 (x – 20) + 15:0 ≤ x ≤ 20
30
(12, 15)
7. D 5
8. D
0 x
9. B 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
10. a. b. c. 28.77 m
y y
18. y = (x + 1) (x − 2)3
x
‒3 ‒2 0 2
Exercise 15.6 Transformations
1. y
0 x ‒24
1 (3, ‒30) y = P(x) + 1
11. a. y
(‒3, 6) 0 x
0 x
‒2 3
‒24 y = ‒P(x)
2. y y = 2P(x)
b. y
y = P(x) ‒ 2
‒2 0 2 x
0 x
(‒3, ‒45)

3. y = P(x) + 1 13. a. y
y
9
y = P(x + 2)
8
y = P(x) y = 3 × 2x
7
0 x 6
‒1 1
5
4
y = ‒P(x) 3 (0, 3)
4. a. The transformation is a translation 2 units horizontally 2
and a translation 1 unit vertically. 1
b. The transformation is a dilation by a factor of 3 x
followed by a translation 2 units horizontally and 7 units –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
vertically.
b. Translation 4 units vertically.
5. a. The transformation is a dilation by a factor of 5 followed
by a translation 1 unit horizontally and 2 units vertically. c. y
11
b. The transformation is a reflection in the y-axis followed
10
by a translation −2 units horizontally and 4 units
9
vertically. y = 3 × 2x + 4
8
6. a. The transformation is a dilation by a factor of 4 followed
7 (0, 7)
by a reflection in the y-axis and then a translation −3 6
units horizontally and 10 units vertically. 5
b. The transformation is a reflection in the y-axis followed 4
y=4
by a translation −7 units horizontally and −6 units 3
vertically and then a reflection in the x-axis. 2
7. They have the same x-intercepts, but y = −P (x) is a 1
reflection of y = P (x) in the x-axis. x
–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
8. They have the same x-intercepts, but the y-values in
y = 2P (x) are all twice as large. d. (0, 7)
9. The entire graph is moved down 2 units. The shape is 2
identical. 14. y=− + 1, x = −2, y = 1
(x + 2)
10. a. y = −P (x) b. y = P (x) − 3 c. y = 2P (x) x
15. a. y = 5 (2 ) + 5, a = 5, b = 5
11. The original graph has been reflected in the x-axis and b. Dilation by a factor of 5 parallel to the y -axis and
dilated by a factor of 2. The location of the intercepts translation of 5 units up. Graph asymptotes to y = 5.
remains unchanged.
12. Dilation by a factor of h from the x-axis, reflection in the Project
1
x-axis, dilation by a factor of q from the y-axis, reflection 1. a. See figure at the bottom of the page.*
in the y-axis, translation of p units left, translation of r units b. All of the graphs have a y-intercept of y = 1. The graphs
down. which have a positive coefficient of x have two positive
x-intercepts. The graphs which have a negative coefficient
*1. a. y
10 y = x2 – 4x + 1
y = x2 + 2x + 1
8
y = x2 + 3x + 1 y = x2 – 3x + 1
y = x2 + 4x + 1 y = x2 – 2x + 1
4
2
(0, 1)
0 x
–6 –4 –2 2 4 6
–2

of x have two negative x-intercepts. As the coefficient of b. y

x decreases the x-intercepts move further left.
c. The value of a affects the width of the graph. The greater
the value, the narrower the graph. When a is negative, the
graph is reflected in the x-axis. The value of c affects 8
the position of the graph vertically. As the value of c
increases, the graph moves upwards. The value of c does –8 1 x
not affect the shape of the graph. c. y
d. Students may find some similarities in the effect of the
coefficients on the different families of graphs. For
example, the constant term always affects the vertical
position of the graph, not its shape and the leading
1 x
coefficient always affects the width of the graph. 2
e. Student responses will vary. Students should aim to
recreate the pattern as best as possible, and describe the 10. D
process in mathematical terms. Sample responses can be 11. A
found in the worked solutions in the online resources. 12. y
2. Student responses will vary. Students should try to use
x
their imagination and create a pattern that they find visually –1 0 2 4
beautiful.
Exercise 15.7 Review questions –16
1. a 13. y
x+7 1
2. a, c, d, , log2 x, − 1
2 x√
3. a. i. 2 ii. 3 iii. 0
b. No. 0 x
–1 1
4. a. y
6
14. The entire graph is moved up 3 units. The shape is identical.
0
15. As x → ∞, f (x) → −∞
x
–2 1 3 As x → −∞, f (x) → 0
16. (2, 0)
y = (x – 1)(x + 2)(x – 3)
17. a. 53.59 mg/L b. 31.42 mg/L c. 72.38 mg/L
b. y
25
18. a. i. 20 ii. 25
b. i. H = 25; D = 28 ii. H = 28; D = 30
c. The hyenas are the first species to reach a population of
1 0 x
–5 – 2 40 by 1 year.
d. After about 23 months; 31 animals
√
x−k k
y = (2x + 1)(x + 5)2 19. a. f−1 (x) = + h, x ≥
5. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions in a a
the online resources. One possible answer is b. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions
y = (x − 1) (x − 2)2 . in the online resources.
6. a. D b. A c. E
20. a. 0.27 m
d. C e. B b. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions
7. D in the online resources.
8. A 21. a. Yes, because the relationship involves a variable as
an exponent.
9. a. y
b. 20 000 km2
c. 11 975 km2
x
–11 2

d. y
20 000
Surface area (km2)

15 000
10 000
5000
0 x
20 40 60 80 100
Years
e. 118 km2
f. No, this is not a realistic model as is it does not take into
account changes to climate, rain, runoff from mountains,
glaciers and so on.

“c16CircleGeometry_PrintPDF” — 2021/9/3 — 8:18 — page 999 — #1
10A
16 Circle geometry
LEARNING SEQUENCE
16.1 Overview ............................................................................................................................................................ 1000
16.2 Angles in a circle ............................................................................................................................................. 1004
16.3 Intersecting chords, secants and tangents .......................................................................................... 1012
16.4 Cyclic quadrilaterals ...................................................................................................................................... 1020
16.5 Tangents, secants and chords .................................................................................................................. 1025
16.6 Review ................................................................................................................................................................ 1032
16.1 Overview
Why learn this?
For thousands of years, humans have been fascinated by circles.
Since they first looked upwards towards the sun and moon, which,
from a distance at least, looked circular, artists have created circular
monuments to nature. The most famous circular invention, one
that has been credited as the most important invention of all, is the
wheel. The potter’s wheel can be traced back to around 3500 BC,
approximately 300 years before wheels were used on chariots for
transportation. Our whole transportation system revolves around
wheels — bicycles, cars, trucks, trains and planes. Scholars as
early as Socrates and Plato, Greek philosophers of the fourth
century BCE, have been fascinated with the sheer beauty of the
properties of circles. Many scholars made a life’s work out of
studying them, most famously Euclid, a Greek mathematician. It
is in circle geometry that the concepts of congruence and similarity,
studied earlier, have a powerful context. Today, we see circles in
many different areas. Some buildings are now constructed based
on circular designs. Engineers, designers and architects understand
the various properties of circles. Road systems often have circular
interchanges, and amusement parks usually include ferris wheels.
As with the simple rectangle, circles are now part of our everyday
life. Knowing the various properties of circles helps with our
understanding and appreciation of this simple shape.
Where to get help

Fully worked
solutions
eLessons
to every
question
Digital
eWorkbook
documents

1. State the name of the area of the circle between a chord and the circumference.
2. MC Select the name of a line that touches the circumference of a circle at one point only.
A. Secant B. Radius C. Chord D. Tangent E. Sector
3. Calculate the angle of x within the circle shown.
x°
70°
4. MC Select the correct angles for y and z in the circle shown.
2z° y°
40°
A. y = 40° and z = 80° B. y = 20° and z = 40° C. y = 40° and z = 80°

D. y = 40° and z = 40° E. y = 40° and z = 20°
5. Determine the value of x in the circle shown.
25° x°
6. Determine the value of y in the shape shown.
y°
75°
TOPIC 16 Circle geometry 1001

7. MC Select the correct values of x, y and z from the following list:
y x
z
15°
A. x = 15°, y = 75° and z = 150°

B. x = 15°, y = 30° and z = 150°
C. x = 15°, y = 15° and z = 37.5°
D. x = 15°, y = 30° and z = 37.5°
E. x = 15°, y = 75° and z = 75°
8. Calculate the length of p in the circle.

D
A
2 3
p
4
C
B
9. Calculate the length of m, correct to one decimal place.
C
4
D A
5 m
B
6
X
10. MC Choose the correct value for the length of x.
2
x
√
A.
√10
B. 5
C. 2
D. 10
E. 5

11. Determine the values of m and p.
(2p + 15°) 2m°
80°
125°
12. MC Select the correct values for x and y.
83°
110° x°
y°
A. x = 110° and y = 83° B. x = 83° and y = 110° C. x = 70° and y = 97°

D. x = 97° and y = 70° E. x = 70° and y = 107°
13. MC Choose which of the following correctly states the relationships between x, y and z in the diagram.
x°
y°
z°
x
A. x = 2y and z + y = 180° B. y = and z + y = 180° C. x = 2y and z + x = 180
°
2
y
D. x = and z + y = 180° E. y = 2x and z + x = 180°
2
14. MC Choose the correct value for x.

A
3
B
4
X
x T
√ √ √
A. 2 5 B. 28 C. 7 D. 2 7 E. 5
15. MC AB = 9 and P divides AB in the ratio 2 ∶ 3.

A D
If PO = 3 where O is the centre of the circle, select the exact length of the
diameter of the circle.
√ √ √
6 79 4 79 3 79 P
A. B. C.
5 2 5 O
√ √
6 81 3 79 B
D. E.
5 2 C

16.2 Angles in a circle

LEARNING INTENTION
• determine relationships between the angles at the centre and the circumference of a circle
• understand and use the angle in a semicircle being a right angle
• apply the relationships between tangents and radii of circles.
16.2.1 Circles
eles-4995
• A circle is a connected set of points that lie a fixed distance (the radius) from a fixed point (the centre).
• In circle geometry, there are many theorems that can be used to solve problems. It is important that we are
also able to prove these theorems.
Steps to prove a theorem
Step 1. State the aim of the proof

Step 2. Use given information and previously established theorems to establish the result
Step 3. Give a reason for each step of the proof
Step 4. State a clear conclusion.
Parts of a circle
Part (name) Description Diagram

Centre The middle point, equidistant from all points
on the circumference. It is usually shown by O
a dot and labelled O.
Circumference The outside length or the boundary forming

the circle. It is the circle’s perimeter. O
Radius A straight line from the centre to any point

on the circumference. O
Radii Plural of radius.

Part (name) Description Diagram

Diameter A straight line from one point on the
circumference to another, passing through O
the centre
Chord A straight line from one point on the

circumference to another O
Segment The area of the circle between a chord and

the circumference. The smaller segment O
is called the minor segment and the larger
segment is the major segment.
Sector An area of a circle enclosed by 2 radii and

the circumference O
Arc A portion of the circumference

O
Tangent A straight line that touches the

circumference at one point only
O
Secant A chord extended beyond the circumference

on one side O

Angles in a circle
C
• In the diagram at right, chords AC and BC form the angle ACB. Arc AB has subtended
angle ACB.
• Theorem 1 Code
The angle subtended at the centre of a circle is twice the angle subtended at the A B
circumference, standing on the same arc.
Proof: R
Let ∠PRO = x and ∠QRO = y
O
RO = PO = QO (radii of the same circle are equal) Q
∠RPO = x
P
and ∠RQO = y
∠POM = 2x (exterior angle of triangle) R
and ∠QOM = 2y (exterior angle of triangle) x y
∠POQ = 2x + 2y
O Q
= 2 (x + y)
which is twice the size of ∠PRQ = x + y. P M
The angle subtended at the centre of a circle is twice the angle subtended at the circumference, standing on
the same arc.
• Theorem 2 Code
All angles that have their vertex on the circumference and are subtended by the same
arc are equal.
Proof:
Join P and Q to O, the centre of the circle.
Let ∠PSQ = x P Q
∠POQ = 2x (angle at the centre is twice the angle at the circumference) R
∠PRQ = x (angle at the circumference is half the angle of the centre)
∠PSQ = ∠PRQ. S
O
Angles at the circumference subtended by the same arc are equal.
P Q
WORKED EXAMPLE 1 Determining angles in a circle
Determine the values of the pronumerals x and y in the diagram, giving reasons for your answers.
46° x
O
y
THINK WRITE
1. Angles x and 46° are angles subtended by the same arc x = 46°
and both have their vertex on the circumference.
2. Angles y and 46° stand on the same arc. The 46° angle y = 2 × 46°
has its vertex on the circumference and y has its vertex at = 92°
the centre. The angle at the centre is twice the angle at the
circumference.

• Theorem 3 Code
Angles subtended by the diameter, that is, angles in a semicircle, are right angles.
In the diagram, PQ is the diameter. Angles a, b and c are right angles. This theorem is in
fact a special case of Theorem 1. c b
Proof: Q
∠POQ = 180° (straight line) P O
a
Let S refer to the angle at the circumference subtended by the diameter. In the figure, S
could be at the points where a, b and c are represented on the diagram.
∠PSQ = 90°(angle at the circumference is half the angle at the centre)
Angles subtended by a diameter are right angles.
eles-4996
16.2.2 Tangents to a circle
• In the diagram, the tangent touches the circumference of the circle at the point of contact.
r Tangent
O
• Theorem 4 Code
A tangent to a circle is perpendicular to the radius of the circle at the point of contact on the
circumference.
In the diagram, the radius is drawn to a point, P, on the circumference. The tangent to the circle is also
drawn at P. The radius and the tangent meet at right angles, that is, the angle at P equals 90°.
O P
WORKED EXAMPLE 2 Determining angles when tangents are drawn to a circle
Determine the values of the pronumerals in the diagram, giving a reason for your answer.
z
s
O
THINK WRITE
1. Angle z is subtended by the diameter. Use an appropriate z = 90°

theorem to state the value of z.
2. Angle s is formed by a tangent and a radius, drawn to the s = 90°

point of contact. Apply the corresponding theorem to find
the value of s.

• Theorem 5 Code
The angle formed by two tangents meeting at an external point is bisected by
R
a straight line joining the centre of the circle to that external point.
Proof:
Consider ΔSOR and ΔSOT. O S
OR = OT (radii of the same circle are equal)
OS is common. T
∠ORS = ∠OTS = 90° (angle between a tangent and radii is 90°)
∴ ΔSOR ≅ ΔSOT (RHS)
So ∠ROS = ∠TOS and ∠OSR = ∠OST (corresponding angles in congruent triangles are equal).
The angle formed by two tangents meeting at an external point is bisected by a straight line joining the
centre of the circle to the external point.
WORKED EXAMPLE 3 Determining angles using properties of tangents
Given that BA and BC are tangents to the circle, determine the values of the pronumerals in the
diagram. Give reasons for your answers.
A
r
68° t
O B
q u
s
C
THINK WRITE
1. Angles r and s are angles formed by the s = r = 90°

tangent and the radius, drawn to the same point
on the circle. State their size.
2. In the triangle ABO, two angles are already ΔABO: t + 90° + 68° = 180°
known and so angle t can be found using t + 158° = 180°
our knowledge of the sum of the angles in a t = 22°
triangle.
3. ∠ABC is formed by the two tangents, so the ∠ABO = ∠CBO
line BO, joining the vertex B with the centre of ∠ABO = t = 22°, ∠CBO = u
the circle, bisects this angle. This means that u = 22°
angles t and u are equal.
4. All angles in a triangle have a sum of 180°. In ΔAOB and ΔCOB

ΔAOB and ΔCOB are congruent triangles
r + t + 68° = 180°
using RHS, they are both right angled
triangles, the hypotenuse is common and s + u + q = 180°
OA = OB, radii. r = s = 90° (proved previously)
t = u = 22° (proved previously
∴ q = 68°

DISCUSSION
What are the common steps in proving a theorem?
Resources
Resourceseses
Digital documents SkillSHEET Using tests to prove congruent triangles (doc-5390)
SkillSHEET Corresponding sides and angles of congruent triangles (doc-5391)
SkillSHEET Using tests to prove similar triangles (doc-5392)
SkillSHEET Angles in a triangle (doc-5393)
SkillSHEET More angle relations (doc-5394)
Interactivities Circle theorem 1 (int-6218)
Circle theorem 2 (int-6219)
Exercise 16.2 Angles in a circle

Individual pathways
1, 4, 6, 8, 13, 17 2, 5, 9, 11, 14, 18 3, 7, 10, 12, 15, 16, 19
Fluency
WE1 For questions 1 to 3, calculate the values of the pronumerals in each of the following, giving reasons for
your answers.
1. a. 30° b. P c.
Q S
x 32°
y
x 25° R x
A B
2. a. b. c. A
x
30°
y O
40° 80° O x
x
A B B
3. a. b. c. B
O 50° O x 28°
42° x x A
A O
y
B

4. WE2 Determine the values of the pronumerals in each of the following figures, giving reasons for
your answers.
a. b. c.
t m n
u
s
5. Calculate the values of the pronumerals in each of the following figures, giving reasons for your answers.
a. b. c.
38° O
x x
75° O
x
y
Understanding
6. WE3 Given that AB and DB are tangents, determine the value of the pronumerals in each of the following,
giving reasons for your answers.
a. A b. A c. A
x r
70° y y 20°
O w B B 40° t O O x B
z
z s
D D D
7. Given that AB and DB are tangents, determine the value of the pronumerals in each of the following, giving
reasons for your answers.
a. b. D c. A
O
D 15° x z
A B
s 70° x y 20°
yO
B
y z B
A x
rz
O
D
8. MC The value of x in the diagram is:

A. 240° B. 120° C. 90° A x
D. 60° E. 100° O B
240°
9. MC The value of x in the diagram is:

A. 50° B. 90° C. 100°
D. 80° E. 200° O
x 50°

10. MC Choose which of the following statements is true for this diagram.
A
A. ∠ACB = 2 × ∠ADB B. ∠AEB = ∠ACB C. ∠ACB = ∠ADB
C
D. ∠AEB = ∠ADB E. 2 × ∠ACB = ∠ADB
E
D
11. MC In the diagram shown, determine which angle is subtended by the same arc as ∠APB. D
Note: There may be more than one correct answer. P
A. ∠APC B. ∠BPC C. ∠ABP
A
D. ∠ADB E. ∠BPD
C B
12. MC For the diagram shown, determine which of the statements is true.
B C
A. 2∠AOD = ∠ABD B. ∠AOD = 2∠ACD C. ∠ABF = ∠ABD F
D. ∠ABD = ∠ACD E. ∠AOD = ∠ABF
O
A D
Reasoning
13. Values are suggested for the pronumerals in the diagram shown. AB is a A
tangent to a circle and O is the centre. B
r
s
In each case give reasons to justify suggested values. 25°
a. s = t = 45° b. r = 45° t
C m u O
c. u = 65° d. m = 25°
D n
e. n = 45° F
14. Set out below is the proof of this result: The angle at the centre of a circle is twice the angle at R
the circumference standing on the same arc. a
Copy and complete the following to show that ∠POQ = 2 × ∠PRQ. O
Construct a diameter through R. Let the opposite end of the diameter be S. b
Let ∠ORP = x and ∠ORQ = y. P Q
OR = OP (____________________________)
∠OPR = x (____________________________) x R y
∠SOP = 2x (exterior angle equals ____________________________)
OR = OQ (____________________________) O
∠OQR = ____________________________ (____________________________)
∠SOQ = ____________________________ (____________________________) P Q
S
Now ∠PRQ = ___________ and ∠POQ = ___________.
Therefore ∠POQ = 2 × ∠PRQ.
15. Prove that the segments formed by drawing tangents from an external point to a circle are equal in length.
16. Use the figure shown to prove that angles subtended by the same arc are equal.
R S
O
P Q

Problem solving
17. Determine the value of x in each of the following diagrams.
a. b.
3x + 12 75 – 2x
O
6x – 50
2x – 2
18. Use your knowledge of types of triangles, angles in triangles and the fact
that the radius of a circle meets the tangent to the circle at right angles to K
prove the following theorem:
The angle formed between two tangents meeting at an external point is a
O a M
bisected by a line from the centre of the circle to the external point.
19. WX is the diameter of a circle with centre at O. Y is a point on the circle
L
and WY is extended to Z so that OY = YZ. Prove that angle ZOX is three
times angle YOZ.
W X
O
16.3 Intersecting chords, secants and tangents

LEARNING INTENTION
• apply the intersecting chords, secants and tangents theorems
• recognise that a radius will bisect a chord at right angles
• understand the concept of the circumcentre of a triangle.
16.3.1 Intersecting chords

eles-4997 P
• In the diagram at right, chords PQ and RS intersect at X.
• Theorem 6 Code S
If the two chords intersect inside a circle, then the point of intersection divides each X
chord into two segments so that the product of the lengths of the segments for both R
Q
chords is the same.
P
PX × QX = RX × SX
or a × b = c × d a
d S
c X b
R Q
Proof:
Join PR and SQ.
Consider ΔPRX and ΔSQX.
∠PXR = ∠SXQ (vertically opposite angles are equal)
∠RSQ = ∠RPQ (angles at the circumference standing on the same arc are equal)
∠PRS = ∠PQS (angles at the circumference standing on the same arc are equal)
ΔPRX ~ ΔSQX (equiangular)
PX RX
= (ratio of sides in similar triangles is equal)
SX QX
or, PX × QX = RX × SX
WORKED EXAMPLE 4 Determining values using intersecting chords
Determine the value of the pronumeral m.

A
4 5 D
6 X
C m
THINK WRITE
1. Chords AB and CD intersect at X. Point X AX × BX = CX × DX

divides each chord into two parts so that the
products of the lengths of these parts are equal.
Write this as a mathematical statement.
2. Identify the lengths of the line segments. AX = 4, BX = m, CX = 6, DX = 5
3. Substitute the given lengths into the formula 4m = 6 × 5

and solve for m. 30
m=
4
= 7.5
16.3.2 Intersecting secants

eles-4998
• In the diagram at right, chords CD and AB are extended to form secants CX and AX
C
respectively. They intersect at X.
D
• Theorem 7 Code
X
If two secants intersect outside the circle as shown, then the following B A
relationship is always true:
C
c
D
d
X
b B A
a
AX × XB = XC × DX
or a × b = c × d.

Proof:
Join D and A to O, the centre of the circle. C
Let ∠DCA = x x
D
∠DOA = 2x (angle at the centre is twice the angle at the circumference O
standing on the same arc) X A
B
Reflex ∠DOA = 360° − 2x (angles in a revolution add to 360°)
∠DBA = 180° − x (angle at the centre is twice the angle at the circumference
standing on the same arc)
∠DBX = x (angle sum of a straight line is 180°)
∠DCA = ∠DBX
Consider ΔBXD and ΔCXA.
∠BXD is common.
∠DCA = ∠DBX (shown previously)
∠XAC = ∠XDB (angle sum of a triangle is 180°)
∠AXC ~ ΔDXB (equiangular)
AX XC
=
DX XB
or, AX × XB = XC × DX
WORKED EXAMPLE 5 Determining pronumerals using intersecting secants.
Determine the value of the pronumeral y.

C
y
D
A
6 5
B
7
X
THINK WRITE
1. Secants XC and AX intersect outside the circle at X. XC × DX = AX × XB
Write the rule connecting the lengths of XC, DX, AX
and XB.
2. State the length of the required line segments. XC = y + 6 DX = 6
AX = 7 + 5 XB = 7
= 12
3. Substitute the length of the line segments and solve (y + 6) × 6 = 12 × 7

the equation for y. 6y + 36 = 84
6y = 48
y=8
16.3.3 Intersecting tangents

eles-4999 A
• In the diagram, the tangents AC and BC intersect at C.

• Theorem 8 Code
If two tangents meet outside a circle, then the lengths from the external point to where they meet the
circle are equal.
Proof:
Join A and B to O, the centre of the circle.
A
Consider ΔOCA and ΔOCB.
OC is common.
OA = OB (radii of the same circle are equal) C O
∠OAC = ∠OBC (radius is perpendicular to tangent through the point of contact)
ΔOCA ≅ ΔOCB (RHS) B
AC = BC (corresponding sides of congruent triangles are equal)
If two tangents meet outside a circle, the lengths from the external point to the point of contact are equal.
WORKED EXAMPLE 6 Determining the pronumeral using lengths of tangents.

B
3
C
m
A
THINK WRITE
1. BC and AC are tangents intersecting at C. AC = BC

State the rule that connects the lengths BC
and AC.
2. State the lengths of BC and AC. AC = m, BC = 3
3. Substitute the required lengths into the m=3
equation to find the value of m.
16.3.4 Chords and radii

eles-5000
• In the diagram at right, the chord AB and the radius OC intersect at X at 90°; that is,
∠OXB = 90°. OC bisects the chord AB; that is, AX = XB. O
• Theorem 9 Code
A B
If a radius and a chord intersect at right angles, then the radius bisects the chord. X
Proof: C
Join OA and OB.
Consider ΔOAX and ΔOBX.
OA = OB (radii of the same circle are equal) O
∠OXB = ∠OXA (given)
OX is common. A B
X
ΔOAX ≅ ΔOBX (RHS) C
AX = BX (corresponding sides in congruent triangles are equal)
If a radius and a chord intersect at right angles, then the radius bisects the chord.
• The converse is also true:
If a radius bisects a chord, the radius and the chord meet at right angles.

• Theorem 10 Code P
M
Chords equal in length are equidistant from the centre. B
This theorem states that if the chords MN and PR are of equal length, then OD = OC. C
A
Proof: D O
R
Construct OA⊥MN and OB⊥PR.
Then OA bisects MN and OB bisects PR (Theorem 9) N
Because MN = PR, MD = DN = PC = CR.

Construct OM and OP, and consider ΔODM and ΔOCP.
M P
MD = PC (shown above) B
OM = OP (radii of the same circle are equal) C
A
∠ODM = ∠OCP = 90° (by construction) D O
R
ΔODM ≅ ΔOCP (RHS)
So OD = OC (corresponding sides in congruent triangles are equal) N
Chords equal in length are equidistant from the centre.
WORKED EXAMPLE 7 Determining pronumerals using theorems on chords
Determine the values of the pronumerals, given that AB = CD.

G
A E
m B
n 3
O
2.5
F D
C
H
THINK WRITE
1. Since the radius OG is perpendicular to the AE = EB

chord AB, the radius bisects the chord.
2. State the lengths of AE and EB. AE = m, EB = 3
3. Substitute the lengths into the equation to find m=3
the value of m.
4. AB and CD are chords of equal length and OE OE = OF
and OF are perpendicular to these chords. This
implies that OE and OF are equal in length.
5. State the lengths of OE and OF. OE = n, OF = 2.5
6. Substitute the lengths into the equation to find n = 2.5
the value of n.
The circumcentre of a triangle

• A circle passing through the three vertices of a triangle is called the circumcircle of the C
triangle.
• The centre of this circle is called the circumcentre of the triangle.
A
B

• The circumcentre is located by:

Step 1: drawing any triangle ABC and label the vertices C
A
B
Step 2: constructing the perpendicular bisectors of the three sides C
Step 3: let the bisectors intersect at O.
• This means OA = OB = OC, by congruent triangles. O
• A circle, centre O, can be drawn through the vertices A, B and C. A
• The point O is the circumcentre of the triangle. B
DISCUSSION
What techniques will you use to prove circle theorem?
Resources
Resourceseses
Exercise 16.3 Intersecting chords, secants and tangents

Individual pathways
1, 4, 9, 12 2, 5, 7, 10, 13 3, 6, 8, 11, 14
Fluency
1. WE4 Determine the value of the pronumeral in each of the following.
a. A D b. C c. C
m 4
A 6 A m
6 X 9 2 4 X
X B
C 8 m 9
D m
B
D B


a. b.
4
2
m 4.5
3
n
5 6
3. Determine the value of the pronumeral in each of the following.

a. b.
8 5
4 6
n 3
7
m
4. WE6 Determine the value of the pronumerals in each of the following.

a. 5 b. c. x
7 3.1
x 2.5 y
m

a. b.
3.3 x
2.8
O
x O
6. Determine the value of the pronumeral in each of the following.

a. b.
m
2.5 2.5
5.6 x O
O
Understanding
7. MC Select which of the following figures allows the value of m to be determined by solving a linear
equation.
A. B. C. D.
7 7
m
2 2 m
4
5 m m 3 4 2
2
3 1

8. Calculate the length ST in the diagram.

Q 5 cm
R 4 cm
S
T
P 9 cm
Reasoning
9. Prove the result: If a radius bisects a chord, then the radius meets the chord at right angles. Remember to
provide reasons for your statements.
10. Prove the result: Chords that are an equal distance from the centre are equal in length. Provide reasons for
your statements.
11. Prove that the line joining the centres of two intersecting circles bisects their common chord at right angles.
Provide reasons for your statements.
Problem solving
12. Determine the value of the pronumeral in each of the following diagrams.
a. b. c.
3
x
4 O
6 10 3x
8
x
4x 15 y
13. AOB is the diameter of the circle. CD is a chord

perpendicular to AB and meeting AB at M. C
a. Explain why M is the midpoint of CD.
b. If CM = c, AM = a and MB = b, prove that c2 = ab.
a+b
c. Explain why the radius of the circle is equal to . c
2
O b
A B
a M
14. An astroid is the curve traced by a point on the circumference of a small circle as it rolls around the inside
circumference of a circle that is four times larger than it. Draw the shape of an astroid.

16.4 Cyclic quadrilaterals

LEARNING INTENTION
• recognize a cyclic quadrilateral
• determine pronumerals knowing the opposite angles of a cyclic quadrilateral are supplementary
• determine pronumerals knowing the exterior angle of a cyclic quadrilateral equals the interior
opposite angle.
16.4.1 Quadrilaterals in circles

eles-5001
• A cyclic quadrilateral has all four vertices on the circumference of a circle; that is, the
B
quadrilateral is inscribed in the circle. A
• In the diagram at right, points A, B, C and D lie on the circumference; hence, ABCD is a
cyclic quadrilateral. C
• It can also be said that points A, B, C and D are concyclic; that is, the circle passes through
D
all the points.
• Theorem 11 Code B
A
The opposite angles of a cyclic quadrilateral are supplementary (add to 180°). x
Proof: O C
Join A and C to O, the centre of the circle.
Let ∠ABC = x. D
Reflex ∠AOC = 2x (angle at the centre is twice the angle at the circumference standing on the same arc)
Reflex ∠AOC = 360° − 2x (angles in a revolution add to 360°)
∠ADC = 180° − x (angle at the centre is twice the angle at the circumference standing on the same arc)
∠ABC + ∠ADC = 180°
Similarly, ∠DAB + ∠DCB = 180°.
Opposite angles in a cyclic quadrilateral are supplementary.
• The converse is also true:
If opposite angles of a quadrilateral are supplementary, then the quadrilateral is cyclic.
WORKED EXAMPLE 8 Determining angles in a cyclic quadrilateral
Determine the values of the pronumerals in the diagram below. Give reasons for Q
your answers. P 75°
120°
y R
x
THINK WRITE S
1. PQRS is a cyclic quadrilateral, so its opposite angles ∠PQR + ∠RSP = 180° (The opposite angles of a
are supplementary. First calculate the value of x by cyclic quadrilateral are supplementary.)
considering a pair of opposite angles ∠PQR and ∠PQR = 75°, ∠RSP = x
∠RSP and forming an equation to solve. x + 75° = 180°
x = 105°
2. Calculate the value of y by considering the other pair ∠SPQ + ∠QRS = 180°
of opposite angles (∠SPQ and ∠QRS). ∠SPQ = 120° , ∠QRS = y
y + 120° = 180°
y = 60°

• Theorem 12 Code Q
The exterior angle of a cyclic quadrilateral is equal to the interior opposite angle. P
Proof: b
T a
∠QPS + ∠QRS = 180° (opposite angles of a cyclic quadrilateral) a R
∠QPS + ∠SPT = 180° (adjacent angles on a straight line)
S
Therefore ∠SPT = ∠QRS.
The exterior angle of a cyclic quadrilateral is equal to the interior opposite angle.
WORKED EXAMPLE 9 Determining pronumerals in a cyclic quadrilateral
Determine the value of the pronumerals x and y in the diagram below.

A
50°
D y B
100°
C x
THINK WRITE
1. ABCD is a cyclic quadrilateral. The exterior angle, x = ∠DAB, ∠DAB = 50°

x, is equal to its interior opposite angle, ∠DAB. So x = 50°.
2. The exterior angle, 100°, is equal to its interior ∠ADC = 100°, ∠ADC = y
opposite angle, ∠ADC. So y = 100°.
DISCUSSION
What is a cyclic quadrilateral?
Resources
Resourceseses
Digital document SkillSHEET Angles in a quadrilateral (doc-5396)

Exercise 16.4 Cyclic quadrilaterals

Individual pathways
1, 4, 5, 10, 13, 16 2, 3, 6, 11, 14, 17 7, 8, 9, 12, 15, 18
Fluency
WE8 In questions 1 and 2, calculate the values of the pronumerals in each of the following.
1. a. b. c.
65° n
m
92° 95°
x y 155°
2. a. b. c.
x y
135°
O
O 85°
50° x y x
WE9 In questions 3 to 6, calculate the values of the pronumerals in each of the following.
3. a. b. y c.
x 95°
80°
y x
85°
115° x
110°
4. a. b. c.
x 120° 130°
x
150° 120°
y
n m
5. a. b.
3b 120°
a 89°
91°
a
b b

6. a. b. c.
y x
y
z 85°
78°
54°
x y
113° x
d. e. y f.
2x 101°
2x
x
103°
x
72°
y z
y
Understanding
7. MC Which of the following statements is true for this diagram?
A. r = q B. r + n = 180°
q
C. m + n = 180° D. r + m = 180° r
E. q = s n
O
m s
8. MC Which of the following statements is not true for this diagram?

A. b + f = 180° B. a = f C. e = d
D. c + d = 180° E. c + f = 180° a b c d
f
e
9. MC Choose which of the following correctly states the relationship between x, y and z in
the diagram. x
A. x = y and x = 2z B. x = 2y and y + z = 180° O
C. z = 2x and y = 2z D. x + y = 180° and z = 2x z
E. x + y = 180° and y + z = 180° y
10. Follow the steps below to set out the proof that the opposite angles of a cyclic quadrilateral
are equal. A B
x
a. Calculate the size of ∠DOB. b. Calculate the size of the reflex angle DOB. O
c. Calculate the size of ∠BCD. d. Calculate ∠DAB + ∠BCD.
C
D

11. MC Choose which of the following statements is always true for the diagram shown.
q r
A. r = t B. r = p C. r = q
D. r = s E. r < 90° p s
t
12. MC Choose which of the following statements is correct for the diagram shown.
A. r + p = 180° B. q + s = 180° C. t + p = 180° q r
D. t = r E. t = q p s
t
Reasoning
13. Prove that the exterior angle of a cyclic quadrilateral is equal to the interior opposite angle.
14. Determine the value of the pronumerals in the diagram.

Give a reason for your answer.
x y
z 87°
15. Determine the value of the pronumerals in the diagram.

Give a reason for your answer.
16x2 – 10x
20x2 – 8x
Problem solving
16. Determine the value of the pronumeral x in the diagram shown.
3x2 – 5x + 1
2x – 1 – 3x2

17. Determine the value of each pronumeral in the diagram shown.
y
z 2
x 110°
z+5 w
110°
18. ∠FAB = 70°, ∠BEF = a°, ∠BED = b° and ∠BCD = c°. A

a. Calculate the values of a, b and c.
70°
b. Prove that CD is parallel to AF.
B
C
c°
a° b° D
16.5 Tangents, secants and chords

LEARNING INTENTION
• apply the alternate segment theorem to evaluate pronumerals
• determine the lengths of tangents and secants when they intersect.
16.5.1 The alternate segment theorem

eles-5002
• Consider the figure shown. Line BC is a tangent to the circle at the point A.
• A line is drawn from A to anywhere on the circumference, point D.
The angle ∠BAD defines a segment (the shaded area).
D
The unshaded part of the circle is called the alternate segment to ∠BAD. O
B A C
• Now consider angles subtended by the chord AD in the alternate segment, such E
as the angles marked in pink and blue.
• The alternate segment theorem states that these are equal to the angle that made the O
segment, namely: D
F
∠BAD = ∠AED and ∠BAD = ∠AFD
B A C

• Theorem 13 Code
The angle between a tangent and a chord is equal to the angle in the G
alternate segment.
Proof:
We are required to prove that ∠BAD = ∠AFD. D O
Construct the diameter from A through O, meeting the circle at G. F
Join G to the points D and F.
∠BAG = ∠CAG = 90° (radii ⊥tangent at point of contact)
B A C
∠GFA = 90° (angle in a semicircle is 90°)
∠GDA = 90° (angle in a semicircle is 90°)
Consider ΔGDA. We know that ∠GDA = 90°.
∠GDA + ∠DAG + ∠AGD = 180°
90° + ∠DAG + ∠AGD = 180°
∠DAG + ∠AGD = 90°
∠BAG is also a right angle.
∠BAG = ∠BAD + ∠DAG = 90°
Equate the two results.
∠DAG + ∠AGD = ∠BAD + ∠DAG
Cancel the equal angles (∠DAG) on both sides.
∠AGD = ∠BAD
Now consider the fact that both triangles DAG and DAF are subtended from the same chord (DA).
∠AGD = ∠AFD (Angles in the same segment standing on the same arc are equal).
Equate the two equations.
∠AFD = ∠BAD
WORKED EXAMPLE 10 Determining pronumerals using the alternate segment theorem
Determine the value of the pronumerals x and y, giving reasons.

A
x
B
D 62° y C
THINK WRITE
1. Use the alternate segment theorem to x = 62° (angle between a tangent and a chord is equal
calculate x. to the angle in the alternate segment.)
2. The value of y is the same as x because x and y = 62° (angles in the same segment standing on the
y are subtended by the same chord BT. same arc are equal.)

16.5.2 Tangents and secants

eles-5003
• Theorem 14 Code
If a tangent and a secant intersect as shown, the following relationship is
A
always true:
XA × XB = (XT)2 or a × b = c2 . a
Proof: B
Join BT and AT. b
Consider ΔTXB and ΔAXT. X
c
∠TXB is common. T
∠XTB = ∠XAT (angle between a tangent and a chord is equal to the angle
in the alternate segment) A
∠XBT = ∠XTA (angle sum of a triangle is 180°)
ΔTXB~ΔAXT (equiangular)
XB XT B
So, =
XT XA
or, XA × XB = (XT)2 . X
T
WORKED EXAMPLE 11 Determining pronumerals with intersecting tangents and secants
A m
B 5
X
8
T
THINK WRITE
1. Secant XA and tangent XT intersect at X. Write the rule XA × XB = (XT)2

connecting the lengths of XA, XB and XT.
2. State the values of XA, XB and XT. XA = m + 5, XB = 5, XT = 8
3. Substitute the values of XA, XB and XT into the equation (m + 5) × 5 = 82
and solve for m. 5m + 25 = 64
5m = 39
m = 7.8
DISCUSSION
Describe the alternate segment of a circle.
Resources
Resourceseses

Exercise 16.5 Tangents, secants and chords

Individual pathways
1, 2, 3, 9, 13, 14, 18, 22 4, 5, 6, 10, 15, 16, 17, 19, 23 7, 8, 11, 12, 20, 21, 24
Fluency
1. WE10 Determine the value of the pronumerals in the following diagrams.
a. b. 59°
x
70° 47°
y x
2. WE11 Calculate the value of the pronumerals in the following diagrams.

a. b.
5
4
12
p
q
4
3. Line AB is a tangent to the circle as shown in the figure. Calculate the values of the B y
angles labelled x and y.
A x
O
21°
Questions 4 to 6 refer to the figure shown. The line MN is a tangent to the circle, and D M
EA is a straight line. The circles have the same radius.
F G
E A
4. MC If ∠DAC = 20°, then ∠CFD and ∠FDG are respectively: O C
A. 70° and 50° B. 70° and 40°
B N
C. 40° and 70° D. 70° and 70°
E. 40° and 50°
5. MC A triangle similar to FDA is:

A. FDG B. FGB C. EDA D. GDE E. ABD
6. State six different right angles.
7. Calculate the values of the angles x and y in the figure shown. A

y 42°
O
x
62°
B

Understanding
8. Show that if the sum of the two given angles in question 7 is 90°, then the line AB must be a diameter.
9. Calculate the value of x in the figure shown, given that the line underneath the
circle is a tangent. x
100°
O
20°
10. In the figure shown, express x in terms of a and b. This is the same diagram as in
question 9. x
a O
11. Two tangent lines to a circle meet at an angle y, as shown in the figure. Determine
the values of the angles x, y and z. 10°
z
O
x y
12. Solve question 11 in the general case (see the figure) and show that y = 2a. This
result is important for space navigation (imagine the circle to be the Earth) in that a
an object at y can be seen by people at x and z at the same time.
z
O
x y
13. In the figure shown, determine the values of the angles x, y and z.
z
y
75°
x
20°
14. MC Examine the figure shown. The angles x and y (in degrees) are
respectively: 51
y
A. 51 and 99 B. 51 and 129 19
C. 39 and 122 D. 51 and 122 x O
E. 39 and 99

Questions 15 to 17 refer to the figure shown. The line BA is a tangent to the circle at C
point B. Line AC is a chord that meets the tangent at A. x
y D
15. Determine the values of the angles x and y. O
z 50° 45° A
16. MC The triangle that is similar to triangle BAD is:
B
A. CAB B. BCD C. BDC
D. AOB E. DOC
17. MC The value of the angle z is:

A. 50° B. 85° C. 95°
D. 100° E. 75°
Reasoning
18. Determine the values of the angles x, y and z in the figure shown. The line AB is
tangent to the circle at B.
O C
D 33°
y 92°
A z x
B
19. Calculate the values of the angles x, y and z in the figure shown. The line AB is
tangent to the circle at B. The line CD is a diameter.
C
x
O y D
25° z A
B
20. Solve question 19 in the general case; that is, express angles x, y and z in terms
of a (see the figure).
C
x
O y D
a z A
B
21. Prove that, when two circles touch, their centres and the point of contact are collinear.
Problem solving
22. Calculate the value of the pronumerals in the following.
a. b. c.
m
x 4 4 n
k
6
4
5

23. Determine the value of the pronumerals in the following.

a.
7
b. a
1
6 b
5.5
8
11
c.
x
w
3
24. Calculate the values of a, b and c in each case.

a. ∠BCE = 50° and ∠ACE = c b. E
E B c a b C
B 70°
50° 50°
F D
c
a C
b
A
D A

16.6 Review
Cyclic quadrilaterals Angles in a circle
• Angle at centre is twice the angles
• Opposite angles of cyclic
at circumference standing on a
quadrilateral are supplementary.
the same arc.
e.g. a + b = 180˚ O
• Exterior angle of a a b e.g. b = 2a
b
cyclic quadrilateral a
equals the interior
opposite angle.
• Angles at circumference standing
on the same arc are equal. a b
a=b=c
CIRCLE GEOMETRY c
Tangents to a circle
• Tangent is perpendicular to the radius
at the point of contact. • Angle in a semicircle is 90°. a
• Lengths of tangents from a = 90°, b = 180°
an external point are equal. O
a=b O b
O Chords and secants

b • When chords intersect inside a circle,
the product of the lengths of the
segments are equal.
a
a×b=c×d d
• Line from the
centre bisects the
a c b
external angle O a
between two
tangents.
• When chords intersect outside a circle,
then the following is true:
a×b=c×d c
Tangents and secants
d
• Angle between a tangent and
a chord equals the angle in b
a
the alternate segment. x
• If tangent and segment
intersect then: a × b = c 2 x • Perpendicular bisector of a chord passes
through the centre of the circle.
a O


16.2 I can determine relationships between the angles at the centre and the
circumference of a circle.
I can understand and use the angle in a semicircle being a right angle.
I can apply the relationships between tangents and radii or circles.
16.3 I can apply the intersecting chords, secants and tangent theorems.
I can recognise that a radius will bisect a chord at right angles.
I can understand the concept of the circumcentre of a triangle.
16.4 I can recognise a cyclic quadrilateral.
I can determine pronumerals knowing the opposite angles of a cyclic

quadrilateral are supplementary.
I can determine pronumerals knowing the exterior angle of a cyclic
quadrilateral equals the interior opposite angle.
16.5 I can apply the alternate segment theorem to evaluate pronumerals.
I can determine the lengths of tangents and secants when they intersect.
16.6.3 Project
Variation of distance
The Earth approximates the shape of a sphere.
Lines of longitude travel between the North and
South poles, while lines of latitude travel east–
west, parallel to the equator. While the lines of
longitude are all approximately the same length,
this is not the case with lines of latitude. The
line of latitude at the equator is the maximum
length and these lines decrease in length on
approaching both the North and South poles.
This investigation looks at how the distance
between points on two given lines of longitude
and the same line of latitude changes as we move
from the equator to the pole.

Consider two lines of longitude, 0° and 100°E. Take two points, P1 and P2 , lying on the equator on lines of
longitude 0° and 100°E respectively.
The distance (in km) between two points on the same line of latitude is given by the formula:
Distance = angle sector between the two points ×111× cos(degree of latitude)
1. The size of the angle sector between P1 and P2 is 100° and these two
North Pole
points lie on 0° latitude. The distance between the points would be
calculated as 100 × 111 × cos(0°). Determine this distance.
0 100E
2. Move the two points to the 10° line of latitude. Calculate the distance
between P1 and P2 in this position. Round your answer to the nearest
kilometre.
r 0
3. Complete the following table showing the distance (rounded to the Equato
nearest kilometre) between the points P1 and P2 as they move from the P1 P2
equator towards the pole.
South Pole
Latitude Distance between P1 and P2 (km)

0°
10°
20°
30°
40°
50°
60°
70°
80°
90°
4. Describe what happens to the distance between P1 and P2 as we move from the equator to the pole. Is
there a constant change? Explain your answer.
5. You would perhaps assume that, at a latitude of 45°, the distance between P1 and P2 is half the distance
between the points at the equator. This is not the case. At what latitude does this occur?
6. Using grid paper, sketch a graph displaying the change in distance between the points in moving from
the equator to the pole.
7. Consider the points P1 and P2 on lines of longitude separated by 1°. On what line of latitude (to the
nearest degree) would the points be 100 km apart?
8. Keeping the points P1 and P2 on the same line of latitude, and varying their lines of longitude,
investigate the rate that the distance between them changes from the equator to the pole. Explain whether
it is more or less rapid in comparison to what you found earlier.

Resources
Resourceseses

Fluency
For questions 1 to 3, determine the values of the pronumerals in each of the diagrams.
1. a. b. c.
x
50° x 25° 48° 28° y
O
x
z
y
d. e. f.
x 70°
y
O
O
O x
2. a. b. c.
x x
O O x
110°
110° 250°
d. e. f.
m 70°
x 50° O z
y 30°
100° x
3. a. b.
x
O O x
70°
c. d.
x O x O
110° 70°

4. Determine the value of m in each of the following.

a. b.
6
8
m
m
10 5 4
6
c. d.
5
10 8
4 7.5
m 3 m
5. MC Choose for which of the following figures it is possible to get a reasonable value for the
pronumeral. Note: There may be more than one correct answer.

A. 4 B.
6 6
5 3
m 2 m
C. D.
2
8
5
m 7
m
4 3
E. None of these
6. MC Choose which of the following statements is true for the diagram shown.
A. AO = BO B. AC = BC C. ∠OAC = ∠OBC
D. ∠AOC = 90° E. AC = OC
O C

7. Determine the values of the pronumerals in the following figures.

a. b.
85°
y 81°
100° x
c. d.
78° y 88°
x
92° x 97° y
8. MC Choose which of the following statements is not always true for the diagram shown.
b
a
e
c
d
A. ∠a + ∠c = 180° B. ∠b + ∠d = 180°
C. ∠e + ∠c = 180° D. ∠a + ∠e = 180°
E. ∠a + ∠b + ∠c + ∠d = 360°
Problem solving
9. Determine the values of the pronumerals in the following figures.
a. b. y
56°
42°
x
c.
O
130°

10. Two chords, AB and CD, intersect at E as shown. If AE = CE, prove that EB = ED.
A E
11. Two circles intersect at X and Y. Two lines, AXB and CXD, intersect one circle at A and C, and the
other at B and D, as shown. Prove that ∠AYC = ∠BYD.
C X B
A D
12. Name at least five pairs of equal angles in the following diagram.
S
U
O
P

eWorkbook
Solutions
Download a copy of the fully worked solutions to every question
in this topic (sol-0750) ⃞
Digital documents
16.2 SkillSHEET Using tests to prove congruent triangles
(doc-5390) ⃞
SkillSHEET Corresponding sides and angles of
congruent triangles (doc-5391) ⃞
SkillSHEET Using tests to prove similar triangles
(doc-5392) ⃞
SkillSHEET Angles in a triangle (doc-5393) ⃞
SkillSHEET More angle relations (doc-5394) ⃞
16.4 SkillSHEET Angles in a quadrilateral (doc-5396) ⃞
Video eLessons
16.2 Circle (eles-4995) ⃞
Tangents to a circle (eles-4996) ⃞
16.3 Intersecting chords (eles-4997) ⃞
Intersecting secants (eles-4998) ⃞
Intersecting tangents (eles-4999) ⃞
Chords and radii (eles-5000) ⃞
16.4 Quadrilaterals in circles (eles-5001) ⃞
16.5 The alternate segment theorem (eles-5002) ⃞
Tangents and secants (eles-5003) ⃞
Interactivities
16.2 Circle theorem 1 (int-6218) ⃞
Circle theorem 2 (int-6219) ⃞
Teacher resources
online.

Answers 12. B, D
13. a. Base angles of a right-angled isosceles triangle.
Topic 16 Circle geometry b. r + s = 90°, s = 45° ⇒ r = 45°
c. u is the third angle in ∆ ABD, which is right-angled.
d. m is the third angle in ∆ OCD, which is right-angled.
1. Segment
e. ∠AOC and ∠AFC stand on the same arc with ∠AOC at
2. D
the centre and ∠AFC at the circumference.
3. 35°
14. OR = OP (radii of the circle)
4. E ∠OPR = x (equal angles lie opposite equal sides)
5. 65° ∠SOP = 2x (exterior angle equals the sum of the two
6. 15° interior opposite angles)
7. E OR = OQ (radii of the circle)
∠OQR = y (equal angles lie opposite equal sides)
8. 6
∠SOQ = 2y (exterior angle equals the sum of the two
9. 1.5 interior opposite angles)
10. A Now ∠PRQ = x + y and ∠POQ = 2x + 2y = 2(x + y).
11. m = 55°, p = 50° Therefore ∠POQ = 2 × ∠PRQ.
12. C 15, 16. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions
13. E in the online resources.

17. a. 16° b. 20°
14. D
18, 19. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions
15. A in the online resources.
Exercise 16.2 Angles in a circle Exercise 16.3 Intersecting chords, secants and
1. a. x = 30° (theorem 2) tangents
b. x = 25°, y = 25° (theorem 2 for both angles) 1. a. m=3 b. m=3 c. m=6
c. x = 32° (theorem 2) 2. a. n=1 b. m = 7.6
2. a. x = 40°, y = 40° (theorem 2 for both angles)
3. a. n = 13 b. m=4
b. x = 60° (theorem 1)
c. x = 40° (theorem 1) 4. a. x=5 b. m=7 c. x = 2.5, y = 3.1
3. a. x = 84°(theorem 1) 5. a. x = 2.8 b. x = 3.3
b. x = 50°(theorem 2); y = 100° (theorem 1) 6. a. x = 5.6 b. m = 90°
c. x = 56°(theorem 1) 7. B, C, D
4. a. s = 90°, r = 90° (theorem 3 for both angles) 8. ST = 3 cm
b. u = 90° (theorem 4); t = 90° (theorem 3) 9–11. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions in
c. m = 90°, n = 90°(theorem 3 for both angles) √ resources.
the online
12. a. x = 3 2 b. x = 6 c. x = 3, y = 12
5. a. x = 52° (theorem 3 and angle sum in a triangle = 180°)
13. a. Line from centre perpendicular to the chord bisects the
b. x = 90°(theorem 4)
chord, giving M as the midpoint.
c. x = 90° (theorem 4); y = 15° (angle sum in a b, c. Sample responses can be found in the worked
triangle = 180°) solutions in the online resources.
6. a. x = z = 90° (theorem 4); y = w = 20° (theorem 5 and 14.
angle sum in a triangle = 180°)
b. s = r = 90° (theorem 4); t = 140° (angle sum in a
quadrilateral = 360°)
c. x = 20° (theorem 5); y = z = 70° (theorem 4 and angle
sum in a triangle = 180°)
7. a. s = y = 90°(theorem 4); x = 70° (theorem 5); r = z = 20°
(angle sum in a triangle = 180°)
b. x = 70°(theorem 4 and angle sum in a triangle = 180°);
Exercise 16.4 Cyclic quadrilaterals
y = z = 20° (angle sum in a triangle = 180°)
1. a. x = 115°, y = 88° b. m = 85°
c. x = y = 75° (theorem 4 and angle sum in a triangle
c. n = 25°
= 180°); z = 75° (theorem 1)
8. B 2. a. x = 130° b. x = y = 90° c. x = 45°, y = 95°
9. C 3. a. x = 85°, y = 80°
10. C b. x = 110°, y = 115°
11. D c. x = 85°

4. a. x = 150° b. x = 90°, y = 120° 21. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions in
c. m = 120°, n = 130° the online resources.
5. a. a = 89°, b = 45° 22. a. x = 5 b. k = 12 c. m = 6, n = 6
b. a = 120°, b = 91°, c = 89° 23. a. x=7 b. b = 4, a = 2 c. w = 3, x = 5
6. a. x = 102°, y = 113° 24. a. a = 50°, b = 50° and c = 80°
b. x = 95°, y = 85°, z = 95° b. a = 50°, b = 70° and c = 70°
c. x = 126°, y = 54°
d. x = 60°, y = 120° Project
e. x = 54°, y = 72° 1. 11 100 km
f. x = 79°, y = 101°, z = 103° 2. 10931 km
7. D
3.
8. E Latitude Distance between P1 and P2 (km)
9. D 0° 11 100
10. a. 2x b. 360° − 2x 10° 10 931
c. 180° − x d. 180° 20° 10 431
11. A 30° 9613
12. A, B, C, D 40° 8503
13. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions in 50° 7135
60° 5550
14. x = 93°, y = 87°, z = 93°
70° 3796
5°
15. x = −2° or 80° 1927
2
90° 0
2° 1°
16. x= or
3 2 4. The distance between P1 and P2 decreases from 11 100 km at
17. w = 110°, x = 70°, y = 140°, z = 87.5°
the equator to 0 km at the pole. The change is not constant.
18. a. a = 110°, b = 70° and c = 110° The distance between the points decreases more rapidly on
b. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions moving towards the pole.
in the online resources. 5. Latitude 60°
6.
Exercise 16.5 Tangents, secants and chords 12000
x = 70° x = 47°, y = 59°
Distance between P1 and P2 (km)
1. a. b. 11000
10000
2. a. p=6 b. q=8
9000
3. x = 42°, y = 132° 8000
4. B 7000
5. D 6000
6. MAC, NAC, FDA, FBA, EDG, EBG. 5000
4000
7. x = 42°, y = 62°
3000
9. 60°
0 10° 20° 30° 40° 50° 60° 70° 80° 90°
10. x = 180° − a − b
Latitude
11. x = 80°, y = 20°, z = 80° 7. Latitude 26°
12. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions in 8. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions in the
the online resources. online resources. Students need to investigate the rate that the
13. x = 85°, y = 20°, z = 85° distance between them changes from the equator to the pole
14. D and also comparison with the earlier values.
15. x = 50°, y = 95°
16. A
1. a. x = 50° b. x = 48°, y = 25°
17. C
c. x = y = 28°, z = 56° d. x = 90°
18. x = 33°, y = 55°, z = 22° e. y = 90° f. y = 140°
19. x = 25°, y = 65°, z = 40°
2. a. x = 55° b. x = 125°
20. x = a, y = 90° − a, z = 90° − 2a c. x = 70° d. x = 100°
e. m = 40° f. x = 90°, y = 60°, z = 40°

3. a. x = 90° b. x = 20°
c. x = 55° d. x = 125°
4. a. m=3 b. m = 12
c. m=9 d. m = 11.7
5. A, B, D
6. A, B, C
7. a. x = 95°, y = 80°
b. x = 99°
c. x = 78°, y = 92°
d. x = 97°, y = 92°
8. D
9. a. x = 42° b. y = 62° c. p = 65°
10. CE × ED = AE × EB
AE = CE (given)
∴ ED = EB
11. ∠AYC = ∠AXC
∠BXD = ∠BYD
But ∠AXC = ∠BXD
⇒ ∠AYC = ∠BYD
12. ∠PQT and ∠PST, ∠PTS and ∠RQS, ∠TPQ and ∠QSR,
∠QPS and ∠QTS, ∠TPS and ∠TQS, ∠PQS and ∠PTS,
∠PUT and ∠QUS, ∠PUQ and ∠TUS

“c17TrigonometryII_PrintPDF” — 2021/9/3 — 12:13 — page 1043 — #1
10A
17 Trigonometry II
LEARNING SEQUENCE
17.1 Overview ............................................................................................................................................................ 1044
17.2 The sine rule ..................................................................................................................................................... 1047
17.3 The cosine rule ................................................................................................................................................ 1058
17.4 Area of triangles .............................................................................................................................................. 1064
17.5 The unit circle ...................................................................................................................................................1070
17.6 Trigonometric functions ............................................................................................................................... 1076
17.7 Solving trigonometric equations ............................................................................................................... 1083
17.8 Review ................................................................................................................................................................ 1088
17.1 Overview
Why learn this?
Trigonometry is the branch of mathematics that describes the
relationship between the angles and side lengths in triangles.
The ability to calculate distances using angles has long been
critical. As early as the third century BCE, trigonometry was
being used in the study of astronomy. Early explorers, using
rudimentary calculations and the stars, were able to navigate
their way around the world. They were even able to map
coastlines along the way. Cartographers use trigonometry when
they are making maps. It is essential to be able to calculate
distances that can’t be physically measured. Astronomers
use trigonometry to calculate distances such as that from a
particular planet to Earth. Our explorations have now turned
towards the skies and outer space. Scientists design and
launch space shuttles and rockets to explore our universe. By
applying trigonometry, they can approximate the distances to
other planets. As well as in astronomy and space exploration,
trigonometry is widely used in many other areas. Surveyors
use trigonometry in setting out a land subdivision. Builders,
architects and engineers use angles, lengths and forces in the
design and construction of all types of buildings, both domestic and industrial. In music, a single note is a sine
wave. Sound engineers manipulate sine waves to create the desired effect. Trigonometry has many real-life
applications.
Where to get help

Fully worked
solutions
eLessons
to every
question
Digital
eWorkbook
documents


1. MC From the following options select the exact value of sin(30°). √

1 1 3
A. √ B. C.
2 2 2
√
D. 1 E. 3
2. Solve for x, correct to two decimal places.
A
42°
C 60°
x
7m
B
3. Solve for y, correct to two decimal places.
y
75°
55°
10 cm
x
4. MC Choose the values of the angles B and B′ in the below triangle, to the nearest degree. (Assume
BC = B′ C.)
C
19 11
B′
A 25° B
A. 47° and 133° B. 46° and 134° C. 47° and 153°

D. 25° and 155° E. 65° and 115°
5. Calculate the perimeter of the following triangle, correct to two decimal places.
7 5
63°
A B
x
6. Solve for x, correct to one decimal place.
10 m 12 m
37°
TOPIC 17 Trigonometry II 1045

7. MC Calculate the area of the triangle shown.
7 cm
55°
6.5 cm
A. 13.05 cm2 B. 18.64 cm2 C. 22.75 cm2

D. 26.1 cm2 E. 37.27 cm2
8. State in which quadrant of the unit circle is the angle 203° located.
9. Determine the value of cos(60°) using part of the unit circle.
y
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0 x
0.5 1
10. MC If cos(x°) = p for 0 ≤ x ≤ 90°, then sin(180 − x°) in terms of p is:

A. p B. 180 − p C. 1 − p
√
D. 1 − p2 E. 1 − p2
11. MC Select the amplitude and period, respectively, of y = −2 sin(2x) from the following options.
A. −2, 360° B. −2, 180° C. 2, 2
D. 2, 180° E. −2, 2
12. MC Select the correct equation for the graph y

shown. 4
A. y = 4 cos(2x) 3
B. y = −4 cos(2x) 2
C. y = −4 sin(2x) 1
0
D. y = 4 sin(2x) x
( ) –1 90° 180° 270° 360°
x –2
E. y = 4 cos
2 –3
–4
1
13. MC Select the correct solutions for the equation sin(x) = for x over the domain 0 ≤ x ≤ 360°.
2
A. x = 30° and x = 150° B. x = 30° and x = 210° C. x = 60° and x = 120°
D. x = 60° and x = 240° E. x = 45° and x = 135°

√
2
14. MC Select the correct solutions for the equation cos (2x) = − for x over the domain 0 ≤ x ≤ 360°.
2
A. x = 22.5° and x = 337.5° B. x = 45° and x = 315°
C. x = 67.5° and x = 112.5° D. x = 157.5° and x = 202.5°
E. x = 22.5° and x = 157.5°
15. Using the graph shown, solve the equation 7 sin(x) = −7 for 0 ≤ x ≤ 360°.
y
1
0.5
0 x
90° 180° 270° 360°
–0.5
–1
17.2 The sine rule

LEARNING INTENTION
• apply the exact values of sin, cos and tan for 30°, 45° and 60° angles
• apply the sine rule to evaluate angles and sides of triangles
• recognise when the ambiguous case of the sine rule exists.
17.2.1 Exact values of trigonometric functions and the sine rule

eles-5004
• Most of the trigonometric values that we will deal with in this topic are approximations.
• However, angles of 30° 45° and 60° have exact values of sine, cosine and tangent.
• Consider an equilateral triangle, ABC, of side length 2 cm. B
Let BD be the perpendicular bisector of AC, then:
ΔABD ≅ ΔCBD (using RHS)
giving: 30°
2 2
AD = CD = 1 cm
∠ABD = ∠CBD = 30°
60°
and:
(AB)2 = (AD)2 + (BD)2 (using Pythagoras’ theorem) A D C
2
22 = 12 + (BD)2
√
BD = 3

• Using ΔABD, the following exact values are obtained:
30°
2
3
60°
A D
1
√
opp 3 opp 1
sin(A) = ⇒ sin(60°) = sin(B) = ⇒ sin(30°) =
hyp 2 hyp 2
√
adj 1 adj 3
cos(A) = ⇒ cos(60°) = cos(B) = ⇒ cos(30°) =
hyp 2 hyp 2
√ √
opp 3 √
tan(A) = ⇒ tan(60°) = or 3 opp 1 3
adj 1 tan(B) = ⇒ tan(30°) = √ or
adj 3 3
• Consider a right-angled isosceles ΔEFG with equal sides of 1 unit. G
(EG)2 = (EF)2 + (FG)2 (using Pythagoras’ theorem) 2 1

(EG)2 = 12 + 12
√ 45°
EG = 2 E 1 F
• Using ΔEFG, the following exact values are obtained:
√
opp 1 2
sin(E) = ⇒ sin(45°) = √ or
hyp 2 2
√
adj 1 2
cos(E) = ⇒ cos(45°) = √ or
hyp 2 2
opp 1
tan(E) = ⇒ tan(45°) = or 1
adj 1
Summary of exact values
𝜃 30o 45o 60o

√ √
1 1 2 3
sin(𝜃) √ =
2 2 2 2
√ √
3 1 2 1
cos(𝜃) √ =
2 2 2 2
√
1 3 √
tan(𝜃) √ = 1 3
3 3

The sine rule

• In any triangle, label the angles are named by the vertices A, B and C and the B
corresponding opposite sides as a, b and c as shown in the diagram at right. c
B
a
• Let BD be the perpendicular line from B to AC, of length h, giving two
A C
right-angled triangles, ΔADB and ΔCDB. A b C
Using ΔADB: Using ΔCDB: B
h h
sin(A) = sin(C) = c h a
c a
h = c sin(A) h = a sin(C) A C
D b
Equating the values of h: h– = sin(A) and h– = sinC)
c a
c sin(A) = a sin(C)
giving: B
c a B
=
sin(C) sin(A) c
h
• Similarly, if a perpendicular line is drawn from vertex A to BC, then:
C
c b A b C
=
sin(C) sin(B) h = c sin(B) and h = b sin(C)
Sine rule
• The sine rule for any triangle ABC is: B
a b c c B a
= = A C
sin(A) sin(B) sin(C) A C
b
• The sine rule can be used to solve non-right-angled triangles if we are given:
1. two angles and one side
2. two sides and an angle opposite one of these sides.
WORKED EXAMPLE 1 Determining unknown angles and sides of a given triangle
In the triangle ABC, a = 4 m, b = 7 m and B = 80°. Calculate the values of A, C and c.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1. Draw a labelled diagram of the triangle ABC B
and fill in the given information. c 80° a = 4
A C
A b=7 C
2. Check that one of the criteria for the sine The sine rule can be used since two side lengths
rule has been satisfied. and an angle opposite one of these side lengths
have been given.
3. Write down the sine rule to calculate A. To calculate angle A:

a b
=
sin(A) sin(B)

4 7
sin(A) sin(80°)
5. Transpose the equation to make sin(A) 4 sin(80°) = 7 sin(A)

the subject. 4 sin(80°)
sin(A) =
7
( )
−1 4 sin(80°)
6. Evaluate and write your answer. A = sin
7
≈ 34.246 004 71°
7. Round off the answer to degrees and minutes. ≈ 34°15′

8. Determine the value of angle C using the fact C ≈ 180° − (80° + 34°15′ )
that the angle sum of any triangle is 180°. = 65°45′
9. Write down the sine rule to calculate the To calculate side length c:
value of c. c b
=
sin(C) sin(B)
c b
10. Substitute the known values into the rule. ′
=
sin(65°45 ) sin(80°)
7 sin(65°45′ )
11. Transpose the equation to make c the subject. c=
sin(80°)
12. Evaluate. Round off the answer to 2 decimal ≈ 6.48 m
places and include the appropriate unit.

Open a new document and Ensure your calculator is set to
a Calculator page. Ensure the degree and decimal modes. To
your calculator is set to the do this, at the bottom of the Main
degree and approximate mode, screen, tap on the mode options
as shown for the next set of until you have Decimal and Deg.
examples.
To do this, press:
• HOME
• 5: Settings
• 2: Document Settings
For Display Digits select
‘Fix 2’.
TAB to Angle and select
‘Degree’.
TAB to Calculation Mode and
select ‘Approximate’.
TAB to OK and press ENTER.

1. In a new problem on the 1. On the Main screen, complete the

Calculator page, press TRIG entry line as:
to access and select the ( )
4 sin(80)
appropriate trigonometric sin−1
( ) 7
ration sin–1 . Complete the ( ( ))
entry line as: 4 sin (80)
( ) 180 − 80 + sin−1
4 sin(80) 7
sin−1
7 Press EXE after each entry.
Then press ENTER. A = 34°15′ and C = 65°45′ To convert the decimal degree into
To convert the decimal degrees, minutes and seconds, tap:
degree into degrees, minutes • Action
and seconds, press: • Transformation
A = 34°15′ and
• CATALOG • DMS
C = 65°45′ rounded to
• 1 • toDMS
the nearest minute.
• D Highlight and drag each of the
▲
Scroll to and select DMS decimal answers into the entry

then press ENTER. line and press EXE.
Complete the entry line as:
180 − (ans + 80)
Then press ENTER.
Repeat the above process to
convert to degrees, minutes
and seconds.
2. To find the value of c, 2. To calculate the value of c,
complete the entry line as: complete the entry lines as:
7 sin (ans) dms(65, 45)
7 sin (65, 75)
sin 80
Then press ENTER. sin (80)
Press EXE after each entry line.
c = 6.48 m
c = 6.48 m
17.2.2 The ambiguous case

eles-5005
• If two side lengths and an angle opposite one of these side lengths are given, then B
two different triangles may be drawn. B a = 10
c=6
• For example, if a = 10, c = 6 and C = 30°, two possible triangles could
A 30°
be created. A C
• In the first case angle A is an acute angle, while in the second case angle A is an
obtuse angle.
• When using the sine rule to determine an angle, the inverse sine function is used. B
• In subtopic 17.5, you will see that the sine of an angle between 0° and 90° has the B a = 10
same value as the sine of its supplement. c=6
A 30°
For example, sin 40° ≈ 0.6427 and sin 140° ≈ 0.6427. A C

WORKED EXAMPLE 2 Solving triangles and checking for the ambiguous case
In the triangle ABC, a = 10 m, c = 6 m and C = 30°. Determine two possible values of A, and hence two
possible values of B and b.
Case 1
THINK WRITE/DRAW
and fill in the given information. B a = 10
c=6
A 30°
A C
2. Check that one of the criteria for the sine rule The sine rule can be used since two side lengths
has been satisfied. and an angle opposite one of these side lengths
have been given.
a c
3. Write down the sine rule to determine A. To determine angle A: =
sin(A) sin(C)
10 6
sin(A) sin(30°)
10 sin(30°) = 6 sin(A)
10 sin(30°)
5. Transpose the equation to make sin(A) sin(A) =
the subject. 6
( )
10 sin(30°)
6. Evaluate angle A. A = sin−1
6
≈ 56.442 690 24°
7. Round off the answer to degrees and minutes. A = 56°27′

8. Determine the value of angle B, using the fact B ≈ 180° − (30° + 56°27′ )
that the angle sum of any triangle is 180°. = 93°33′
9. Write down the sine rule to calculate b. To calculate side length b:

b c
=
sin(B) sin(C)
b 6
=
sin(93°33 ) sin(30°)
6 sin(93°33′ )
11. Transpose the equation to make b the subject. b=
sin(30°)
Note: The values we have just obtained are only one set of possible answers for the given dimensions of the
triangle ABC.
We are told that a = 10 m, c = 6 m and C = 30°. Since side a is larger than side c, it follows that angle A
will be larger than angle C. Angle A must be larger than 30°; therefore it may be an acute angle or an
obtuse angle.

Case 2
THINK WRITE/DRAW
and fill in the given information. B a = 10
c=6
A 30°
A C
2. Write down the alternative value for angle A. To determine the alternative angle A:
Simply subtract the value obtained for A in If sin A = 0.8333, then A could also be:
case 1 from 180°. A ≈ 180° − 56°27′
= 123°33′
3. Determine the alternative value of angle B, B ≈ 180° − (30° + 123°33′ )
using the fact that the angle sum of any = 26°27′
triangle is 180°.
4. Write down the sine rule to determine the To calculate side length b:
alternative b. b c
=
sin(B) sin(C)
b 6
=
sin(26°27 ) sin(30°)
6 sin(26°27′ )
sin(30°)

1. In a new problem, on a 1. On the Main screen, complete
Calculator page, complete the entry line as:
the entry line as: solve
solve ( )
10 sin (30)
( ) sin (a) = ,a |
10 sin (30) 6
sin (a) = ,a |
6 0 < a < 180
0 < a < 180 Convert these angles to degrees
Press the up arrow and and minutes as shown.
′ ′
highlight the answer shown. A = 56°27 or 123°34 Press EXE after each entry.
Press ENTER to bring this A = 56°27′ or 123°33′
answer down into the rounded to the
new line. nearest minute.
Convert these angles to
degrees and minutes as
shown in Worked Example
1 by completing the entry
as shown.
entry.

2. Solve for the two values 2. Solve for the two values of B
of B as shown in the as shown at right. [This uses
screenshot. Instead of B = 180 − (30 + A) .]
typing the angle manually, Press EXE after each entry, and
press the up arrow to convert these angles to degrees
highlight the previous and minutes.
answer you want, then press
ENTER. Press ENTER
after each entry. Convert
′ ′
these angles to degrees and B = 93°33 or 26°27 B = 93°33′ or 26°27′
minutes.
3. To solve for the two values 3. To solve for the two values of
of b, complete the entry b, complete the entry lines as:
lines as: 6 sin (93.55730976)
( )
6 sin 93°34′ sin (30)
sin (30) 6 sin (26.4426902)
( )
6 sin 26°26′ sin (30)
sin (30) Press after each entry.
b = 11.98 m or 5.34 m b = 11.98 m or 5.34 m
entry.
• In Worked example 2 there were two possible solutions, as shown by the diagrams below.
B B
B a = 10 B a = 10
c=6 c=6
A 30° A 30°
A C A C
• The ambiguous case does not apply to every question.

Consider Worked example 1.
• Since ∠A = 34°15′ , then it could also have been ∠A =145°45′ , the supplementary angle.
′
• If ∠A =34°15 and ∠B =80°, then
∠C =65°45′ (angle sum of triangle).
• If ∠A =145°45′ and ∠B =80°, then
( )
∠C = 180° − 145°45′ + 80° which is not possible.
∠C = −45°45′
Hence, for Worked example 1, only one possible solution exists.
• The ambiguous case may exist if the angle found is opposite the larger given side.
WORKED EXAMPLE 3 Calculating heights given angles of elevation
To calculate the height of a building, Kevin measures the angle of elevation to the top as 52°. He then
walks 20 m closer to the building and measures the angle of elevation as 60°. Calculate the height of
the building.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1. Draw a labelled diagram of the situation and C
fill in the given information.
h
120°
52° 60°
A B D
20 x – 20
x

2. Check that one of the criteria for the sine rule The sine rule can be used for triangle ABC since
has been satisfied for triangle ABC. two angles and one side length have been given.
3. Calculate the value of angle ACB, using the ∠ACB = 180° − (52° + 120°)
fact that the angle sum of any triangle is 180°. = 8°
4. Write down the sine rule to calculate To calculate side length b of triangle ABC:
b (or AC). b c
=
sin(B) sin(C)
b 20
sin(120°) sin(8°)
20 sin(120°)
sin(8°)
8. Draw a diagram of the situation, that is, triangle C
ADC, labelling the required information. Note:
There is no need to solve the rest of the triangle
124.45 m
in this case as the values will not assist in h
calculating the height of the building.
52°
A D
9. Write down what is given for the triangle. Have: angle and hypotenuse
10. Write down what is needed for the triangle. Need: opposite side
O
11. Determine which of the trigonometric ratios is sin(𝜃) =
required (SOH − CAH − TOA). H
h
12. Substitute the given values into the sin(52°) =
appropriate ratio. 124.45
13. Transpose the equation and solve for h. 124.45 sin(52°) = h

h = 124.45 sin(52°)
14. Round off the answer to 2 decimal places. ≈ 98.07

15. Write the answer. The height of the building is 98.07 m.
DISCUSSION
In what situations can the sine rule be used?

Resources
Resourceseses
Digital documents SkillSHEET Labelling right-angled triangles (doc-5398)
SkillSHEET Calculating sin, cos or tan of an angle (doc-5399)
SkillSHEET Finding side lengths in right-angled triangles (doc-5400)
SkillSHEET Calculating the angle from a sin, cos or tan ratio (doc-5401)
SkillSHEET Finding angles in right-angled triangles (doc-5402)
Interactivities Exact values of trigonometric functions (int-4816)
The ambiguous case (int-4818)
The sine rule (int-6275)
Exercise 17.2 The sine rule

Individual pathways
1, 2, 6, 7, 11, 13, 17, 18, 21 3, 4, 8, 9, 12, 14, 16, 19, 22 5, 10, 15, 20, 23, 24, 25
Where appropriate in this exercise, write your angles correct to the nearest minute and side lengths correct to
2 decimal places.
Fluency
1. WE1 In the triangle ABC, a = 10, b = 12 and B = 58°. Calculate A, C and c.
2. In the triangle ABC, c = 17.35, a = 26.82 and A = 101°47′ . Calculate C, B and b.
3. In the triangle ABC, a = 5, A = 30° and B = 80°. Calculate C, b and c.
4. In the triangle ABC, c = 27, C = 42° and A = 105°. Calculate B, a and b.
5. In the triangle ABC, a = 7, c = 5 and A = 68°. Determine the perimeter of the triangle.
6. Calculate all unknown sides and angles for the triangle ABC, given A = 57°, B = 72° and a = 48.2.
7. Calculate all unknown sides and angles for the triangle ABC, given a = 105, B = 105° and C = 15°.
8. Calculate all unknown sides and angles for the triangle ABC, given a = 32, b = 51 and A = 28°.
9. Calculate the perimeter of the triangle ABC if a = 7.8, b = 6.2 and A = 50°.
10. MC In a triangle ABC, B = 40°, b = 2.6 and c = 3. Identify the approximate value of C.
A. 47° B. 48°
C. 132° D. 133°
E. 139°
Understanding
11. WE2 In the triangle ABC, a = 10, c = 8 and C = 50°. Determine two possible values of A, and hence two
possible values of b.
12. In the triangle ABC, a = 20, b = 12 and B = 35°. Determine two possible values for the perimeter of the
triangle.

13. Calculate all unknown sides and angles for the triangle ABC, given A = 27°, B = 43° and c = 6.4.
14. Calculate all unknown sides and angles for the triangle ABC, given A = 100°, b = 2.1 and C = 42°.
15. Calculate all unknown sides and angles for the triangle ABC, given A = 25°, b = 17 and a = 13.
16. WE3 To calculate the height of a building, Kevin measures the angle of elevation to the top as 48°.
He then walks 18 m closer to the building and measures the angle of elevation as 64°. Calculate the height of
the building.
Reasoning
17. Calculate the value of h, correct to 1 decimal place. Show the full working.
35° 70°
A 8 cm D B
18. A boat sails on a bearing of N15°E for 10 km and then on a bearing of S85°E until it is due east of
the starting point. Determine the distance from the starting point to the nearest kilometre. Show all
your working.
19. A hill slopes at an angle of 30° to the horizontal. A tree that is 8 m tall and leaning downhill is growing at an
angle of 10° m to the vertical and is part-way up the slope. Evaluate the vertical height of the top of the tree
above the slope. Show all your working.
20. A cliff is 37 m high. The rock slopes outward at an angle of 50° to the horizontal and
then cuts back at an angle of 25° to the vertical, meeting the ground directly below 50°
the top of the cliff.
Carol wishes to abseil from the top of the cliff to the ground as shown in the diagram. 25° Rock
Her climbing rope is 45 m long, and she needs 2 m to secure it to a tree at the top of Rope 37 m
the cliff. Determine if the rope will be long enough to allow her to reach the ground.
Problem solving
21. A river has parallel banks that run directly east–west. From the south bank, Kylie takes a bearing to a tree on
the north side. The bearing is 047°T. She then walks 10 m due east, and takes a second bearing to the tree.
This is 305°T. Determine:
a. her distance from the second measuring point to the tree
b. the width of the river, to the nearest metre.
22. A ship sails on a bearing of S20°W for 14 km; then it changes direction and sails for 20 km and drops
anchor. Its bearing from the starting point is now N65°W.
a. Determine the distance of the ship from the starting point of it.
b. Calculate the bearing on which the ship sails for the 20 km leg.

23. A cross-country runner runs at 8 km/h on a bearing of 150°T for

45 mins; then she changes direction to a bearing of 053°T and runs for
80 mins at a different speed until she is due east of the starting point.
a. Calculate the distance of the second part of the run.
b. Calculate her speed for this section, correct to 2 decimal places.
c. Evaluate how far she needs to run to get back to the starting point.
24. From a fire tower, A, a fire is spotted on a bearing of N42°E. From a

second tower, B, the fire is on a bearing of N12°W. The two fire towers
are 23 km apart, and A is N63°W of B. Determine how far the fire is
from each tower.
25. A yacht sets sail from a marina and sails on a

bearing of 065°T for 3.5 km. It then turns and sails
on a bearing of 127°T for another 5 km.
a. Evaluate the distance of the yacht from the
marina, correct to 1 decimal place.
b. If the yacht was to sail directly back to the
marina, on what bearing should it travel? Give
your answer rounded to the nearest minute.
17.3 The cosine rule

LEARNING INTENTION
• apply the cosine rule to calculate a side of a triangle
• apply the cosine rule to calculate the angles of a triangle.
17.3.1 The cosine rule

eles-5006
• In triangle ABC, let BD be the perpendicular line from B to AC, of length h, B
giving two right-angled triangles, ΔADB and ΔCDB.
• Let the length of AD = x, then DC = (b–x). c a
h
• Using triangle ADB and Pythagoras’ theorem, we obtain:
c2 = h2 + x2 [1] A
x
D
b–x
C
Using triangle CDB and Pythagoras’ theorem, we obtain: b
a2 = h2 + (b − x)2 [2]
Expanding the brackets in equation [2]:
a2 = h2 + b2 − 2bx + x2
Rearranging equation [2] and using c2 = h2 + x2 from equation [1]:
a2 = h2 + x2 + b2 − 2bx
= c2 + b2 − 2bx
= b2 + c2 − 2bx

From triangle ABD, x = c cos(A); therefore a2 = b2 + c2 − 2bx becomes
a2 = b2 + c2 − 2bc cos(A).
Cosine rule
• The cosine rule for any triangle ABC is: B
c B a
a2 = b2 + c2 − 2bc cos(A)
A C
b2 = a2 + c2 − 2ac cos(B) A b C
2 2 2
c = a + b − 2ab cos(C)
• The cosine rule can be used to solve non-right-angled triangles if we are given:
1. three sides
2. two sides and the included angle.
• Note: Once the third side has been calculated, the sine rule could be used to determine other angles if
necessary.
• If three sides of a triangle are known, an angle could be found by transposing the cosine rule to make
cos(A), cos(B) or cos(C) the subject.
b2 + c2 − a2
a2 = b2 + c2 − 2bc cos(A) ⇒ cos(A) =
2bc
a2 + c2 − b2
b2 = a2 + c2 − 2ac cos(B) ⇒ cos(B) =
2ac
a2 + b2 − c2
c2 = a2 + b2 − 2ab cos(C) ⇒ cos(C) =
2ab
WORKED EXAMPLE 4 Calculating sides using the cosine rule
Calculate the third side of triangle ABC given a = 6, c = 10 and B = 76°.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
and fill in the given information. c = 10 a=6
76°
A C
A b C
2. Check that one of the criteria for the cosine Yes, the cosine rule can be used since two side
rule has been satisfied. lengths and the included angle have been given.
3. Write down the appropriate cosine rule to To calculate side b:
calculate side b. b2 = a2 + c2 − 2ac cos(B)
4. Substitute the given values into the rule. = 62 + 102 − 2 × 6 × 10 × cos(76°)
5. Evaluate. ≈ 106.969 372 5

√
b ≈ 106.969 372 5

WORKED EXAMPLE 5 Calculating angles using the cosine rule
Calculate the smallest angle in the triangle with sides 4 cm, 7 cm and 9 cm.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1. Draw a labelled diagram of the triangle, call it C
ABC and fill in the given information. b=7 C a=4
Note: The smallest angle will correspond to the A B
smallest side. A c=9 B
Let a = 4, b = 7, c = 9
2. Check that one of the criteria for the cosine The cosine rule can be used since three side
rule has been satisfied. lengths have been given.
b2 + c2 − a2
3. Write down the appropriate cosine rule to cos(A) =
calculate angle A. 2bc
72 + 92 − 42
4. Substitute the given values into the rearranged =
rule. 2×7×9
114
5. Evaluate. =
126
( )
−1 114
6. Transpose the equation to make A the subject A = cos
by taking the inverse cos of both sides. 126
≈ 25.208 765 3°

the entry lines as: b2 + c2 − a2
2
b +c −a2 2 | a = 4| b = 7| c = 9
| a = 4 and b = 7 2b × c
2bc cos−1 (0.9047619048)
and c = 9 Convert the angle to DMS as
cos−1 (ans) shown previously.
Convert the angle to DMS as Press EXE after each entry.
shown previously. The smallest angle is 25°13′
Press ENTER after each entry. rounded up to the nearest minute.
The smallest angle, rounded

up to the nearest minute, is
25°13′ .

WORKED EXAMPLE 6 Applying the cosine rule to solve problems
Two rowers, Harriet and Kate, set out from the same point. Harriet rows N70°E for 2000 m and Kate
rows S15°W for 1800 m. Calculate the distance between the two rowers, correct to 2 decimal places.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1. Draw a labelled diagram of the triangle, call it N
2000 m A Harriet
ABC and fill in the given information.
C 70°
15°
1800 m
B Kate
2. Check that one of the criteria for the cosine The cosine rule can be used since two side lengths
rule has been satisfied. and the included angle have been given.
3. Write down the appropriate cosine rule to To calculate side c:
calculate side c. c2 = a2 + b2 − 2ab cos(C)
4. Substitute the given values into the rule. = 20002 + 18002 − 2 × 2000 × 1800 cos(125°)
5. Evaluate. ≈ 11 369 750.342

√
c ≈ 11 369 750.342

7. Write the answer. The rowers are 3371.91 m apart.
DISCUSSION
In what situations would you use the sine rule rather than the cosine rule?
Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivity The cosine rule (int-6276)
Exercise 17.3 The cosine rule

Individual pathways
1, 2, 3, 4, 7, 9, 14, 17 5, 6, 8, 10, 15, 18 11, 12, 13, 16, 19
Where appropriate in this exercise, write your angles correct to the nearest minute and side lengths correct to
2 decimal places.

Fluency
1. WE4 Calculate the third side of triangle ABC given a = 3.4, b = 7.8 and C = 80°.
2. In triangle ABC, b = 64.5, c = 38.1 and A = 58°34′ . Calculate the value of a.
3. In triangle ABC, a = 17, c = 10 and B = 115°. Calculate the value of b, and hence calculate the values of
A and C.
4. WE5 Calculate the size of the smallest angle in the triangle with sides 6 cm, 4 cm and 8 cm. (Hint: The
smallest angle is opposite the smallest side.)
5. In triangle ABC, a = 356, b = 207 and c = 296. Calculate the size of the largest angle.
6. In triangle ABC, a = 23.6, b = 17.3 and c = 26.4. Calculate the size of all the angles.
7. WE6 Two rowers set out from the same point. One rows N30°E for 1500 m and the other rows S40°E for
1200 m. Calculate the distance between the two rowers, correct to the nearest metre.
8. Maria cycles 12 km in a direction N68°W and then 7 km in a direction of N34°E.
a. Calculate her distance from the starting point.
b. Determine the bearing of the starting point from her finishing point.
Understanding
9. A garden bed is in the shape of a triangle, with sides of length 3 m, 4.5 m and 5.2 m.
a. Calculate the size of the smallest angle.
b. Hence, calculate the area of the garden, correct to 2 decimal places. (Hint: Draw a diagram, with the
longest length as the base of the triangle.)
10. A hockey goal is 3 m wide. When Sophie is 7 m from one post and 5.2 m from the other, she shoots for goal.
Determine within what angle, to the nearest degree, the shot must be made if it is to score a goal.
11. An advertising balloon is attached to two ropes 120 m and 100 m long. The ropes are anchored to level
ground 35 m apart. Calculate the height of the balloon when both ropes are taut.
A
c = 120 m
b = 100 m
B a = 35 m C
12. A plane flies in a direction of N70°E for 80 km and then on a bearing of S10°W for 150 km.
a. Calculate the plane’s distance from its starting point, correct to the nearest km.
b. Calculate the plane’s direction from its starting point.
13. Ship A is 16.2 km from port on a bearing of 053°T and ship B is 31.6 km from the same port on a bearing of
117°T. Calculate the distance between the two ships, in km correct to 1 decimal place.

Reasoning
14. A plane takes off at 10.00 am from an airfield and flies at 120 km/h on a bearing of N35°W. A second
plane takes off at 10.05 am from the same airfield and flies on a bearing of S80°E at a speed of 90 km/h.
Determine how far apart the planes are at 10.25 am, in km correct to 1 decimal place.
15. Three circles of radii 5 cm, 6 cm and 8 cm are positioned so that they just touch one 5 cm
another. Their centres form the vertices of a triangle. Determine the largest angle in the 6 cm
triangle. Show your working.
8 cm
16. For the shape shown, determine: 8

a. the length of the diagonal 150° x
b. the magnitude (size) of angle B 7 B
c. the length of x. 60°
10 m
Problem solving
17. From the top of a vertical cliff 68 m high, an observer notices a yacht at sea. The angle of depression to the
yacht is 47°. The yacht sails directly away from the cliff, and after 10 minutes the angle of depression is 15°.
Determine the speed of the yacht, in km/h correct to 2 decimal places.
18. Determine the size of angles CAB, ABC and BCA.
Give your answers in degrees correct to 2 decimal places.
C
2 cm
A
5 cm
8 cm B
19. A vertical flag pole DB is supported by two wires AB

and BC. AB is 5.2 metres long, BC is 4.7 metres long
and B is 3.7 metres above ground level. Angle ADC is
a right angle. B
a. Evaluate the distance from A to C, in metres

b. Determine the angle between AB and BC, in
degrees correct to 2 decimal places.
C
D

17.4 Area of triangles

LEARNING INTENTION
• calculate the area of a triangle, given two sides and the included angle
• use Heron’s formula to calculate the area of a triangle, given the three sides.
17.4.1 Area of triangles

eles-5007
1
• The area of any triangle is given by the rule area = bh, where b is the base and h is
2
the perpendicular height of the triangle.
h
• In the triangle ABC, b is the base and h is the perpendicular height of the triangle.
• Using the trigonometric ratio for sine:
b
h
sin(A) = B
c
Transposing the equation to make h the subject, we obtain: c a
h
h = c sin(A) A
A C
b
Area of triangle
• The area of triangle ABC using the sine ratio:
1
Area = bc sin(A)
2
• Depending on how the triangle is labelled, the formula could read:
1 1 1
Area = ab sin(C) Area = ac sin(B) Area = bc sin(A)
2 2 2
• The area formula may be used on any triangle provided that two sides of the triangle and the included angle
(that is, the angle between the two given sides) are known.
WORKED EXAMPLE 7 Calculating the area of a triangle
Calculate the area of the triangle shown.
7 cm 120° 9 cm
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1. Draw a labelled diagram of the triangle, label it B
ABC and fill in the given information. c = 7 cm 120° a = 9 cm
A C
A C
Let a = 9 cm, c = 7 cm, B = 120°.
2. Check that the criterion for the area rule has The area rule can be used since two side lengths
been satisfied. and the included angle have been given.
1
3. Write down the appropriate rule for the area. Area = ac sin(B)
2

1
4. Substitute the known values into the rule. = × 9 × 7 × sin(120°)
2
5. Evaluate. Round off the answer to 2 decimal ≈ 27.28 cm2
WORKED EXAMPLE 8 Determining angles in a triangle and its area
A triangle has known dimensions of a = 5 cm, b = 7 cm and B = 52°. Determine A and C and hence
the area.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1. Draw a labelled diagram of the triangle, label it B
ABC and fill in the given information.
52° a=5
A C
A b=7 C
Let a = 5, b = 7, B = 52°.
2. Check whether the criterion for the area rule has The area rule cannot be used since the included
been satisfied. angle has not been given.
3. Write down the sine rule to calculate A. To calculate angle A:

a b
=
sin(A) sin(B)
5 7
sin(A) sin(52°)
5. Transpose the equation to make sin A the subject. 5 sin(52°) = 7 sin(A)

5 sin(52°)
sin(A) =
7
( )
−1 5 sin(52°)
6. Evaluate. A = sin
7
≈ 34.254 15187°

8. Determine the value of the included angle, C, C ≈ 180° − (52° + 34°15′ )
using the fact that the angle sum of any triangle = 93°45′
is 180°.
1
9. Write down the appropriate rule for the area. Area = ab sin(C)
2
1
10. Substitute the known values into the rule. ≈ × 5 × 7 × sin(93°45′ )
2
11. Evaluate. Round off the answer to 2 decimal ≈ 17.46 cm2


In a new problem, open a To calculate the angle A, on
Calculator page. To calculate the Main screen, complete the
the angle A, complete the entry entry line as:
line as: ( )
( ) −1 5 sin (52)
5 sin (52) sin
sin−1 7
7 Note that we can leave the
Note that you can leave the angle in decimal degrees and
angle in decimal degrees work with this value.
and work with this value. Determine the value of C as
A = 34.25°
Determine the value of C shown.
C = 93.75°
as shown in the screenshot. Then calculate the area by
The area of the triangle is
Then calculate the area by completing the entry line as:
17.46 cm2 .
completing the entry line as: 1 A = 34.25°
1 × 5 × 7 sin (93.74584813) C = 93.75°
× 5 × 7 sin(93.75) 2
2 Press EXE after each entry. The area of the triangle is
Press ENTER after each entry. 17.46 cm2 .
17.4.2 Heron’s formula

eles-5008
• If the lengths of all the sides of the triangle are known but none of the angles Heron’s formula could be
used to calculate the area.
Heron’s formula
• The area of a triangle is given as:
√ B
Area = s (s − a) (s − b) (s − c)
where s is the semi-perimeter of the triangle: c a
1
s=
(a + b + c) A b C
2
Note: The proof of this formula is beyond the scope of this course.
WORKED EXAMPLE 9 Calculating the area of a triangle using Heron’s formula
Calculate the area of the triangle with sides of 4 cm, 6 cm and 8 cm.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1. Draw a labelled diagram of the triangle, C
call it ABC and fill in the given information. 4 cm 6 cm
B 8 cm A
Let a = 4, b = 6, c = 8.
2. Determine which area rule will be used. Since three side lengths have been given, use
Heron’s formula.
√
3. Write down the rule for Heron’s formula. Area = s (s − a) (s − b) (s − c)
1
4. Write down the rule for s, the semi-perimeter s= (a + b + c)
of the triangle. 2

1
5. Substitute the given values into the rule = (4 + 6 + 8)
for the semi-perimeter. 2
=9
√
6. Substitute all of the known values into Area = 9 (9 − 4) (9 − 6) (9 − 8)
Heron’s formula.
√
7. Evaluate. = 9×5×3×1
√
= 135
≈ 11.618 950 04
8. Round off the answer to 2 decimal places and ≈ 11.62 cm2

include the appropriate unit.
DISCUSSION
List three formulas for calculating the area of a triangle.
Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivities Area of triangles (int-6483)
Using Heron’s formula to calculate the area of a triangle (int-6475)
Exercise 17.4 Area of triangles

Individual pathways
1, 4, 7, 10, 12, 15, 18, 21 2, 5, 8, 11, 13, 16, 19, 22 3, 6, 9, 14, 17, 20, 23, 24
Where appropriate in this exercise, write your angles correct to the nearest minute and other measurements
Fluency
1. WE7 Calculate the area of the triangle ABC with a = 7, b = 4 and C = 68°.
2. Calculate the area of the triangle ABC with a = 7.3, c = 10.8 and B = 104°40′ .
3. Calculate the area of the triangle ABC with b = 23.1, c = 18.6 and A = 82°17′ .
4. WE8 A triangle has a = 10 cm, c = 14 cm and C = 48°. Determine A and B and hence the area.
5. A triangle has a = 17m , c = 22 m and C = 56°. Determine A and B and hence the area.
6. A triangle has b = 32 mm, c = 15 mm and B = 38°. Determine A and C and hence the area.

7. MC In a triangle, a = 15 m, b = 20 m and B = 50°. The area of the triangle is:

A. 86.2 m2 B. 114.9 m2 C. 149.4 m2 D. 172.4 m2 E. 183.2 m2
8. WE9 Calculate the area of the triangle with sides of 5 cm, 6 cm and 8 cm.
9. Calculate the area of the triangle with sides of 40 mm, 30 mm and 5.7 cm.
10. Calculate the area of the triangle with sides of 16 mm, 3 cm and 2.7 cm.
11. MC A triangle has sides of length 10 cm, 14 cm and 20 cm. The area of the triangle is:
2
A. 41 cm2 B. 65 cm2 C. 106 cm2 D. 137 cm E. 155 cm2
Understanding
12. A piece of metal is in the shape of a triangle with sides of length 114 mm, 72 mm and 87 mm. Calculate its
area using Heron’s formula.
13. A triangle has the largest angle of 115°. The longest side is 62 cm and another side is 35 cm. Calculate the
area of the triangle to the nearest whole number.
14. A triangle has two sides of 25 cm and 30 cm. The angle between the two sides is 30°. Determine:
a. its area b. the length of its third side c. its area using Heron’s formula.
15. The surface of a fish pond has the shape shown in the diagram. Calculate how many 1m
goldfish can the pond support if each fish requires 0.3 m2 surface area of water.
2m
16. MC A parallelogram has sides of 14 cm and 18 cm and an angle between them of 72°. 5m
The area of the parallelogram is:
4m
2
A. 118.4 cm2 B. 172.4 cm2 C. 239.7 cm D. 252 cm2 E. 388.1 cm2
17. MC An advertising hoarding is in the shape of an isosceles triangle, with sides of length 15 m, 15 m and
18 m. It is to be painted with two coats of purple paint. If the paint covers 12 m2 per litre, the amount of paint
needed, to the nearest litre, would be:
A. 9 L B. 18 L C. 24 L D. 36 L E. 41 L
Reasoning
18. A parallelogram has diagonals of length 10 cm and 17 cm. An angle between them is 125°. Determine:
a. the area of the parallelogram
b. the dimensions of the parallelogram.
19. A lawn is to be made in the shape of a triangle, with sides of length 11 m, 15 m and 17.2 m. Determine how
much grass seed, to the nearest kilogram, needs to be purchased if it is sown at the rate of 1 kg per 5 m2 .
20. A bushfire burns out an area of level grassland shown in the diagram. (Note: This is a sketch of the area and
is not drawn to scale.) Evaluate the area, in hectares correct to 1 decimal place, of the land that is burned.
km
1.8
2 km
River
400 m
200 m
Road

Problem solving
21. An earth embankment is 27 m long and has a vertical cross-section shown in the diagram. Determine the
volume of earth needed to build the embankment, correct to the nearest cubic metre.
130° 100°
2m
50° 80°
5m
22. Evaluate the area of this quadrilateral.
3.5 m
8m
4m
60°
5m
23. A surveyor measured the boundaries of a property as D

shown. The side AB could not be measured because it 8 km
60°
crossed through a marsh. C
The owner of the property wanted to know the total area
and the length of the side AB.
Give all lengths correct to 2 decimal places and angles to
6 km
the nearest degree. 8.5
km
a. Calculate the area of the triangle ACD.
b. Calculate the distance AC.
c. Calculate the angle CAB. 115°
B
d. Calculate the angle ACB.
e. Calculate the length AB.
f. Determine the area of the triangle ABC. A
g. Determine the area of the property.
24. A regular hexagon has sides of length 12 centimetres. It is divided into six smaller equilateral triangles.
Evaluate the area of the hexagon, giving your answer correct to 2 decimal places.
12
cm

17.5 The unit circle

LEARNING INTENTION
• determine in which quadrant an angle lies
• use and interpret the relationship between a point on the unit circle and the angle made with the
positive x-axis
• use the unit circle to determine approximate trigonometric ratios for angles greater than 90°.
17.5.1 The unit circle

eles-5009
• A unit circle is a circle with a radius of 1 unit.
• The unit circle is divided into 4 quadrants, numbered in an anticlockwise direction, as shown in the
diagram.
90°
y
2nd 1st
quadrant quadrant
+ angles
0°
180° x
360°
3rd – angles 4th

quadrant quadrant
270°
• Positive angles are measured anticlockwise from 0°.

• Negative angles are measured clockwise from 0°.
WORKED EXAMPLE 10 Identifying where an angle lies on the unit circle
State the quadrant of the unit circle in which each of the following angles is found.
a. 145° b. 282°
THINK WRITE
a. The given angle is between 90° and 180°. State a. 145° is in quadrant 2.
the appropriate quadrant.
b. The given angle is between 270° and 360°. State b. 282° is in quadrant 4.
the appropriate quadrant.
• Consider the unit circle with point P(x, y) making the right-angled y
triangle OPN as shown in the diagram. P(x, y)
• Using the trigonometric ratios:
1 y
x y y θ
= cos(𝜃), = sin(𝜃), = tan(𝜃)
1 1 x 0 x N A(1, 0) x
where 𝜃 is measured anticlockwise from the positive x-axis.

Calculate value of sine, cosine and tangent
To calculate the value of sine, cosine or tangent of any angle 𝜃 from the unit circle:
cos(𝜃) = x
sin(𝜃) = y
y sin(𝜃)
tan(𝜃) = =
x cos(𝜃)
17.5.2 The four quadrants of the unit circle

eles-5010
• Approximate values for sine, cosine and tangent 90°
of an angle can be found from the unit circle using y
the following steps, as shown in the diagram. 1
Step 1: Draw a unit circle, label the x- and y-axes.
Step 2: Mark the angles 0°, 90°, 180°, 270°, P
and 360°.
Step 3: Draw the given angle 𝜃.
sin(θ)
Step 4: Mark x = cos(𝜃), y = sin(𝜃).
Step 5: Approximate the values of x and y and θ 0°
equate to give the values of cos(𝜃) and sin(𝜃). 180°
–1 cos(θ) 1 x
• Where the angle lies in the unit circle determines 360°
whether the trigonometric ratio is positive or
negative.
–1
270°
Sign of the trigonometric functions

• Consider the following. y
• In the first quadrant x > 0, y > 0; therefore All trig
ratios are positive.
• In the second quadrant x < 0, y > 0; therefore Sine
II I
(the y-value) is positive.
x < 0, y > 0 x > 0, y > 0
• In the third quadrant x < 0, y < 0; therefore Tangent
( ) sin = + sin = cos = tan = +
y cos = tan = – All > 0
values is positive. Sine > 0
x
• In the fourth quadrant x > 0, y < 0; therefore Cosine III IV x
(the x-value) is positive. x < 0, y < 0 x > 0, y < 0
tan = + cos = +
sin = cos = – sin = tan = –
Tangent > 0 Cosine > 0

WORKED EXAMPLE 11 Using the unit circle to approximate trigonometric ratios of an angle
Determine the approximate value of each of the following using the unit circle.
a. sin(200°) b. cos(200°) c. tan(200°)
THINK WRITE/DRAW
Draw a unit circle and construct an angle of 200°. 90°
Label the point corresponding to the angle of 200° on y
the circle P. Highlight the lengths, representing the 1
x- and y-coordinates of point P. θ = 200°
x 0°
180° y
–1 1 x
P 360°
–1
270°
a. The sine of the angle is given by the y-coordinate a. sin(200°) = −0.3

of P. Determine the y-coordinate of P by measuring
the distance along the y-axis. State the value of
sin(200°). (Note: The sine value will be negative
as the y-coordinate is negative.)
b. The cosine of the angle is given by the x-coordinate b. cos(200°) = −0.9
of P. Determine the x-coordinate of P by measuring
the distance along the x-axis. State the value
of cos(200°). (Note: Cosine is also negative in
quadrant 3, as the x-coordinate is negative.)
sin(200°) −0.3 1
c. tan(200°) = c. = = 0.3333
cos(200°) −0.9 3
• The approximate results obtained in Worked example 11 can be verified with the aid of a calculator:
sin(200°) = −0.342 020 143, cos(200°) = −0.939 692 62 and tan(200°) = 0.3640.
Rounding these values to 1 decimal place would give −0.3, −0.9 and 0.4 respectively, which match the
values obtained from the unit circle.
• Consider the special relationship between the sine, cosine and tangent of supplementary angles, say A° and
(180 − A)°.
In the diagram, the y-axis is an axis of symmetry.
y
• The y-values of points C and E are the same.
1
That is, sin(A°) = sin(180 − A)°
(180 –
• The x-values of points C and E are opposites in value. A)
That is, cos(A°) = − cos(180 − A)° E C
°
Thus: sin (180 − A)° = sin(A°) A° A°

–1 O 1 x
cos(180 − A)° = − cos(A°)
sin(180 − A)° sin(A°)
cos(180 − A)° = = = − tan(A°)
cos(180 − A)° − cos(A°)
–1

Resources
Resourceseses
Exercise 17.5 The unit circle

Individual pathways
1, 2, 6, 8, 12, 17, 20 3, 4, 7, 9, 11, 13, 18, 21 5, 10, 14, 15, 16, 19, 22
Where appropriate in this exercise, give answers correct to 2 decimal places.
Fluency
1. WE10 State which quadrant of the unit circle each of the following angles is in.
a. 60° b. 130° c. 310°
d. 260° e. 100° f. 185°
2. MC If 𝜃 = 43°, the triangle drawn to show this would be in:

A. quadrant 1 B. quadrant 2 C. quadrant 3 D. quadrant 4 E. none of these
3. MC If 𝜃 = 295°, the triangle drawn to show this would be in:

A. quadrant 1 B. quadrant 2 C. quadrant 3 D. quadrant 4 E. none of these
4. WE11 Determine the approximate value of each of the following using the unit circle.
a. sin(20°) b. cos(20°) c. cos(100°) d. sin(100°)
5. Determine the approximate value of each of the following using the unit circle.
a. sin(320°) b. cos(320°) c. sin(215°) d. cos(215°)
6. Use the unit circle to determine the approximate value of each of the following.
7. Use the unit circle to determine the approximate value of each of the following.
Understanding
8. On the unit circle, use a protractor to measure an angle of 30° from the y
positive x-axis. Mark the point P on the circle. Use this point to construct
a triangle in quadrant 1 as shown. P
a. Calculate the value of cos(30°). (Remember that the length of the sin(30°)
30°
adjacent side of the triangle is cos(30°).) O x
cos(30°)
b. Calculate the value of sin(30°). (This is the length of the opposite side of
the triangle.)
c. Check your answers in a and b by finding these values with a calculator.

9. Using a graph of the unit circle, measure 150° with a protractor and mark y
the point P on the circle. Use this point to draw a triangle in quadrant 2
as shown. P
150°
a. Determine the angle the radius OP makes with the negative x-axis. sin(150°)
b. Remembering that x = cos(𝜃), use your circle to determine the value O x
cos(150°)
of cos(150°).
c. Comment on how cos(150°) compares to cos(30°).
d. Remembering that y = sin(𝜃), use your circle to determine the value
of sin(150°).
e. Comment on how sin(150°) compares with sin(30°).
10. On a unit circle, measure 210° with a protractor and mark the point P on the y
circle. Use this point to draw a triangle in quadrant 3 as shown.
a. Determine the angle the radius OP makes with the negative x-axis.
b. Use your circle to determine the value of cos(210°). 210°
cos(210°)
c. Comment on how cos(210°) compares to cos(30°).
O x
d. Use your circle to determine the value of sin(210°). sin(210°)
e. Comment on how sin(210°) compares with sin(30°). P
11. On a unit circle, measure 330° with a protractor and mark the point P on y
the circle. Use this point to draw a triangle in quadrant 4 as shown.
a. Determine the angle the radius OP makes with the positive x-axis.
b. Use your circle to determine the value of cos(330°). 330° cos(330°)
c. Comment on how cos(330°) compares to cos(30°). O x
d. Use your circle to determine the value of sin(330°). sin(330°)
e. Comment on how sin(330°) compares with sin(30°). P
12. On a unit circle, draw an appropriate triangle for the angle of 20° y
in quadrant 1.
tan(20°)
a. Determine the value of sin(20°).
sin(20°)
b. Determine the value of cos(20°).
20°
c. Draw a tangent line and extend the hypotenuse of the triangle to meet the x
tangent as shown. cos(20°)
Accurately measure the length of the tangent between the x-axis and the
point where it meets the hypotenuse and, hence, state the value of tan(20°).
sin(20°)
d. Determine the value of .
cos(20°)
sin(20°)
e. Comment on how tan(20°) compares with .
cos(20°)
in quadrant 2.
tan(135°)
a. Determine the value of sin(135°), using sin(45°). 135°

b. Determine the value of cos(135°), using cos(45°).
tangent as shown.
Accurately measure the length of the tangent to where it meets the hypotenuse
to calculate the value of tan(135°).

sin(135°)
cos(135°)
sin(135°)
cos(135°)
f. Comment on how tan(135°) compares with tan(45°).
14. On a unit circle, draw an appropriate triangle for the angle of 220° in y
quadrant 3.
220°
tan(220°)
tangent as shown.
Determine the value of tan(220°) by accurately measuring the length of the
tangent to where it meets the hypotenuse.
sin(220°)
cos(220°)
sin(220°)
cos(220°)
f. Comment on how tan(220°) compares with tan(40°). (Use a calculator.)
in quadrant 4.
300°
tangent as shown.
tan(300°)
Determine the value of tan(300°) by accurately measuring the length of the
tangent to where it meets the hypotenuse.
sin(300°)
d. Determine the value of the value of .
cos(300°)
sin(300°)
cos(300°)
f. Comment on how tan(300°) compares with tan(60°). (Use a calculator.)
16. MC In a unit circle, the length of the radius is equal to:

A. sin(𝜃) B. cos(𝜃) C. tan(𝜃) D. 1 E. none of these
Reasoning
2
17. Show that sin (α°) + cos2 (α°) = 1.
2
18. Show that 1 − sin (180 − α)° = cos2 (180 − α)°.
1
19. Show that 1 + tan2 (𝛼°) = sec2 (𝛼°), where sec(𝛼°) = .
cos(α°)
Problem solving
20. If sin(x°) = p, 0 ≤ x ≤ 90°, write each of the following in terms of p.
a. cos(x°) b. sin(180 − x)° c. cos(180 − x)°
21. Simplify sin(180 − x)° − sin(x°).
22. Simplify cos(180 − x)° + cos(x°), where 0 < x° < 90°.

17.6 Trigonometric functions

LEARNING INTENTION
• sketch the graphs of the sine, cosine and tangent graphs
• determine the amplitude of a given trigonometric function
• determine the period of a given trigonometric function.
17.6.1 Sine, cosine and tangent graphs

eles-5011
• The graphs of y = sin(x), y = cos(x) and y = tan(x) are shown below.
y
1
y = sin(x)
0 x
–360° 360°
–1
y
1
y = cos(x)
0 x
–360° 360°
–1
y = tan(x)
x
–360° –270° –180° –90° 0 90° 180° 270° 360°
• Trigonometric graphs repeat themselves continuously in cycles, and hence they are called
periodic functions.
• The period of the graph is the horizontal distance between repeating peaks or troughs. The period between
the repeating peaks for y = sin(x) and y = cos(x) is 360°. The period of the graph y = tan(x) is 180°, and
asymptotes occur at x = 90° and intervals of 180°.
• The amplitude of a periodic graph is half the distance between the maximum and minimum values of the
function. Amplitude can also be described as the amount by which the graph goes above and below its
mean value, which is the x-axis for the graphs of y = sin(x), y = cos(x) and y = tan(x).

• The following can be summarised from the graphs of the trigonometric functions.
Graph Period Amplitude

y = sin(x) 360° 1
y = cos(x) 360° 1
y = tan(x) 180° Undefined
Translations of trigonometric graphs

• The sine, cosine and tangent graphs can be dilated, translated and reflected in the same way as other
functions, studied earlier.
• These translations are summarised in the table below.
Graph Period Amplitude

360°
y = a sin(nx) a
n
360°
y = a cos(nx) a
n
180°
y = a tan(nx) Undefined
n
• If a < 0, the graph is reflected in the x-axis. The amplitude is always the positive value of a.
WORKED EXAMPLE 12 Sketching periodic functions
Sketch the graphs of a y = 2 sin(x) and b y = cos(2x) for 0° ≤ x ≤ 360°.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a. 1. The graph must be drawn from a. y
0° to 360°. 2
2. Compared to the graph of

y = 2 sin(x)
y = sin(x) each value of sin(x)
has been multiplied by 2, x
0 180° 360°
therefore the amplitude of the
graph must be 2.
3. Label the graph y = 2 sin(x).
–2
b. 1. The graph must be drawn from 0° b. y

to 360°. 2
2. Compared to the graph of y = cos(2x)
y = cos(x), each value of x has
been multiplied by 2, therefore
the period of the graph must 0 x
90° 180° 270° 360°
become 180°.
3. Label the graph y = cos(2x).
–2


a. a. On a Graph & Table screen, set
1. In a new problem, on a an appropriate viewing window
Graphs page, ensure the as shown.
Graphs & Geometry Settings
are set to the degrees mode,
as shown in the screenshot.
To do this, press:
• MENU
• 9: Settings
For Display Digits select
‘Fix 2’.
TAB to Graphing Angle and
select ‘Degree’. TAB to OK
and press ENTER.
2. To set an appropriate viewing a. a.
window, press: Complete the function entry
• MENU line as:
• 4: Window/Zoom y1 = 2 sin(x) ∣ 0 ≤ x ≤ 360
• 1: Window Settings... Press EXE.
Select the values as shown in Tap the graphing icon and the
the screenshot. graph is displayed as required
TAB to OK and press only for 0° ≤ x ≤ 360°.
ENTER.
3. Complete the function entry b. b.

line as: Complete the function entry
f 1(x) = 2 sin(x) ∣ 0 ≤ x ≤ 360 line as:
Press ENTER. The graph y1 = cos(2x) ∣ 0 ≤ x ≤ 360
is displayed as required for Press EXE.
0° ≤ x ≤ 360°. Tap the graphing icon and the
graph is displayed as required
only for 0° ≤ x ≤ 360°.
b. b.
Complete the function entry
line as:
f 2(x) = cos(2x) ∣ 0 ≤ x ≤ 360
Press ENTER, and the graph is
displayed, as required only for
0° ≤ x ≤ 360°.

WORKED EXAMPLE 13 Stating the amplitude and period of given periodic functions
For each of the following graphs, state:

i. the amplitude ii. the period.
( )
x
a. y = 2 sin(3x) b. y = cos c. y = tan(2x)
3
THINK WRITE
a. The value of a is 2. a. i. Amplitude = 2
360° 360
The periods is . ii. Period = = 120°
n 3
b. The value of a is 1. b. i. Amplitude = 1
360° 360
The period is . ii. Period = = 1080°
n 1
3
c. The tangent curve has an undefined amplitude. c. i. Amplitude = undefined
180° 180°
The period is . ii. Period = = 90°
2 2
DISCUSSION
For the graph of y = a tan(nx), what would be the period and amplitude?
Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivity Graphs of trigonometric functions (int-4821)
Exercise 17.6 Trigonometric functions

Individual pathways
1, 4, 8, 12, 16, 20, 25, 26, 28, 3, 5, 7, 10, 13, 14, 17, 21, 23, 27, 2, 6, 9, 11, 15, 18, 19, 22, 24,
29, 32 30, 33 31, 34
Fluency
1. Using your calculator (or the unit circle if you wish), complete the following table.
x 0° 30° 60° 90° 120° 150° 180° 210° 240° 270° 300° 330° 360°
sin(x)
x 390° 420° 450° 480° 510° 540° 570° 600° 630° 660° 690° 720°
sin(x)

For questions 2 to 7, using graph paper, rule x- and y-axes and carefully mark a scale along each axis.
2. Use 1 cm = 30° on the x-axis to show x-values from 0° to 720°.
Use 2 cm = 1 unit along the y-axis to show y-values from −1 to 1.
Carefully plot the graph of y = sin(x) using the values from the table in question 1.
3. State how long it takes for the graph of y = sin(x) to complete one full cycle.
4. From your graph of y = sin(x), estimate to 1 decimal place the value of y for each of the following.
a. x = 42° b. x = 130° c. x = 160° d. x = 200°
5. From your graph of y = sin(x), estimate to 1 decimal place the value of y for each of the following.
a. x = 180 b. x = 70° c. x = 350° d. x = 290°
6. From your graph of y = sin(x), estimate to the nearest degree a value of x for each of the following.
a. y = 0.9 b. y = −0.9 c. y = 0.7
7. From your graph of y = sin(x), estimate to the nearest degree a value of x for each of the following.
a. y = −0.5 b. y = −0.8 c. y = 0.4
x 0° 30° 60° 90° 120° 150° 180° 210° 240° 270° 300° 330° 360°
cos(x)
x 390° 420° 450° 480° 510° 540° 570° 600° 630° 660° 690° 720°
cos(x)
Carefully plot the graph of y = cos(x) using the values from the table in question 8.
10. If you were to continue the graph of y = cos(x), state what shape you would expect it to take.
11. State whether the graph of y = cos(x) is the same as the graph of y = sin(x). Explain how it differs. State what
features are the same.
12. Using the graph of y = cos(x), estimate to 1 decimal place the value of y for each of the following.
a. x = 48° b. x = 155° c. x = 180° d. x = 340°
13. Using the graph of y = cos(x), estimate to 1 decimal place the value of y for each of the following.
a. x = 240° b. x = 140° c. x = 40° d. x = 200°
14. Using the graph of y = cos(x), estimate to the nearest degree a value of x for each of the following.
a. y = −0.5 b. y = 0.8 c. y = 0.7

15. Using the graph of y = cos(x), estimate to the nearest degree a value of x for each of the following.
a. y = −0.6 b. y = 0.9 c. y = −0.9
x 0° 30° 60° 90° 120° 150° 180° 210° 240° 270° 300° 330° 360°
tan(x)
x 390° 420° 450° 480° 510° 540° 570° 600° 630° 660° 690° 720°
tan(x)
Carefully plot the graph of y = tan(x) using the values from the table in question 16.
18. If you were to continue the graph of y = tan(x), state what shape would you expect it to take.
19. State whether the graph of y = tan(x) is the same as the graphs of y = sin(x) and y = cos(x). Explain how it
differs. State what features are the same.
20. Using the graph of y = tan(x), estimate to 1 decimal place the value of y for each of the following.
a. x = 60° b. x = 135° c. x = 310° d. x = 220°
21. Using the graph of y = tan(x), determine the value of y for each of the following.
a. x = 500° b. x = 590° c. x = 710° d. x = 585°
22. Using the graph of y = tan(x), estimate to the nearest degree a value of x for each of the following.
a. y = 1 b. y = 1.5 c. y = −0.4
d. y = –2 e. y = 0.2 f. y = –1
WE12,13 For each of the graphs in questions 23 and 24:

i. state the period
ii. state the amplitude
iii. sketch the graph.
23. a. y = cos(x), for x ∈ [−180°, 180°]

b. y = sin(x), for x ∈ [0°, 720°]
24. a. y = sin(2x), for x ∈ [0°, 360°]

b. y = 2 cos(x), for x ∈ [−360°, 0°]

i. the period
ii. the amplitude.
( )
x
a. y = 3 cos(2x) b. y = 4 sin(3x) c. y = 2 cos
( ) 2
1 x
d. y = sin e. y = − sin(x) f. y = − cos(2x)
2 4

Understanding
26. MC Use the graph shown to answer the y
following. 3
a. The amplitude of the graph is:

2
A. 180° B. 90°
C. 3 D. −3 1
E. 6
b. The period of the graph is: x
0 90° 180°
A. 180° B. 360°
–1
C. 90° D. 3
E. −3
–2
c. The equation of the graph could be:
A. y = cos(x) B. y = sin(x) –3
( )
x
C. y = 3 cos D. y = 3 cos(2x)
3
E. y = 3 sin(2x)
27. Sketch each of the following graphs, stating the period and amplitude of each.
( )
x
a. y = 2 cos , for x ∈ [0°, 1080°] b. y = −3 sin(2x), for x ∈ [0°, 360°]
3
( )
x
c. y = 3 sin , for x ∈ [−180°, 180°] d. y = − cos(3x), for x ∈ [0°, 360°]
2
e. y = 5 cos(2x), for x ∈ [0°, 180°] f. y = − sin(4x), for x ∈ [0°, 180°]
28. Use technology to sketch the graphs of each of the following for 0° ≤ x ≤ 360°.
a. y = cos(x) + 1 b. y = sin(2x) − 2
( )
𝜋
c. y = cos (x − 60) d. y = 2 sin(4x) + 3
180
Reasoning
29. a. Sketch the graph of y = cos(2x) for x ∈ [0°, 360°].
i. State the minimum value of y for this graph. ii. State the maximum value of y for this graph.
b. Using the answers obtained in part a write down the maximum and minimum values of y = cos(2x) + 2.
c. Determine what would be the maximum and minimum values of the graph of y = 2 sin(x) + 3. Explain
how you obtained these values.
30. a. Complete the table below by filling in the exact values of y = tan(x)
x 0° 30° 60° 90° 120° 150° 180°

y = tan(x)
b. Sketch the graph of y = tan(x) for [0°, 180°].

c. Determine what happens at x = 90°.
d. For the graph of y = tan(x), x = 90° is called an asymptote. Write down when the next asymptote
would occur.
e. Determine the period and amplitude of y = tan(x).
31. a. Sketch the graph of y = tan(2x) for [0°, 180°].

b. Determine when the asymptotes occur.
c. State the period and amplitude of y = tan(2x).

Problem solving
32. The height of the tide above the mean sea level on the first day of the month is given by the rule
h = 3 sin(30t°)
where t is the time in hours since midnight.
a. Sketch the graph of h versus t.
b. Determine the height of the high tide.
c. Calculate the height of the tide at 8 am.
33. The height, h metres, of the tide on the first day of January at Trig Cove is given by the rule
h = 6 + 4 sin(30t°)
where t is the time in hours since midnight.
a. Sketch the graph of h versus t, for 0 ≤ t ≤ 24.
b. Determine the height of the high tide.
c. Determine the height of the low tide.
d. Calculate the height of the tide at 10 am, correct to the nearest centimetre.
34. The temperature, T, inside a house t hours after 3 am is given by the rule
T = 22 − 2 cos(15t°) for 0 ≤ t ≤ 24
where T is the temperature in degrees Celsius.
a. Determine the temperature inside the house at 9 am.
b. Sketch the graph of T versus t.
c. Determine the warmest and coolest temperatures that it gets inside the house over the 24-hour period.
17.7 Solving trigonometric equations

LEARNING INTENTION
• solve trigonometric equations graphically for a given domain
• solve trigonometric equations algebraically, using exact values, for a given domain.
17.7.1 Solving trigonometric equations

eles-5012
Solving trigonometric equations graphically
• Because of the periodic nature of circular functions, there are infinitely many solutions to unrestricted
trigonometric equations.
• Equations are usually solved within a particular domain (x-values), to restrict the number of solutions.
• The sine graph below shows the solutions between 0° and 360° for the equation sin(x) = 0.6.
y
1
0.6
0 x
180° 360°
–1
In the example above, it can clearly be seen that there are two solutions to this equation, which are
approximately x = 37° and x = 143°.
• It is difficult to obtain accurate answers from a graph. More accurate answers can be obtained
using technology.

Solving trigonometric equations algebraically

Exact answers can be found for some trigonometric equations using the table in section 17.2.1.
WORKED EXAMPLE 14 Solving trigonometric equations using exact values
Solve the following

√ equations.
3 1
a. sin(x) = , x ∈ [0°, 360°] b. cos(2x) = − √ , x ∈ [0°, 360°]
2 2
THINK WRITE
(√ )
−1 −1 3
a. 1. The inverse operation of sine is sin . a. x = sin
2
2. The first solution in the given domain from

the table in subsection 17.2.1 is x = 60°.
3. Since sine is positive in the first and There are two solutions in the given domain,
second quadrants, another solution must be x = 60° and x = 120°.
x = 180° − 60° = 120°.
( )
−1
b. 1. The inverse operation of cosine is cos−1 . b. 2x = cos−1 √
2
( )
−1 1
2. From the table of values, cos √ = 45°.
2
3. Cosine is negative in the second and third 2x = 135°, 225°
quadrants, which gives the first two solutions
to the equation as: 180° − 45° and 180° + 45°.
4. Solve for x by dividing by 2. x = 67.5°, 112.5°
360°
5. Since the domain in this case is [0°, 360°] and The period = = 180°
the period has been halved, there must be 4 2
solutions altogether. The other 2 solutions x = 67.5° + 180°, 112.5° + 180°
can be found by adding the period onto each x = 67.5°, 112.5°, 247.5°, 292.5°
solution.


a. a. a. a.
Calculator page, complete the the entry line as:
entry line as: ( √ )
( √ ) 3
3 solve sin(x) = ,x ∣
solve sin(x) = ,x | 2
2 0 ≤ x ≤ 360
0 ≤ x ≤ 360 Then press EXE.
Then press ENTER. Note that the calculator is set to
Note that the calculator is set to the degrees mode.
√
the degrees mode. 3
sin(x) = for x ∈ [0°, 360°]
2
⇒ x = 60° or 120°
√
3
sin(x) = for
2
x ∈ [0°, 360°]
⇒ x = 60° or 120°
b. b. b. b.
the entry line as: the entry line as:
( ) ( )
1 1
solve cos (2x) = − √ , x ∣ solve cos (2x) = − √ , x ∣
2 2
0 ≤ x ≤ 360 0 ≤ x ≤ 360
Then press ENTER. Then press EXE.
Note that the calculator is set to Note that the calculator is set to
the degrees mode. the degrees mode.
1
cos(2x) = − √ for
2
1
x ∈ [0°, 360°] cos(2x) = − √ for
⇒ x = 67.5°, 112.5°, 247.5° or 2
292.5° x ∈ [0°, 360°]
⇒ x = 67.5°, 112.5°,
247.5° or 292.5°
DISCUSSION
Explain why sine and cosine functions can be used to model situations that occur in nature such as tide
heights and sound waves.
Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivity Solving trigonometric equations graphically (int-4822)

Exercise 17.7 Solving trigonometric equations

Individual pathways
1, 3, 6, 9, 13, 16 2, 4, 7, 10, 14, 17 5, 8, 11, 12, 15, 18
Fluency
For questions 1 and 2, use the graph to determine approximate answers to the equations for the domain 0 ≤ x ≤
360°. Check your answers using a calculator.
y
1
0 x
180° 360°
–1
1. a. cos(x) = 0.9 b. cos(x) = 0.3
2. a. cos(x) = −0.2 b. cos(x) = −0.6
For questions 3 to 8, solve the equations for the domain 0° ≤ x ≤ 360°.

√
1 3
3. a. sin(x) = b. sin(x) =
2 2
1 1
4. a. cos(x) = − b. cos(x) = − √
2 2
5. a. sin(x) = 1 b. cos(x) = −1
1 1
6. a. sin(x) = − b. sin(x) = − √
2 2
√ √
3 3
7. a. cos(x) = b. cos(x) = −
2 2
8. a. sin(x) = 1 b. cos(x) = 0

Understanding
WE14 For questions 9 and 12, solve the following equations for the given values of x.
√ √
3 3
9. a. sin(2x) = , x ∈ [0°, 360°] b. cos(2x) = − , x ∈ [0°, 360°]
2 2
1 1
10. a. tan(2x) = √ , x ∈ [0°, 360°] b. sin(3x) = − , x ∈ [0°, 180°]
3 2
1 1
11. a. sin(4x) = − , x ∈ [0°, 180°] b. sin(3x) = − √ , x ∈ [−180°, 180°]
2 2
12. a. tan(3x) = −1, x ∈ [0°, 90°] b. cos(3x) = 0, x ∈ [0°, 360°]
Reasoning
13. Solve the following equations for x ∈ [0°, 360°].
√
a. 2 sin(x) − 1 = 0 b. 2 cos(x) = 3
14. Solve the following equations for x ∈ [0°, 360°].
√
a. 2 cos(x) − 1 = 0 b. tan(x) + 1 = 0
15. Sam measured the depth of water at the end of the Intergate jetty at various times on Thursday 13 August 2020.
The table below provides her results.
Time 6 am 7 8 9 10 11 12 pm 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Depth 1.5 1.8 2.3 2.6 2.5 2.2 1.8 1.2 0.8 0.5 0.6 1.0 1.3 1.8 2.2 2.5
a. Plot the data.

b. Determine:
i. the period
ii. the amplitude.
c. Sam fishes from the jetty when the depth is a maximum. Specify these times for
the next 3 days.
d. Sam’s mother can moor her yacht when the depth is above 1.5 m. Determine
during what periods she can moor the yacht on Sunday 16 January.
Problem solving
16. Solve:
√
a. 3 sin (x°) = cos (x°) for 0° ≤ x ≤ 360°
b. 2 sin (x°) + cos (x°) = 0 for 0° ≤ x ≤ 360°.
2
17. Solve 2 sin (x°) + 3 sin (x°) − 2 = 0 for 0° ≤ x ≤ 360°.
1
18. The grad (g ) is another measurement used when measuring the size of angles. A grad is equivalent to of
400
a full circle. Write each of the following as grads (1 grad is written as 1g ).
a. 90° b. 180° c. 270° d. 360°

17.8 Review
•
Sine rule Area of a triangle Cosine rule
• Connects two sides with the two • Given two sides and the included angle: • Connects three sides and one
opposite angles in a triangle. 1 angle of a triangle.
a b c Area = – ab sin(C)
• – = – = –
2 a 2 = b2 + c2 – 2bc cos(A)
sin A sin B sin C • Given three sides, Heron’s formula: Used to solve triangles given:
• Used to solve triangles: Area = √ (s(s – a)(s – b)(s – c)) • three sides, or
a+b+c
• Two angles and one side. where s is the semi-perimeter: s = – • two sides and the included angle.
• Two sides and an angle opposite 2
one of these sides.
Ambiguous case
TRIGONOMETRY II
• When using the sine rule to Trigonometric equations Exact values
calculate an angle, there may be
two answers. • Exact trig ratios B
• The ambiguous case may occur normally restricted: can be found
when determining the angle e.g. 0° ≤ x ≤ 180° using triangles.
2 30° 2
opposite the larger side. • Equations can be solved: • For 30° and
• Always check that the three • graphically — not very accurate 60° use the 60°
angles add to 180°. • using technology equilateral A D C
e.g. In the triangle ABC, a = 10, • algebraically, using the exact values. triangle. 2
b = 6 and B = 30°, using the sine rule, 1 • For 45°, use a right-angled G
e.g. sin α = – –, 0° ≤ x ≤ 360°
A = 56° or (180 – 56)°. 2 1 isosceles triangle.
–
from exact values: sin 30° = 11111 1
Angles in triangle would be: 2 e.g. sin 30° = –
A = 56°, B = 30° giving C = 94° sine is negative in 3rd and 4th quadrants 2 2 1
A = 124°, B = 30° giving C = 26° and the angle is from the x-axis tan 45° = 1 45°
Two triangles are possible, α = (180 + 30)° or (360 – 30)° 1
cos 60°= – E 1 F
so the ambiguous case exists. α = 210° or 330° 2
Trigonometric graphs Unit circle

• Trigonometric y
• Equation of the unit circle: x 2+ y 2 = 1
graphs repeat 1 • Radius of length 1 unit.
themselves y = sin x • For any point on circumference: y
continuously x = cos θ P(x, y)
–360° 0 360° x
in cycles. y = sin θ 1
• Period: –1
y sin θ y
• tan θ = – = – 0°
horizontal x cos θ θ
y = sin x, Period = 360°, Amplitude = 1 • sin(180 – A)° = sin A° 0 x x
distance between A = (1, 0)
y cos(180 – A)° = – cos A°
repeating peaks 1
or troughs. y = cos x tan(180 – A)° = – tan A°
• Amplitude: • Quadrants are y
half the distance –360° 0 360° x positive for:
between the –1 II I
maximum and x < 0, y > 0 x > 0, y > 0
minimum values. y = cos x, Period = 360°, Amplitude = 1 sin = + sin = cos = +
y cos = tan = – tan = +
Sin > 0 All > 0
y = tan x x
III IV
x < 0, y < 0 x > 0, y < 0
–360°–270°–180°–90° 0 90° 180° 270° 360° x tan = + cos = +
sin = cos = – sin = tan = –
Tan > 0 Cos > 0
y = tan x, Period = 180°, Amplitude =


17.2 I can apply the exact values of sin, cos and tan for 30°, 45° and 60° angles.
I can apply the sine rule to evaluate angles and sides of triangles.
I can recognise when the ambiguous case of the sine rule exists.
17.3 I can apply the cosine rule to calculate a side of a triangle.
I can apply the cosine rule to calculate the angles of a triangle.
17.4 I can calculate the area of a triangle, given two sides and the included
angle.
I can use Heron’s formula to calculate the area of a triangle, given the
three sides.
17.5 I can determine in which quadrant an angle lies.
I can use and interpret the relationship between a point on the unit circle
and the angle made with the positive x-axis.
I can use the unit circle to determine approximate trigonometric ratios for
angles greater than 90°.
17.6 I can sketch the graphs of the sine, cosine and tangent graphs.
I can determine the amplitude of a given trigonometric function.
I can determine the period of a given trigonometric function.
17.7 I can solve trigonometric equations graphically for a given domain.
I can solve trigonometric equations algebraically, using exact values, for a

given domain.
17.8.3 Project
What’s an arbelos?
As an introduction to this task, you are required to complete the following
construction. The questions that follow require the application of
measurement formulas, and an understanding of semicircles related to this
construction.
A 6 cm Y B
8 cm

1. Constructing an arbelos
• Rule a horizontal line AB 8 cm long.
• Determine the midpoint of the line and construct a semicircle on top of the line with AB as the
diameter.
• Mark Y as a point on AB such that AY = 6 cm.
• Determine the midpoint of AY and draw a small semicircle inside the larger semicircle with AY as the
diameter.
• Determine the midpoint of YB and construct a semicircle (also inside the larger semicircle) with a
diameter YB.
The shape enclosed by the three semicircles is known as an arbelos. The word, in Greek, means
shoemaker’s knife as it resembles the blade of a knife used by cobblers. The point Y is not fixed and can be
located anywhere along the diameter of the larger semicircle, which can also vary in size.
2. Perimeter of an arbelos
The perimeter of an arbelos is the sum of the arc length of the three semicircles. Perform the following
calculations, leaving each answer in terms of 𝜋.
a. Calculate the arc length of the semicircle with diameter AB.
b. Calculate the arc length of the semicircle with diameter AY.
c. Calculate the arc length of the semicircle on diameter YB.
d. Compare the largest arc length with the two smaller arc lengths. What do you conclude?
3. We can generalise the arc length of an arbelos. The point Y can be located anywhere on the line AB,
which can also vary in length. Let the diameter AB be d cm, AY be d1 cm and YB be d2 cm. Prove that
your conclusion from question 2d holds true for any value of d, where d1 + d2 = d.
4. Area of an arbelos
The area of an arbelos may be treated as the area of a composite shape.
a. Using your original measurements, calculate the area of the arbelos you drew in question 1. Leave
your answer in terms of 𝜋.
The area of the arbelos can also be calculated using another method. We can draw the common tangent
to the two smaller semicircles at their point of contact and extend this tangent to the larger semicircle. It
is said that the area of the arbelos is the same as the area of the circle constructed on this common
tangent as diameter.

A Y B
YZ is the common tangent.
Triangles AYZ, BYZ and AZB are all right-angled triangles. We can use Pythagoras’ theorem, together
with a set of simultaneous equations, to determine the length of the tangent YZ.
b. Complete the following.
In ΔAYZ, AZ2 = AY2 + YZ2
= 62 + YZ2
In ΔBYZ, BZ2 = BY2 + YZ2
= .......................... + YZ2
Adding these two equations,
AZ2 + BZ2 = ......................... + .........................
AZ2 + BZ2 = AB2
But, in ΔAZB = .........................
......................... + .........................
So, YZ = ......................... (Leave your answer in surd form.)
c. Now calculate the area of the circle with diameter YZ. Is your answer the same as that calculated in
question 4a?
The area of an arbelos can be generalised.

Let the radii of the two smaller semicircles be r1 and r2 .
A r1 Y r B
2
5. Develop a formula for the area of the arbelos in terms of r1 and r2 . Demonstrate the use of your formula
by checking your answer to question 4a.
Resources
Resourceseses


Fluency
1. Calculate the value of x, correct to 2 decimal places.
55°
x
75°
12 cm
2. Calculate the value of 𝜃, correct to the nearest minute.
105° 3.7 m
θ
10.2 m
3. Determine all unknown sides (correct to 2 decimal places) and angles (correct to the nearest minute) of
triangle ABC, given a = 25 m, A = 120° and B = 50°.
4. Calculate the value of x, correct to 2 decimal places.
4.5 cm
54° x cm
2.8 cm
5. Calculate the value of 𝜃, correct to the nearest degree.
6 cm
6 cm
θ 10 cm
6. A triangle has sides of length 12 m, 15 m and 20 m. Calculate the magnitude (size) of the largest angle,
correct to the nearest minute.
7. A triangle has two sides of 18 cm and 25 cm. The angle between the two sides is 45°.
Calculate, correct to 2 decimal places:
a. its area
b. the length of its third side
c. its area using Heron’s formula.

8. If an angle of 𝜃 = 290° was represented on the unit circle, state which quadrant the triangle to show this
would be drawn in.
9. On the unit circle, draw an appropriate triangle for the angle 110° in quadrant 2.
a. Determine the value of sin(110°) and cos(110°), correct to 2 decimal places.
b. Determine the value of tan(110°), correct to 2 decimal places.
10. MC The value of sin(53°) is equal to:

A. cos(53°) B. cos(37°) C. sin(37°) D. tan(53°) E. tan(37°)
sin(53°)
11. Simplify .
sin(37°)
12. Draw a sketch of y = sin(x) from 0° ≤ x ≤ 360°.
13. Draw a sketch of y = cos(x) from 0° ≤ x ≤ 360°.
14. Draw a sketch of y = tan(x) from 0° ≤ x ≤ 360°.
x y
15. Label this triangle so that = .
sin(46°) sin(68°)
16. State the period and amplitude of each of the following graphs.
a. y = 2 sin(3x)
b. y = −3 cos(2x)
c. y
1
0 x
90° 180° 360°
–1
17. Sketch the following graphs.

a. y = 2 sin(x), x ∈ [0°, 360°] b. y = cos(2x), x ∈ [−180°, 180°]
18. Use technology to write down the solutions to the following equations for the domain 0° ≤ x ≤ 360° to
2 decimal places.
a. sin(x) = −0.2 b. cos(2x) = 0.7 c. 3 cos(x) = 0.1 d. 2 tan(2x) = 0.5


√
1 3
a. sin(x) = , x ∈ [0°, 360°] b. cos(x) = , x ∈ [0°, 360°]
2 2
1 1
c. cos(x) = √ , x ∈ [0°, 360°] d. sin(x) = √ , x ∈ [0°, 360°]
2 2
20. MC The equation that represents the graph shown could be:
y
3
0 x
60° 120°
–1
–2
–3
A. y = 3 sin(2x) B. y = 2 cos(3x) C. y = 3 cos(2x) D. y = 2 sin(2x) E. y = 2 sin(3x)
21. a. Use technology to help sketch the graph of y = 2 sin(2x) − 3.

b. Write down the period and the amplitude of the graph in part a.
Problem solving
22. Sketch the graphs of each of the following, stating:
i. the period
ii. the amplitude.
a. y = 2 cos(2x), x ∈ [0°, 360°]
b. y = 3 sin(4x), x ∈ [0°, 180°]
c. y = −2 cos(3x), x ∈ [−60°, 60°]
d. y = 4 sin(2x), x ∈ [−90°, 90°]
23. Solve each of the following equations for the given values of x.
√
3 1
a. cos(2x) = , x ∈ [0°, 360°] b. sin(3x) = , x ∈ [−90°, 90°]
2 2
1 1
c. sin(2x) = √ , x ∈ [0°, 360°] d. cos(3x) = − √ , x ∈ [0°, 360°]
2 2
e. sin(4x) = 0, x ∈ [0°, 180°] f. tan(4x) = −1, x ∈ [0°, 180°]
24. Solve the following for x ∈ [0°, 360°].

√ √ √
a. 2 cos(x) − 1 = 0 b. 2 sin(x) = − 3 c. − 2 cos(x) + 1 = 0 d. 2 sin(x) + 1 = 0
25. Sketch the graph of y = tan(2x), x ∈ [0°, 180°]. Write down the period, amplitude and the equations of
any asymptotes.

26. A satellite dish is placed on top of an apartment building as shown in the diagram. Determine the height
of the satellite dish, in metres correct to 2 decimal places.
0.22°
48.3°
450 m
27. Australian power points supply voltage, V, in volts, where V = 240 (sin 18 000t) and t is measured
in seconds.
t V
0.000
0.005
0.010
0.015
0.020
0.025
0.030
0.035
0.040
a. Copy and complete the table and sketch the graph, showing the fluctuations in voltage over time.
b. State the times at which the maximum voltage output occurs.
c. Determine how many seconds there are between times of maximum voltage output.
d. Determine how many periods (or cycles) are there per second.

eWorkbook
Solutions
Digital documents
17.2 SkillSHEET Labelling right-angled triangles (doc-5398) ⃞
SkillSHEET Calculating sin, cos or tan of an angle
(doc-5399) ⃞
SkillSHEET Finding side lengths in right-angled triangles
(doc-5400) ⃞
SkillSHEET Calculating the angle from a sin, cos or tan
ratio (doc-5401) ⃞
SkillSHEET Finding angles in right-angled triangles
(doc-5402) ⃞
Video eLessons
17.2 Exact values of trigonometric functions and the sine
rule (eles-5004) ⃞
The ambiguous case (eles-5005) ⃞
17.3 The cosine rule (eles-5006) ⃞
17.4 Area of triangles (eles-5007) ⃞
Heron’s formula (eles-5008) ⃞
17.5 The unit circle (eles-5009) ⃞
The four quadrants of the unit circle (eles-5010) ⃞
17.6 Sine, cosine and tangent graphs (eles-5011) ⃞
17.7 Solving trigonometric equations (eles-5012) ⃞
Interactivities
17.2 Exact values of trigonometric functions (int-4816) ⃞
The ambiguous case (int-4818) ⃞
The sine rule (int-6275) ⃞
17.3 The cosine rule (int-6276) ⃞
17.4 Area of triangles (int-6483) ⃞
Using Heron’s formula to calculate the area of a triangle
(int-6475) ⃞
17.6 Graphs of trigonometric functions (int-4821) ⃞
17.7 Solving trigonometric equations graphically (int-4822) ⃞
Teacher resources
online.

Answers 3.
4.
23.08, 41°53′ , 23°7′
28°57′
Topic 17 Trigonometry II 5. 88°15′
6. A = 61°15′ , B = 40°, C = 78°45′
7. 2218 m
1. B ′
8. a. 12.57 km b. S35°1 E
2. 9.06 m
3. 9.35 cm 9. a. 35°6′ b. 6.73 m2
4. A 10. 23°
5. 19.67 11. 89.12 m
6. 7.2 m 12. a. 130 km b. S22°12′ E

7. B 13. 28.5 km
8. 3rd quadrant 14. 74.3 km
′
9. 0.5 15. 70°49
10. D 16. a. 8.89 m b. 77°0′ c. x = 10.07m

11. D 17. 1.14 km/h
12. B 18. ∠CAB = 34.65°, ∠ABC = 84.83° and ∠BCA = 60.52°
13. A 19. a. 4.6637 m b. 55.93°
14. C
15. 270°
Exercise 17.4 Area of triangles
1. 12.98
Exercise 17.2 The sine rule 2. 38.14
1. 44°58′ , 77°2′ , 13.79 3. 212.88
2. 39°18′ , 38°55′ , 17.21 4. A = 32°4′ , B = 99°56′ , area = 68.95 cm2
3. 70°, 9.85, 9.40 5. A = 39°50′ , B = 84°10′ , area = 186.03 m2
4. 33°, 38.98, 21.98 6. A = 125°14′ , B = 16°46′ , area = 196.03 mm2
5. 19.12 7. C
6. C = 51°, b = 54.66, c = 44.66 8. 14.98 cm2
7. A = 60°, b = 117.11, c = 31.38 9. 570.03 mm2
8. B = 48°26′ , C = 103°34′ , c = 66.26; or B = 131°34′ , 10. 2.15 cm2
C = 20°26′ , c = 23.8 11. B
9. 24.17 12. 3131.41 mm2
10. B, C 13. 610 cm2
11. A = 73°15′ , b = 8.73; or A = 106°45′ , b = 4.12 14. a. 187.5 cm
2
b. 15.03 cm
2
c. 187.47 cm
2
12. 51.90 or 44.86 15. 17 goldfish

13. C = 110°, a = 3.09, b = 4.64 16. C
14. B = 38°, a = 3.36, c = 2.28 17. B
15. B = 33°33′ , C = 121°27′ , c = 26.24; or B = 146°27′ , 18. a. Area = 69.63 cm
2
C = 8°33′ , c = 4.57 b. Dimensions are 12.08 cm and 6.96 cm.

16. 43.62 m 19. 17 kg
17. h = 7.5 cm 20. 52.2 hectares
18. 113 km 21. 175 m3
19. 8.68 m 22. 22.02 m2
20. Yes, she needs 43 m altogether. 23. a. 29.44 km
2
b. 8.26 km c. 41°
21. a. 6.97 m b. 4 m d. 24° e. 3.72 km f. 10.11 km
2
2
22. a. 13.11 km b. N20°47′ W g. 39.55 km
23. a. 8.63 km b. 6.48 km/h c. 9.90 km 24. 374.12 cm2

24. 22.09 km from A and 27.46 km from B.
′ Exercise 17.5 The unit circle
25. a. 7.3 km b. 282°3
1. a. 1st b. 2nd c. 4th
Exercise 17.3 The cosine rule d. 3rd e. 2nd f. 3rd
1. 7.95 2. A
2. 55.22
3. D

√ √
4. a. 0.34 b. 0.94 c. −0.17 d. 0.98 20. a. 1 − p2 b. p c. − 1 − p2
5. a. −0.64 b. 0.77 c. −0.57 d. −0.82 21. 0
6. a. 1 b. 0 c. 0 d. −1 22. 0
7. a. −1 b. 0 c. 0 d. 1
Exercise 17.6 Trigonometric functions
8. a. 0.87 b. 0.50
9. a. 30° 2. y y = sin(x)
b. −0.87 1
c. cos(150°) = − cos(30°)
d. 0.5
0 x
90°
180°
270°
360°
450°
540°
630°
720°
e. sin(150°) = sin(30°)
10. a. 30° –1
b. −0.87
3. 360°
c. cos(210°) = − cos(30°)
4. a. 0.7 b. 0.8 c. 0.3 d. −0.3
d. −0.50
5. a. 0 b. 0.9 c. −0.2 d. −0.9
e. sin(210°) = − sin(30°)
6. a. 64°, 116°, 424°, 476°
11. a. 30°
b. 0.87 244°, 296°, 604°, 656°
b.
c. cos(330°) = − cos(30°) c. 44°, 136°, 404°, 496°
d. −0.50 7. a. 210°, 330°, 570°, 690°
e. sin(330°) = − sin(30°)
b. 233°, 307°, 593°, 667°
12. a. 0.34 b. 0.94 c. 24°, 156°, 384°, 516°
c. 0.36 d. 0.36
e. They are equal.
9. y y = cos(x)
13. a. 0.71 b. −0.71 1
c. −1 d. −1
e. They are equal. f. tan(135°) = − tan(45°)
0 x
90°
180°
270°
360°
450°
540°
630°
720°
14. a. −0.64
b. −0.77 –1
c. 0.84 10. The graph would continue with the cycle.
d. 0.83 11. It is a very similar graph with the same shape; however, the
e. They are approx. equal. sine graph starts at (0, 0), whereas the cosine graph starts
f. tan(220°) = tan(40°) at (0, 1).
15. a. −0.87 12. a. 0.7 b. −0.9 c. −1 d. 0.9
b. 0.5 13. a. −0.5 b. −0.8 c. 0.8 d. −0.9

c. −1.73 14. a. 120°, 240°, 480°, 600°
d. −1.74 b. 37°, 323°, 397°, 683°
e. They are approx. equal. c. 46°, 314°, 406°, 674°
f. tan(300°) = − tan(60°) 15. a. 127°, 233°, 487°, 593°
16. D b. 26°, 334°, 386°, 694°
17, 18, 19.Sample responses can be found in the worked c. 154°, 206°, 514°, 566°
*1.
x 0° 30° 60° 90° 120° 150° 180° 210° 240° 270° 300° 330° 360°
sin(x) 0 0.5 0.87 1 0.87 0.5 0 −0.5° −0.87 −1 −0.87 −0.5 0
x 390° 420° 450° 480° 510° 540° 570° 600° 630° 660° 690° 720°
sin(x) 0.5 0.87 1 0.87 0.5 0 −0.5 −0.87 −1 −0.87 −0.5 0
*8.
x 0° 30° 60° 90° 120° 150° 180° 210° 240° 270° 300° 330° 360°
cos(x) 1 0.87 0.5 0 −0.5 −0.87 −1 −0.87 −0.5 0 0.5 0.87 1
x 390° 420° 450° 480° 510° 540° 570° 600° 630° 660° 690° 720°
cos(x) 0.87 0.5 0 −0.5 −0.87 −1 −0.87 −0.5 0 0.5 0.87 1

16. See table at the bottom of the page.* b. i. 360°

17. y = tan(x) ii. 2
y iii. y
y = 2 cos(x) 2
180° 360° 540° 720°
0° x
0 x
–360° –270° –180° –90°
90° 270° 450° 630°
–2
18. The graph would continue repeating every 180° as above.
19. Quite different. y = tan(x) has undefined values (asymptotes) 25. a. i. 180° ii. 3
and repeats every 180° rather than 360°. It also gives all
b. i. 120° ii. 4
y-values, rather than just values between −1 and 1.
20. a. 1.7 b. −1 c. −1.2 d. 0.8
c. i. 720° ii. 2
1
21. a. −0.8 b. 1.2 c. −0.2 d. 1 d. i. 1440° ii.
2
22. a. 45°, 225°, 405°, 585°
e. i. 360° ii. 1
b. 56°, 236°, 416°, 596°
f. i. 180° ii. 1
c. 158°, 338°, 518°, 698°
d. 117°, 297°, 477°, 657° 26. a. C b. A c. D
27. a. y
e. 11°, 191°, 371°, 551°
f. 135°, 315°, 495°, 675°
2
23. a. i. 360° y = 2 cos –3x()
ii. 1
0 x
iii. y 540° 1080°
–2
1 y = cos(x)
Period = 1080°
Amplitude = 2
0 x
–180° –90° 90° 180° b. y
y = –3 sin(2x)
–1
3
b. 360°
i.
ii. 1
0 x
iii. y 90° 180° 270° 360°
y = sin(x) –3
1
Period = 180°
Amplitude = 3
0 x c. y
180° 360° 540° 720° y = 3 sin –x
()
2
–1 3
24. a. i. 180°
0 x
ii. 1 –180° –90° 90° 180°
iii. y y = sin(2x) –3
1
Period = 720°
Amplitude = 3
0 x
90° 180° 270° 360°
–1
*16.
x 0° 30° 60° 90° 120° 150° 180° 210° 240° 270° 300° 330° 360°
tan(x) 0 0.58 1.73 undef. −1.73 −0.58 0 0.58 1.73 undef. −1.73 −0.58 0
x 390° 420° 450° 480° 510° 540° 570° 600° 630° 660° 690° 720°
tan(x) 0.58 1.73 undef. −1.73 −0.58 0 0.58 1.73 undef. −1.73 −0.58 0

d. y y = –cos(3x) 29. a. y
y = cos(2x)
1 1
0 x 0 x
120° 240° 360° 180° 360°
–1 –1
Period = 120° i. −1 ii. 1

Amplitude = 1
y
b. Max value = 3, min value = 1
e. y = 5cos(2x)
5 c. Max value of sin(x) = 1, hence max value of
y=2×1+3=5
Min value of sin(x) = −1, hence min value of
x
y = 2 × −1 + 3 = 1
0 180°
30. a. x 0 30° 60° 90° 120°150° 180°
√ √
–5 3 √ √ 3
y 0 3 undef − 3 − 0
3 3
Period = 180°
Amplitude = 5 b. y
f. y y = tan(x)
y = –sin(4x)
1
0 x
90° 180°
0 x
90° 180°
–1
c. At x = 90°, y is undefined.
Period = 90° d. x = 270°
Amplitude = 1
e. The period = 180°, amplitude is undefined.
28. a. y
y = cos(x) + 1 31. a. y = tan(2x)
2
y
1
0 x
–1 90° 180° 270° 360°
–2 0 x
90° 180°
b. y
0 x b. x = 45° and x = 135°
–1 90° 180° 270° 360°
c. The period = 90° and amplitude is undefined.
–2
–3 32. a. h
y = sin(2x) – 2 4
–4
3
c. 2
2 1
1.5 t
0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24
1
0.5 (π (x – 60)
y = cos –––
180 ) –1
–2
–3
0 60 120 180 240 300 360 –4
–0.5
–1
–1.5 b. 3 metres
–2 c. −2.6 metres
d. y
y = 2sin(4x) + 3
5
4
3
2
1
0 x
90° 180° 270° 360°

33. a. y (3, 10) 15. a.

(15, 10)
10 3.0
Height (m)
(24, 6)
(0, 6) 2.6 m
5 2.5
(9, 2) (21, 2)
2.0 1.05 m
Depth (m)
0 x
5 10 15 20 25
Time from midnight (h) 1.5 1.55 m
10 metres
b. 1 1.05 m
≈ 12 –2 hours
1.0
2 metres
c.
d. 2.54 metres 0.5 m
0.5
34. a. 22 °C
b. T 0
25 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
am pm
24 Time (hours)
1
23 12 hours
b. i. ii. 1.05 m
2
22 c. 10.00 am, 10.30 pm, 11.00 am, 11.30 pm, noon.
d. Until 1.45 am Sunday, 8 am to 2.15 pm and after
21 8.30 pm.
16. a. x = 30°, 210° b. x = 153.43°, 333.43°
20 17. x = 30°, 150°
g g
18. a. 100 b. 200 c. 300g d. 400g
19
Project
0 t
3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 1. Follow given instructions.
c. Coolest 20 °C, warmest 24 °C 2. a. 4𝜋 cm
b. 3𝜋 cm
c. 𝜋 cm
Exercise 17.7 Solving trigonometric equations
d. The largest arc length equals the sum of the two smaller
1. Calculator answers
arc lengths.
a. 25.84°, 334.16° b. 72.54°, 287.46°
3. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions in the
2. a. 101.54°, 258.46° b. 126.87°, 233.13° online resources.
3. a. 30°, 150° b. 60°, 120° 4. a. 3𝜋 cm2
4. a. 120°, 240° b. 135°, 225° b. In ∆AYZ: AZ2 = AY2 + YZ2
5. a. 90° b. 180° = 62 + YZ2
6. a. 210°, 330° b. 225°, 315° In ∆BYZ: BZ2 = BY2 + YZ2
7. a. 30°, 330° b. 150°, 210° = 22 + YZ2
8. a. 90° b. 90°, 270° Adding these equations: AZ2 + BZ2 = 62 + YZ2 + 22 + YZ2
9. a. 30°, 60°, 210°, 240° b. 75°, 105°, 255°, 285° But in ∆AZB: AZ2 + BZ2 = AB2
10. a. 15°, 105°, 195°, 285° 62 + YZ2 + 22 + YZ2 = 82
b. 70°, 110°
2 YZ2 = 64–36–4
11. a. 52.5°, 82.5°, 142.5°, 172.5°
YZ2 = 12√
b. −165°, −135°, −45°, −15°, 75°, 105°
YZ = ±√ 12
12. a. 45°
But YZ > 0 as it is a length: YZ = 2 3
b. 30°, 90°, 150°, 210°, 270°, 330°
13. a. 30°, 150° b. 30°, 330°
3𝜋 cm2
c.
Yes, same area
14. a. 45°, 315° b. 135°, 315°
5. Area of the arbelos = 𝜋r1 r2
Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions in the
online resources.

Exercise 17.8 Review questions 18. a. x = 191.54, 348.46

1. 14.15 cm b. x = 22.79, 157.21, 202.79, 337.21
2. 20°31′ c. x = 88.09, 271.91
3. b = 22.11 m, c = 5.01 m, C = 10° d. x = 7.02, 97.02, 187.02, 277.02
4. 3.64 cm 19. a. 30°, 150° b. 30°, 330°
5. 34° c. 45°, 315° d. 45°, 135°
6. 94°56′ 20. E
7. a. 159.10 cm
2
b. 17.68 cm c. 159.10 cm
2 21. a. y y = 2sin(2x) – 3
8. 4th quadrant 0 x
–1 180° 360°
9. a. 0.94, −0.34 b. −2.75 –2
10. B –3
11. tan(53°) –4
–5
12. y
1 y = sin(x)
b. Period = 180, amplitude = 2
22. a. y
0 x y = 2cos(2x)
2
90°
180°
270°
360°
450°
–1
0 x
13. y 180° 360°
y = cos(x)
1 –2
x i. Period = 180°
0
90°
180°
270°
360°
450°
ii. Amplitude = 2
–1
b. y y = 3sin(4x)
3
14. y = tan(x)
y
0 x
90° 180°
0 x
180° 360°
–3
15. B i. Period = 90°

ii. Amplitude = 3
y
c. y = –2cos(3x)
x y
A 46° 2
68°
C 0 x
o
–60° 60°
16. a. Period = 120 , amplitude = 2
o
–2
b. Period = 180 , amplitude = 3
o
c. Period = 180 , amplitude = 1 i. Period = 120°
17. a. y ii. Amplitude = 2
2 y = 2sin(x) d. y = 4sin(2x)
1 y
x 4
0 180° 360°
–1
–2
0 x
–90° 90°
b. y –4
y = cos(2x)
1
i. Period = 180°
0 x ii. Amplitude= 4
–180° 180°
–1

23. a. 15°, 165°, 195°, 345°

b. −70°, 10°, 50°
c. 22.5°, 67.5°, 202.5°, 247.5°
d. 45°, 75°, 165°, 195°, 285°, 315°
e. 0°, 45°, 90°, 135°, 180°
f. 33.75°, 78.75°, 123.75°, 168.75°
24. a. 60°, 300° b. 240°, 300°
c. 45°, 315° d. 225°, 315°
25. y = tan(2x)
y
0 x
90° 180°
Period = 90°, amplitude is undefined.

Asymptotes are at x = 45° and x = 135°.
26. 3.92 m
27. a.
t V
0.000 0
0.005 240
0.010 0
0.015 −240
0.020 0
0.025 240
0.030 0
0.035 −240
0.040 0
V (Volts)
240
.010 .020 .030 .040

0 .005 .015 .025 .035 t (seconds)
–240
b. Maximum voltage occurs at t = 0.005 s, 0.025 s

c. 0.02 s
d. 50 cycles per second

18 Algorithmic thinking
LEARNING SEQUENCE
18.1 Overview
18.2 Programs
18.3 Data structures
18.4 Algorithms
18.5 Matrices
18.6 Graphics
18.7 Simulations
18.8 Review
18.1 Overview
Why learn this?
Computer programming is the process of
creating instructions for a computer to follow
to perform tasks.
In this topic the computer language JavaScript
is used in most of the examples and questions.
JavaScript has been chosen for its popularity
and availability on nearly all web browsers.
This topic will introduce how a program can
process and organise large amounts of data, and
will explore generating many random numbers
to run simulations. Simulation is necessary for
both statistics and for many other areas where
randomness is required in the process. It is also
used to develop models for different situations.
The topic will also explore the use of graphics
as powerful tools to visualise simulations.
Where to get help

Fully worked
solutions
eLessons
to every
question
Digital
eWorkbook
documents
Jacaranda Maths Quest 10 + 10A

1. MC Identify which of the following is a valid name.

A. Math B. 12_Names C. Number
D. Number_15 E. Number / 10
2. MC Manually simulate running the following program. Determine the final type of variable value and
the final value stored in the variable value.
var value = false;
var ball = “Netball”;
value = ball;
ball = true;
A. false and true B. String and “Netball”
C. “Netball” and true D. Boolean and true
E. String and true
3. MC Identify which of the following values can be stored approximately.

A. 37 B. 9007199254740990 C. 102.5
D. 102.00 E. 1250111004
4. State the JavaScript index of the character “e”.
5. MC Given the string assignment shown, evaluate the JavaScript expression, string [8].
var string = “Always complete your maths homework”;
A. “C” B. “1” C. “o” D. “s” E. “m”
6. MC Select which of the following JavaScript expressions is false.

A. 8.65 = = = 8.56 B. 142.4! = = 124.4
C. 21.03 >20.99 D. !false
E. 145.48 < =145.84
7. Given the array assignment

var array = [23, “Number”, true, 93, 2, “false”];
Evaluate array [3]:
8. Determine the output to the console of the following statement.

console.log([false, 3, true, 12, 6.6, 21] [4]);
9. Determine the output to the console for the following program.

function ave(a, b, c){
console. log((a + b + c)/3);
}
mean (25, 67, 22);
10. MC State how many dimensions the following array has.

[[2, 4], [6, 8]]
A. 2 B. 4 C. 6 D. 8 E. 1

11. Consider the two-dimensional array shown.
var array = [[5.1, 3.8, 7.4, 9.7], [5.1, 6.9, 5.5, 2.3]];
array [1][2] evaluates to:
12. MC Assume an HTML page exists that provides a context to the canvas. Identify what the following
JavaScript code does.
context. moveTo(25, 10);
context. lineTo(100, 100);
context. stroke();
A. Draw a circle, centre (25, 10) and radius 100 B. Draw a line from (25, 10) to (10, 10)
C. Colour in a circle, centre (25, 10) to (100, 100) D. Draw a circle, centre (25, 10) and radius 10
E. None of these
13. MC Assume an HTML page exists that provides a context to the canvas. The JavaScript shown draws:
var x = 25;
var y = 50;
var radius = 30;
var end = 2 * Math.PI;
context. beginPath();
context. arc(x, y, radius, 0, end);
context. closePath();
A. An open circle with centre (25, 50) and radius = 30

context. fill();
B. An open circle with centre (25, 50) and radius = 15

C. An filled circle with centre (25, 50) and radius = 30
D. A filled circle with centre (50, 25) and radius = 30
E. An filled circle with centre (50, 25) and radius = 15
14. State what colour the string “rgb(255, 255, 0)” produces.
15. MC The following expression 30*Math. random (), cannot return which of the following
numbers.
A. 20 B. 10 C. −10 D. 15.5 E. 0.2
18.2 Programs
LEARNING INTENTION
• identify values, strings and Booleans
• identify valid JavaScript variable names
• write numerical expressions in JavaScript
• assign variables in JavaScript
• evaluate the output of a JavaScript variable
• evaluate if statements
• evaluate if else statements.

18.2.1 Values
• Three of the most common types of values used in computer programming are:
numbers (numerical values): for example 1, −2, 1.234, −14.345345
•
• strings (any text surrounded in quotation marks ” ”): for example
”In quotation marks”, ”213.2”,
”Subject: Year 10 Mathematics”, ”!@#$%ˆ&”, ” ”
• Booleans (used for logic, this type only has two possible values): either false or true.
• In JavaScript the expression typeof value returns either ”number”, ”string” or
”boolean” if value is a number, string or Boolean respectively.
WORKED EXAMPLE 1 Identifying numbers, strings and Booleans
Answer these questions for each of the following values.

i. State whether the result is a number, a string or Boolean.
ii. Apply the expression typeof value to each value. State the result of the expression
typeof value.
a. ”Brendan” b. 1.41421 c. false d. ”1.41421”
THINK WRITE
a. i. ”Brendan” is in quotation marks, so this value is a. i. String
a string.
ii. 1. Apply the expression typeof value to the value ii. typeof ”Brendan”
”Brendan”.
2. typeof ”Brendan” is a ”string”. ”string”
b. i. 1.41421 is a numerical value not in quotation marks, so b. i. Number
this value is a number.
ii. 1. Apply the expression typeof value to the value ii. typeof 1.41421
1.41421.
2. typeof 1.41421 is a ”number”. ”number”
c. i. false is a Boolean value. c. i. Boolean
ii. 1. Apply the expression typeof value to the value ii. typeof false
false.
2. typeof false is a ”boolean”. ”boolean”
d. i. ”1.41421” is in quotation marks, so it is a string. d. i. String
ii. 1. Apply the expression typeof value to the value ii. typeof ”1.41421”
”1.41421”.
2. typeof ”1.41421” is a ”string”. ”string”
18.2.2 Variables
• Computer languages use memory locations to store values. These named containers are called variables.
There are complex rules as to what is a valid variable name. For simplicity, this topic will restrict the
variable names to three simple rules.
• Variable names:
• must not start with a number
• can only contain upper and lower case letters, numbers, and the underscore character (_), and cannot
contain spaces

• cannot be JavaScript keywords. The following are JavaScript keywords which should not be used as
variable names.
abstract, arguments, Array, boolean, break, byte, case,
catch, char, class, const, continue, Date, debugger,
default, delete, do, double, else, enum, eval, export,
extends, final, finally, float, for, function, goto,
hasOwnProperty, if, implements, import, in, Infinity,
instanceof, int, interface, isFinite, isNaN,
isPrototypeOf, length, let, long, Math, name, NaN, native,
new, null, Number, Object, package, private, protected,
prototype, public, return, short, static, String, super,
switch, synchronized, this, throw, throws, toString,
transient, true, try, typeof, undefined, valueOf, var,
void, volatile, while, with, yield, false
WORKED EXAMPLE 2 Identifying valid variable names
Each of the following is a valid variable name. True or false?

a. someReallyLongName b. 3.14_nearly_pi c. number/divide
d. age_43 e. while
THINK WRITE
a. someReallyLongName is valid because it only uses letters. a. True
b. 3.14_nearly_pi is invalid because it uses a number as the first b. False
character.
c. number/divide is invalid because it uses a / character. c. False
d. age_43 is valid as it only uses letters, numbers and the _ character. It d. True
also does not start with a number.
e. while is invalid because it is a JavaScript keyword. e. False
18.2.3 Numerical expressions

• In JavaScript, numerical expressions involving numbers, brackets, and plus and minus signs can be
evaluated normally.
• Multiplication uses the character *.
• Division uses the character /.
• Fractions can be evaluated using the division character, but the numerator and denominator expressions
must be put in brackets.
300 + 10 + 4
= (300+10+4)/(1+9*11)
1 + 9 × 11
• The % symbol is used to find remainder after a division. For example, 32%10 evaluates to 2, as 10
x = Math.sqrt(x). This function returns only the positive

divides into 32 three times with a 2 remainder.
√ In JavaScript this is know as the modulus symbol.
• JavaScript has a square root function:
square root.

WORKED EXAMPLE 3 Writing JavaScript expressions
a. (11 − 1 + 1.2) + (15 − 4) b. 213 × 32 × 0.5

Write the following as JavaScript expressions.
17 + 13
c. 720 ÷ (6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1)
7−2
d.
e. The remainder from the division 19 ÷ 6

√
f. 169
THINK WRITE
a. This is a simple numerical expression with no special a. (11−1+1.2)+(15−4)
Substitute × with *.
characters required.
Replace the × with a * and the ÷ with a /.

b. b. 213*32*0.5
c. c. 720/(6*5*4*3*2*1)
d. The fraction is a division. The numerator and denominator d. (17+13)/(7−2)
require brackets.
division 19 ÷ 6.
e. Use the modulus symbol, %, to find the remainder from the e. 19%6
f. Use the Math.sqrt function to find the square root of 169. f. Math.sqrt(169)
18.2.4 Assigning
• When assigning to a variable for the first time, the statement should begin with the JavaScript keyword
var. JavaScript uses the following assignment structure to assign a value or expression to a variable.
The chosen The expression

variable name or value
var any_name = ”Expression or value”;
JavaScript ; indicates the end

= is an assignment
keyword (short of a JavaScript
symbol
for ‘variable’) statement
WORKED EXAMPLE 4 Assigning variables in JavaScript
Write JavaScript statements to make the following variable assignments.

a. Assign the value 1236 to the variable population.
c. Assign the mathematical expression 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 to the variable factorial5.

b. Assign ”Australia” to the variable country.

THINK WRITE
a. 1. Identify the variable name, which in this case a.
is population.
2. Identify the value, which in this case is
1236.
3. Apply the JavaScript assignment structure to var population = 1236;
write the statement.
b. 1. Identify the variable name, which in this case b.
is country.
2. Identify the value, which in this case is
”Australia”.
3. Apply the JavaScript assignment structure to var country = ”Australia”;
c. 1. Identify the variable name, which in this case c.
is factorial5.
in this case is 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1.
2. Identify the mathematical expression, which
3. Convert the mathematical expression into a 5*4*3*2*1

JavaScript expression.
4. Apply the JavaScript assignment structure to var factorial5 = 5*4*3*2*1;
18.2.5 Reassigning
• A variable can change value and type as the The chosen The initial
program runs through a sequence of statements in variable name expression or value
order. When a variable is reassigned, the statement
does not require the JavaScript keyword var.
JavaScript uses the following sequence to assign var any_name = ”Initial value”;
and reassign a value or expression to a variable. any_name = “New value“;
The value of the variable changes with each
assignment.
The new
expression or
value
WORKED EXAMPLE 5 Identifying the output of a variable
Manually simulate running the following programs. For each program:

i. determine the final type of the variable value
ii. determine the final value stored in the variable value
iii. evaluate the result of the expression type of value.
a. var value = 9876; b. var value = 4+3+2+1;
value = true; value = (5*4*3*2*1)/value;
c. var value = false;
var another = ”Victoria”;
value = another;
another = true;

THINK WRITE
a. 1. Write the initial assignment. a. value = 9876
2. Write the reassignment. value = true
i. true is one of the Boolean values, so this i. Boolean
value is a Boolean.
ii. The last value assigned to value was true. ii. true
iii. Apply the expression typeof value to the iii. ”boolean”
value true.
b. 1. Write the initial assignment. b. value = 4+3+2+1
2. Evaluate the expression. value = 10
3. Write the reassignment. value = (5*4*3*2*1)/value
4. On the righthand side of the assignment, value = (5*4*3*2*1)/10
substitute 10 for value.
5. Substitute 120 for (5*4*3*2*1). value = 120/10
6. Substitute 12 for 120/10. value = 12
i. 12 is a numerical value not in quotation marks, i. Number
so this value is a number.
ii. The last value assigned to value was 12. ii. 12
iii. Apply the expression typeof value to the iii. ”number”
value 12.
c. 1. Write the initial assignment to value. c. value = false
2. Write the initial assignment to another. another = ”Victoria”
3. Write the reassignment to value. value = another
4. Substitute ”Victoria” for another. value = ”Victoria”
5. Write the reassignment to another. another = true
i. ”Victoria” is in quotation marks, so this i. String
value is a string.
ii. The last value assigned to value was ii. ”Victoria”
”Victoria”.
iii. Apply the expression typeof value to the iii. ”string”
value ”Victoria”.
18.2.6 If structure
• Decisions are based on Boolean values. In JavaScript, the if structure is used to make a decision to
run a section of code if the decision value is true. For example, the following program will run
{statement 1, statement 2,..., statement n} if decision is true.
Using if structures
if (decision) {
statement 1
statement 2
statement n
}

WORKED EXAMPLE 6 Evaluating if statements
Manually simulate running the following programs. For each program, determine the final value
stored in the variable data.
a. var data = 22;
if (true) {
data = data/2;
}
b. var data=”Stays the same”;
if (false) {
data=”Changed”;
}
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Write the first assignment. a. data = 22
2. decision is true, so run the statement
inside the {} block.
3. Write the assignment. data = data/2
4. On the righthand side of the assignment, data = 22/2
substitute 22 for data.
5. Substitute 11 for 22/2. data = 11
6. Write the final value stored in data. 11
b. 1. Write the first assignment. b. data=”Stays the same”
2. decision is false, so ignore the
statement inside the {} block.
3. Write the final value stored in data. ”Stays the same”
18.2.7 If else structure

• In JavaScript, the if else structure is used to execute one of two different sections of code.
1. Execute {statement 1, statement 2,..., statement n} if
decision is true.
2. Execute {statement A, statement B,..., statement Z} if
decision is false.
Using if else structures to make decisions
if (decision) {
statement 1
statement 2
statement n
} else {
statement A
statement B
statement Z
}

WORKED EXAMPLE 7 Evaluating if, else statements
Manually simulate running the following programs. For each program, determine the final value
stored in the variable results.
a. var results = 1.23;
if (true) {
results = 3.21;
} else {
results = 2.13;
}
b. var results = 12;
var multiplyBy3 = false;
if (multiplyBy3) {
results = 3*results;
} else {
results = results/results;
}
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Write the first assignment. a. results = 1.23
2. decision is true, so run the statement
inside the first {} block.
3. Write the assignment. results = 3.21
4. Write the final value stored in results. 3.21
b. 1. Write the first assignment. b. results = 12
2. Write the second assignment. multiplyBy3 = false
3. decision multiplyBy3 is false,
so run the statement inside the second {}
block.
4. Write the equation. results = results/results
5. On the righthand side of the assignment, results = 12/12
substitute 12 for results.
6. Substitute 1 for 12/12. results = 1
7. Write the final value stored in results. 1
Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivity CodeBlocks Activity 1 (int-6573)

Exercise 18.2 Programs
Individual pathways
1, 3, 5, 7, 11, 17 2, 4, 8, 12, 13, 15, 19 6, 9, 10, 14, 16, 18, 20
Fluency
WE1 For questions 1 and 2, answer the following for each of the given values.
i. State whether the value is a number, a string or Boolean.
ii. Apply the expression typeof value to each value. State the result of the expression typeof
value.
1. a. ”A string” b. ”−2.344”
c. false d. ”The first sentence.”
2. a. −2.344 b. true c. ”1234567” d. 1234567
WE2 For questions 3 to 6, state true or false for if the following have a valid variable name.
3. a. value2||value1 b. number*multiply
c. thisIsAValidName d. 23.34_a_decimal
4. a. element_1_2 b. else c. length_12 d. age_16
5. a. for b. isThisOne_Valid
c. 2 d. false
6. a. ______ b. a name c. and&&this
WE5 For questions 7 to 8, manually simulate running the following programs. For each program:
i. determine the final type of the variable result
ii. determine the final result stored in the variable result
iii. evaluate the result of the expression typeof result.
7. a. var result = 23.234;

result = false;
b. var result = 123+2+32+2+222+2+1;
result = result / (61+1+16+1+111+1+1);
8. a. var result = ”Was this”;
result = ”Now this, but the same type”;
b. var result = true;
var another = ”Another type and value”;
result = another;
another = false;
9. WE6 Manually simulate running the following programs. For each program, determine the final value stored
in the variable information.
a. var information = true;
if (false) {
information = false;
}

b. var information = 3;
if (true) {
information = information*information*information;
}
10. WE7 Manually simulate running the following programs. For each program, determine the final value stored
in the variable calculations.
a. var calculations = 3;
var tooSmall = false;
if (tooSmall) {
calculations = calculations/2;
}else {
calculations = calculations*calculations;
}
b. var calculations = (1+2+3)*5;
if (true) {
} else {
}
Understanding
2.2 + 0.7 + 0.1

WE3 For questions 11 and 12, write the following as JavaScript expressions.
11. a. 2048 ÷ (2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2)
3.2 − 0.1 × 2
15 − 4
b.
c. (11 + 2) + + 16 d. The remainder from the division 22 ÷ 16

11
12. a. 22 × 12 ÷ 2 625 ÷ (5 × 5) c. 18 × 9 × 27 × 2 × 0.5

√
b.
13. WE4 Write JavaScript statements to make the following variable assignments.
b. Assign the mathematical expression 2 × 4 + 1 to the variable threeSquared.

a. Assign ”Earth” to the variable planet.
2+3+3
c. Assign the value 10.2 to the variable timeInSeconds.
d. Assign the mathematical expression to the variable division.
2
e. Assign the value 2 to the variable distanceOverThereInKilometers.
14. Manually simulate running the following programs. For each program:
i. determine the final type of the variable a
ii. determine the final result stored in the variable a
iii. evaluate the result of the expression typeof a.
a. var a = 34; b. var a = 480;
var b = 12; var r = 12;
var c = 22; var y = 12;
b = c; a = a/r;
b = b*b; var t = 23;
a = c+b; a = a + t;
c = 34; a = a * y;

15. Manually simulate running the following program. Determine the final value stored in the variable
number.
var test1 = true;
var test2 = false;
var test3 = false;
var test4 = true;
var number = 322;
if (test1) { number = number / 2; }
if (test2) { number = 3 * number + 1; }
if (test3) { number = number / 2; }
if (test4) { number = 3 * number + 1; }
16. Manually simulate running the following program. Determine the final value stored in the variable time.
var time = 100;
if (true) {
time = time + time 2;
time = 20 * time;
} else {
time = 2 * time + time * 4 + 2;
}
Reasoning
17. Write the rest of the program below to calculate the perimeter and area for a rectangle, given the
width and height of the rectangle.
var width = 10;
var height = 12;
18. Write the rest of the program below to calculate the total surface area and volume of a box, given
the width, height and depth of the box.
var width = 8;
var height = 5;
var depth = 3;
19. Given the equation (fx + g) (hx + i) = ax2 + bx + c, write the rest of the program below to solve for a, b and
Problem solving
c given f, g, h and i.
var f = 7;
var g = 12;
var h = 2;
var i = −3;
20. Given the equation ax2 + bx + c = (fx + g) (hx + i), write the rest of the program below to solve for g, h and
i given a, b, c and f.
var a = 12;
var b = 39;
var c = 30;
var f = 3;
var g = 6;

18.3 Data structures
LEARNING INTENTION
• identify values that can be stored in JavaScript
• identify the index of a character in a string
• evaluate Boolean comparisons
• identify arrays in JavaScript
• identify the index of a value in an array
• determine the length of an array
• assign objects in JavaScript
• access properties of JavaScript objects
• identify variables which are pointers
• define linked lists in JavaScript.
18.3.1 Data structures and numbers

• In JavaScript, data structures can be constructed from basic building blocks. The building blocks include
numbers, strings and Booleans. These building blocks can be combined to represent more complex values.
• A basic piece of data associated with other data is called a property. For example, a person’s data may be
made up of many properties.
Property Example value Type

firstName ”Alex” String
surname ”Turner” String
yearOfBirth 1986 Number
isAdult true Boolean
• Numbers are the most widely used type in computer programs. JavaScript uses the number type to
represent both integers and real numbers. Most other programming languages use different types to
represent integers and real numbers.
• It is important to understand that there are limitations on the size and accuracy of numbers stored in
JavaScript.
• JavaScript can accurately store all integer values between −9007199254740992 and
• JavaScript can approximately store real values between −1.797693 134823 157 × 10
9007199254740992 inclusive.
1.797693 134823 157 × 10 . However, if a value is very close to 0, JavaScript approximates the value
308
and
as 0. JavaScript cannot represent very small real values between −5 × 10−324 and 5 × 10−324 ; all values
308
in that range are approximated as 0.
WORKED EXAMPLE 8 Identifying values that can be stored
State whether the following values can be stored. If so, state if they will be stored accurately or
approximately.
a. 12 b. 11.00
1.79 × 10308
c. 10.01 d. 9007199254740992
1.80 × 10 2.3 × 10−380

e. 9007199254740997 f.
308
g. h.

THINK WRITE
a. The value 12 is an integer and within the limits of an a. Can be stored accurately.
accurate integer.
b. The value 11.00 is still considered an integer and within b. Can be stored accurately.
the limits of an accurate integer.
c. The value 10.01 is not an integer, but is within the limits c. Can be stored approximately.
of an approximate real number.
d. The value 9007199254740992 is an integer and just d. Can be stored accurately.
within the limits of an accurate integer.
e. The value 9007199254740997 is an integer and e. Can be stored approximately.
is outside limits of an accurate integer, but is within the
The value 1.79 × 10308 is outside limits of an accurate

limits of an approximate real number.
f. f. Can be stored approximately.
integer, but is within the limits of an approximate real
g. The value 1.80 × 10

number.
308
is outside the limits of an g. Cannot be stored.
h. The value 2.3 × 10

approximate real number.
−380
is too small to be represented, h. Can be stored approximately.
so it will be approximated as 0.
18.3.2 Strings
• Strings are used to represent text. A character is a string of length 1. A string is a list of characters. Each
character position in a string has an incrementing index starting at 0.
The string ”Year 10”

Character Index
”Y” 0
”e” 1
”a” 2
”r” 3
” ” 4
”1” 5
”0” 6
• The first character in a string of length N is accessed with index 0, the second character is accessed
with index 1, the third character is accessed with index 2, and the last character is accessed with index
N−1.
var string= ” a b c ... # ”
Location 1st 2nd 3rd ... N
JavaScript index 0 1 2 N−1

WORKED EXAMPLE 9 Determining the index of characters in a string
Determine the JavaScript index of each of the following characters in the string ”abcdefgh”.
a. ”a” b. ”f” c. ”b” d. ”h”
THINK WRITE
a. ”a” is the 1st value, so it has an index 0. a. 0
b. ”f” is the 6th value, so it has an index 5. b. 5
c. ”b” is the 2nd value, so it has an index 1. c. 1
d. ”h” is the 8th value, so it has an index 7. d. 7
• Characters inside a string are accessed using an index with the expression string[index].
WORKED EXAMPLE 10 Evaluating string [index] expressions
Given the string assignment below, evaluate the following JavaScript expressions manually.
var string = ”The quick brown fox”;
a. string[1] b. string[0] c. string[12] d. string[4+3]
THINK WRITE
a. string[1] has an index of 1, which is the 2nd character in the string. a. ”h”
b. string[0] has an index of 0, which is the 1st character in the string. b. ”T”
c. string[12] has an index of 12, which is the 13th character in the string. c. ”o”
d. string[4+3] has an index of 7, which is the 8th character in the string. d. ”c”
18.3.3 Booleans
• You will recall that Booleans are the simplest value type, and are often used in logic. A Boolean has only
two possible values: true or false. The value of a Boolean can be toggled using the expression
!value.
• Two numerical values can be compared with each other by using different combinations of symbols as
shown in the following table. The comparisons return Boolean results as shown.
Expression Description
!value Opposite of value, where value is a Boolean
x1===x2 true if x1 equals x2, otherwise false
x1!==x2 true if x1 does not equal x2, otherwise false
x1>x2 true if x1 is greater than x2, otherwise false
x1>=x2 true if x1 is greater than or equal to x2, otherwise false
x1<x2 true if x1 is less than x2, otherwise false
x1<=x2 true if x1 is less than or equal to x2, otherwise false

WORKED EXAMPLE 11 Manually evaluating Booleans
Evaluate the following JavaScript expressions manually.

a. !false b. !true
c. 5.43===5.34 d. 1233.4!==1323.4
e. 18.4>−12.2 f. 6.8>=6.7
g. 34.015<34.025 h. 101.99<=101.01
THINK WRITE
a. The opposite of false is true. a. true
b. The opposite of true is false. b. false
c. The statement “5.43 equals 5.34” is false. c. false
d. The statement “1233.4 does not equal 1323.4” is true. d. true
e. The statement “18.4 is greater than −12.2” is true. e. true
f. The statement “6.8 is greater than or equal to 6.7” is true. f. true
g. The statement “34.015 is less than 34.025” is true. g. true
h. The statement “101.99 is less than or equal to 101.01” is h. false
false.
• The statement boolean1&&boolean2 returns true if boolean1 and boolean2 are both
true; otherwise, the statement returns false.
WORKED EXAMPLE 12 Manually evaluating && boolean expressions

a. true&&true b. false&&false
c. true&&false d. false&&true
THINK WRITE
a. Both the Booleans are true. a. true
b. At least one Boolean is false. b. false
c. At least one Boolean is false. c. false
d. At least one Boolean is false. d. false
• The statement boolean1||boolean2 returns true if either boolean1 or boolean2 are

true; otherwise, the statement returns false.
WORKED EXAMPLE 13 Manually evaluating || boolean expressions

a. false||false b. true||false
c. false||true d. true||true

THINK WRITE
a. Both the Booleans are false. a. false
b. At least one Boolean is true. b. true
c. At least one Boolean is true. c. true
d. At least one Boolean is true. d. true
18.3.4 Arrays
• Arrays are one method of combining multiple types into a list data structure. A variable can contain an
array of the basic building blocks: numbers, strings and Booleans.
• An array takes the form [value0, value1, value2,...] where value0,
value1, value2,... are the different values of the array. An array can have zero, one or more
values, and the values can be any type (i.e. number, string or Boolean).
• An array with many values can be split over multiple lines. For example:
var array = [
value0,
value1,
value2,
...
];
WORKED EXAMPLE 14 Identifying arrays
Each of the following is an array. State whether this is true or false.

a. ”abc” b. 123.12
c. [2.3,6.7,53] d. []
e. [”abc”] f. [”a”, ”b”, ”c”]
g. true h. [14,false, ” ”,[3,3]]
THINK WRITE
a. ”abc” is in quotation marks, so this value is a string, not an array. a. False
b. 123.12 is a numerical value not in quotation marks, so this value is b. False
a number, not an array.
c. [2.3,6.7,53] is a list of 3 numbers, so this is an array. c. True
d. [] is an empty list, so this is an array. d. True
e. [”abc”] is a list of 1 string, so this is an array. e. True
f. [”a”,”b”,”c”] is a list of 3 strings, so this is an array. f. True
g. true is a Boolean value, not an array. g. False
h. [14,false,” ”,[3,3]] is a list of 4 different types of values h. True
so this is an array.

• Values in an array are accessed in a similar fashion to how characters are accessed in a string. The values
inside an array are accessed using an integer index starting at 0. The first value in an array of length N
is accessed with index 0, the second value is accessed with index 1, the third value is accessed with index
2, and the last value is accessed with index N−1.
var [ ”first” , ”second” , ”third” ,..., ”last” ];

array=
Location 1st 2nd 3rd ... Nth
JavaScript 0 1 2 N−1
index
WORKED EXAMPLE 15 Identifying the index of a value in an array
Identify the JavaScript indexes of the following values in the array

[”one”,”two”,”three”,”four”,”five”,”last”].
a. ”one” b. ”three”
c. ”four” d. ”last”
THINK WRITE
a. ”one” is the 1st value, so it has an index of 0. a. 0
b. ”three” is the 3rd value, so it has an index of 2. b. 2
c. ”four” is the 4th value, so it has an index of 3. c. 3
d. ”last” is the 6th value, so it has an index of 5. d. 5
• A value inside an array is accessed by its index using the expression array[index].
WORKED EXAMPLE 16 Evaluating array [index] statements
Given the array assignment

var array = [”String”,false,14,51,”true”,3];
evaluate the following JavaScript expressions manually.
a. array[1] b. array[3]
c. array[2] d. array[array[5]]
THINK WRITE
a. array[1] has an index of 1, which is the 2nd value in the array. a. false
b. array[4] has an index of 4, which is the 5th value in the array. b. ”true”
c. array[2] has an index of 2, which is the 3rd value in the array. c. 14
d. 1. array[5] has an index of 5, which is the 6th value in the array. d.
2. The 6th value is 3. array[5]=3
3. Write the original expression. array[array[5]]
4. Substitute 3 for array[5]. = array[3]
5. array[3] has an index of 3, which is the 4th value in the array. = 51
• The expression array.length will return the number of values in the array.

WORKED EXAMPLE 17 Evaluating array.length expressions

a. [].length
b. [13,2].length
c. [12.2,false,[12,11,10,9]].length
THINK WRITE
a. [] is an empty list, so it has a length of 0. a. 0
b. [13,2] is a list of 2 numbers. b. 2
c. [12.2,false,[12,11,10,9]].length is a list of 3 different c. 3
types of values.
Note: Do not count the number of values in the [12, 11, 10, 9]
array, as this is counted as one value in the outer array.
18.3.5 Objects
• Arrays combine a list of different values, where each value is accessed using an integer index. If an integer
is not descriptive enough, then a JavaScript object can be used to build data structures. Arrays use integer
indexes to access the values in the array, whereas JavaScript objects require property names to access
the values.
• The following structure assigns the JavaScript object with the properties property1,
property2,..., propertyN and values value1, value2,..., valueN to
the variable.
Using JavaScript objects to define properties
var variable = {
property1: value1,
property2: value2,
propertyN: valueN
}
WORKED EXAMPLE 18 Assigning a JavaScript object
Assign a JavaScript object using the following information to the variable singer.
Property Value
firstName ”Alex”
surname ”Turner”
yearOfBirth 1986
isAdult true
THINK WRITE
1. Start the assignment to singer. var singer = {
2. Define the first property and value. firstName: ”Alex”,
3. Define the second property and value. surname: ”Turner”,
4. Define the third property and value. yearOfBirth: 1986,
5. Define the last property and value. isAdult: true
6. Close the brackets. Note that the last property does not }
require a trailing comma.

18.3.6 Accessing properties
• A property of an object variable is extracted using the expression
variable.property.
Accessing properties of objects
var variable = {
property: ”store this”,
ignoreProperty: ”ignore this”
}
var stored = variable.property;
WORKED EXAMPLE 19 Accessing properties of an object
Given the object assignment below, evaluate the following JavaScript expressions manually.
var person = {
firstName: ”Alex”,
surname: ”Turner”,
yearOfBirth: 1986,
isAdult: true
}
a. person.surname b. person.isAdult c. person.yearOfBirth
THINK WRITE
a. Access the surname property of person. a. ”Turner”
b. Access the isAdult property of person. b. true
c. Access the yearOfBirth property of person. c. 1986
18.3.7 Pointers
• A pointer is a reference to an object. Variables become pointers when they are assigned an array or
object. Variables are not pointers when they are assigned a number, string or Boolean. Instead, a new copy
is created.
Using pointers
// Pointers
var arrayOriginal = [”Array”,”array”];
var arrayPointer = arrayOriginal;var
objectOriginal = {x:1,y:2};
var objectPointer = objectOriginal;
// New copies are created
var stringOriginal = ”String”;
var stringNewCopy = stringOriginal;
var numberOriginal = 1;
var numberNewCopy = numberOriginal;
var booleanOriginal = true;
var boolanNewCopy = booleanOriginal;

WORKED EXAMPLE 20 Identifying variables that are pointers
In each of the following programs, the variable is a pointer. State whether this is true or false.
a. var variable = b. var location = {
[”Value1”,”Value2”]; x: 10,
y: 20
}
var variable = location;
c. var original = true; d. var Anthony = ”Tony”;
var variable = original; var variable = Anthony;
e. var calculation = 10*2;
var variable = calculation;
THINK WRITE
a. The assignment to variable is an array, so variable is a pointer. a. True
b. The variable location is an object, so variable is a pointer. b. True
c. The variable original is a Boolean, so variable is not a pointer. c. False
d. The variable Anthony is a string, so variable is not a pointer. d. False
e. The variable calculation is a number, so variable is not a pointer. e. False
• In JavaScript, it is possible for two variables, originalPointer and newPointer, to point to

a single object. That is, either of the two pointers will reference the same object.
Using two pointers
var originalPointer = {
property1: value1,
property2: value2,
...
propertyN: valueN
}
var newPointer = originalPointer;
WORKED EXAMPLE 21 Evaluating pointers
Consider the following program.

var pointer1 = {
colour:”Blue”,
bold:true,
x:10,
y:1
}
var pointer2 = pointer1;
pointer1.colour = ”Red”;
pointer2.bold = false;
pointer1.x = pointer2.y;

Evaluate the following JavaScript expressions after the program has run.
a. pointer2.colour b. pointer1.bold
c. pointer2.x d. pointer1.y
THINK WRITE
1. pointer1 and pointer2 both reference the same object. {
colour: ”Blue”,
bold:true,
x:10,
y:1
}
pointer1.colour = ”Red”; colour: ”Red”,
The above statement changes the object’s property colour to bold:true,
”Red”. x:10,
y:1
}
pointer2.bold = false; colour: ”Red”,
The above statement changes the object’s property bold to bold:false,
false. x:10,
y:1
}

pointer1.x = pointer2.y; colour: ”Red”,
The above statement changes the object’s property x to equal the bold:false,
property y. x:1,
y:1
}
a. pointer2.colour accesses the colour property. a. ”Red”
b. pointer1.bold accesses the bold property. b. false
c. pointer2.x accesses the x property. c. 1
d. pointer1.y accesses the y property. d. 1
18.3.8 Linked lists

• A linked list is a list of objects in which each object stores data and points to the next object in the
list. The list points to the first object. The last object points to a terminator to indicate the end of
the list.
• It is easier to build linked lists in reverse order because the pointers in each object point to the next item in
the list. The last object in the list only points to the terminator, so it can be completely built. Once the last
object has been built, the second last object can be completely built, and so on.

Building linked lists
var terminator = {};

var object4 = { data:”value 4”, next:terminator};
var object3 = { data:”value 3”, next:object4};
var list = object1;
list
object1 object2 object3 object4

data:”value 1” data:”value 2” data:”value 3” data:”value 4”
next next next next
terminator
WORKED EXAMPLE 22 Defining a linked list
Represent the list of values ”a”, ”b” and ”c” as a linked list.
THINK WRITE
1. Define a terminator. var terminator = {};
2. Define the last object with the data: ”c” and next var object3 = {
pointing to the terminator. data:”c”,
next:terminator
}
3. Define the object with the data: ”b” and next var object2 = {
pointing to the previous object (object3). data:”b”,
next:object3
}
4. Define the first object with the data: ”a” and next var object1 = {
pointing to the previous object (object2). data:”a”,
next:object2
}
5. Define list pointing to the first object (object1). var list = object1;
• Linked lists are useful data structures, as they can represent lists of data that have no set length and can
change throughout the program.
Resources
Resourceseses

Exercise 18.3 Data structures
Individual pathways
1, 2, 5, 8, 11, 15, 17, 20 3, 6, 9, 12, 16, 18, 21, 23, 25 4, 7, 10, 13, 14, 19, 22, 24, 26
Fluency
WE8 For questions 1 to 4, state whether the following values can be stored. If so, state if they will be stored
1. a. 2.6 × 10
accurately or approximately.
−480
b. 244 c. 61.00 d. −23.0001
b. −1.79 × 10
308
2. a. −9007199254740999
c. 9007199254740992 d. 26
d. 1.797 693 135 × 10

3. a. 6.00 b. −120.99
308
c. −9007199254740992
4. a. 1.236 × 10 b. 2 × 10
−20
d. 1.797 693 134 × 10

308
308
c. −9007199254740994
WE11 For questions 5 to 10, evaluate the following JavaScript expressions manually.
5. a. !true b. true===false c. true!==false d. ”223”===”223”
6. a. 3.41!==3.42 b. 822.4>222.2 c. 61.18>=162.17
7. a. 32.15<224.25 b. 53===54 c. 3.4!==3.4
8. a. 82.4>−1222.2 b. !!true
c. 1021.929<=10222.1
9. a. !false b. !!!false c. ”23”===”4”
10. a. 61.18>=162.17 b. 342.15<3224.25 c. 101.929<=122.1
11. WE12 Evaluate the following JavaScript expressions manually.

a. false&&false b. true&&false

a. true||true b. false||false
13. Evaluate the following JavaScript expressions manually.

a. true||false b. false&&true c. false||true d. true&&true

a. [1,2,3,2].length
b. [”blah”,”blah”,”blah”,true,[”Hello”]].length
c. [].length
d. [111,12,24,42,41,4].length
e. [”A string”,false,[”Array”,”here”],12].length

Understanding
15. WE9
Determine the JavaScript index of the following characters in the string
”The quick brown fox jumped over the lazy dog”.
a. ”x” b. ”c” c. ”z” d. ”p” e. ”f” f. ”g”
16. WE10
Given the string assignment below, evaluate the following JavaScript expressions manually.
var someText = ”Strings are a little bit like arrays.”;
a. someText[9] b. someText[19] c. someText[20+3]
17. WE14 Each of the following is an array. State whether this is true or false.
a. 1.1233
b. [”T”,”I”,”M”,”E”]
c. [14,false,”Y”,”A”,61.71,[1,2,3],161.7]
d. [0.13,16,61.71,161.7,253]
18. WE15
Identify the JavaScript indexes of the following values in the array.
[”JAN”,”FEB”,”MAR”,”APR”,”MAY”,”JUN”,
”JUL”,”AUG”,”SEP”,”OCT”,”NOV”,”DEC”]?
a. ”DEC” b. ”JUL” c. ”MAR” d. ”JAN” e. ”JUN” f. ”NOV”
19. WE19Given the object assignment below, evaluate the following JavaScript expressions manually.
var purchase = {
item: ”iPad”,
number: 1,
cost: 765.00,
paid: true
}
a. purchase.cost b. purchase.item c. purchase.paid
20. WE20 In each of the following programs, the possiblePointer is a pointer. State whether this is
true or false.
a. var possiblePointer = [”A”,”B”,”C”].length;
b. var string = ”Some string”;
var possiblePointer = string;
c. var boolean = false;
var possiblePointer = boolean;
d. var point = {
x: 10,
y: 20
}
var possiblePointer = point.x;
21. In each of the following programs, the possiblePointer is a pointer. State whether this is true or
false.
a. var possiblePointer = [”An array”];
b. var workThisOut = [(100+99+98−1)*0];
var possiblePointer = workThisOut;
c. var objects = {d:”Data”};
var possiblePointer = objects;

22. WE21 Consider the following program.
var original = {
firstName:”Wendy”,
surname:”Cook”,
age: 76
}
var newSurname = ”Simons”;
var pointer = original;
original.surname = newSurname;
pointer.firstName = ”Clare”;
original.age = 19;
Evaluate the following JavaScript expressions after the program has run.
a. pointer.surname b. original.firstName
c. original.age
Reasoning
23. WE22 Represent the list of objects 5,4 and 3 as a linked list called list.
24. Explain why a linked list is easier to build in reverse order.
Problem solving
25. Given the linked list below, write reassignment(s) required to remove the object with the data
”value 1” from the list.
var growingList = terminator;
growingList = { data:”value 2”, next:growingList};
growingList = { data:”value 1”, next:growingList};
var list = growingList;
26. Given the linked list below, write reassignment(s) required to remove the object with the data
”value 3” from the list.
var object4 = { data:”value 4”, next:terminator};
var list = object1;
18.4 Algorithms
LEARNING INTENTION
• evaluate the output to the console of a JavaScript statement, function or algorithm
• add comments to JavaScript statements, functions or algorithms
• define functions in JavaScript
• design and implement algorithms in JavaScript
• create lists and add or remove data to/from lists in JavaScript
• access data from a list in JavaScript.
• An algorithm is a step-by-step set of tasks to solve a particular problem. A program is the implementation
of an algorithm.

18.4.1 Output
• The console is a special region in a web browser for monitoring the running of JavaScript programs. Most
web browsers, including Chrome, Firefox, Safari, Internet Explorer, Microsoft Edge and Opera, allow you
activate the console through the menus options.
• In order to see the result of an expression or value, the JavaScript console.log function can be used.
This function outputs results to the console.
JavaScript statement Output to console

console.log(”Output value”); Output value
Note that the quotation marks in strings are not shown in the output.
WORKED EXAMPLE 23 Determining the output to the console
Determine the output to the console after each of the following statements runs.
a. console.log([true,”23”,4.5][2]);
b. console.log(”Simple string”);
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Show the original statement. a. console.log([true,
”23”,4.5][2]);
2. [true, ”23”,4.5][2] is accessing console.log(4.5);
the 3rd value in the array [true,
”23”,4.5]
3. Write the output to console. 4.5
b. 1. Show the original statement. b. console.log(”Simple string”);
2. Write the output to console. Note that the Simple string
quotation marks in strings are not shown in
the output.
18.4.2 Comments
• Comments are added to code to give hints about function of the program. The comments are completely
ignored by the computer, so they are only for our benefit.
• JavaScript comments start with //. All the text after // on a line is ignored by the computer. For
example, consider the following line:
var sqrt2 = 1.4142; // An approximation to square root of 2
The first part of the line, var sqrt2 = 1.4142;, is the actual JavaScript code to be run.
The second part (until the end of the line), // An approximation to square root
of 2, is ignored by the computer and is only there for our own reference. The text could be changed and
would make no difference to the running of the program.

WORKED EXAMPLE 24 Adding comments to lines of code
Add a comment to each statement of the form // variable = value where variable is the
variable name and value is the evaluated value.
a. var sqrt2 = 1+4/10; b. var pages = 12+11;
c. var product = 1*2*3;
THINK WRITE
a. 1. The variable name is sqrt2. a.
2. The calculated value is 1+4/10 = 1.4.
3. Append the comment. var sqrt2 = 1+4/10; // sqrt2=1.4
b. 1. The variable name is pages. b.
2. The calculated value is 12+11 = 23. var pages = 12+11; // pages=23
3. Append the comment.
c. 1. The variable name is product. c.
2. The calculated value is 1*2*3 = 6.
3. Append the comment. var product = 1*2*3; // product=6
18.4.3 Defining a function

• In more complex programs, it is useful to wrap a section of code in a JavaScript function. This gives the
section of code {statement 1, statement 2,..., statement n} a descriptive
name. A function with a name can be given zero, one or more inputs, x1,x2,....
Defining functions
function name(x1,x2,...) {
statement 1
statement 2
statement n
return output;
}
var store = name(v1,v2,...);
• Once a function is defined, it can be called with the statement name(v1,v2,...);. The value v1
is assigned to input x1, the value v2 is assigned to input x2, and so on.
• In JavaScript a function name can return an internal value output to be stored.
WORKED EXAMPLE 25 Determining the outputs of functions
Determine the output to the console of each of the following programs.

a. function mean(a,b,c) {
console.log((a+b+c)/3);
}
mean(11,100,12);
b. function probability(events,samples) {
console.log(events/samples);
}
probability(2,200);

c. function willNotChange() {
return ”Same”;
}
console.log(willNotChange());
THINK WRITE
a. 1. The input a equals 11. a. a = 11
2. The input b equals 100. b = 100
3. The input c equals 12. c = 12
4. Write the output statement. console.log((a+b+c)/3)
5. Substitute 11 for a, 100 for b and 12 for c. console.log((11+100+12)/3)
6. Substitute (11+100+12)/3 for 41. console.log(41)
7. Write the output to the console. 41
b. 1. The input events equals 2. b. events = 2
2. The input samples equals 200. samples = 200
3. Write the output statement. console.log(events/samples)
4. Substitute 2 for events and 200 for console.log(2/200)
samples.
5. Substitute 2/200 for 0.01. console.log(0.01)
6. Write the output to the console. 0.01
c 1. The function has no inputs. c.
2. Write the return expression. willNotChange()=”Same”
3. Write the output statement. console.log(willNotChange());
4. Substitute ”Same” for console.log(”Same”);
willNotChange().
5. Write the output to the console. Same
18.4.4 Return at any point

• A function can have many return points within itself. Once the return point is reached, the function does not
execute any further. This is useful when the result is known before running through the rest of the function.
Return points
function name() {
...
if (decision) {
return early;
}
...
return output;
}

WORKED EXAMPLE 26 Evaluating a function with multiple returns
Determine the output to the console of the following program.

function isFirst(index) {
var decision = index===0;
if (decision) {
return ”Yes”;
}
return ”No”;
}
var test = isFirst(0);
console.log(test);
THINK WRITE
1. Write the assignment. test = isFirst(0)
2. The input a equals 0. index = 0
3. Write the first assignment inside the function isFirst. decision = index===0
4. Substitute 0 for index. decision = 0===0
5. Substitute true for 0===0. decision = true
6. decision is true, so run the statement inside the first return ”Yes”;
{} block. The function is now finished.
7. Write the return expression. isFirst(0) = ”Yes”
8. Rewrite the assignment outside the function. test = isFirst(0)
9. Substitute ”Yes” for isFirst(0). test = ”Yes”
10. Write the output statement. console.log(test);
11. Substitute ”Yes” for test. console.log(”Yes”);
12. Write the output to console. Yes
18.4.5 Designing an algorithm

• Designing an algorithm for a problem involves:
• determining the inputs
• determining the function name
• breaking the problem into simple steps.
WORKED EXAMPLE 27 Designing an algorithm
Design an algorithm for each of the problems below. For each problem:
i. determine the inputs
ii. determine the function name
iii. break the problem into simple steps.
a. Round a decimal down to the nearest unit.
b. Count the number of squares with a given side length that fit inside a rectangle with a given
width and height.

THINK WRITE
a. i. Write the input. a. i. decimal
ii. Give the function a short meaningful name. ii. roundDown
iii. 1. Write step 1. iii. Find the decimal part.
2. Write step 2. Find the whole number part.
b. i. Write the inputs. b. i. side,width,height
ii. Write the output (function name). ii. count
iii. 1. Write step 1. iii. Count the number of squares that fit along
the width.
2. Write step 2. Round the width count down to the
nearest integer.
3. Write step 3. Count the number of squares that fit up
the height.
4. Write step 4. Round the height count down to the
nearest integer.
5. Write step 5. Return the width count multiplied by the
height count.
18.4.6 Implement an algorithm

• Implementing an algorithm in JavaScript involves:
• designing an algorithm
• writing function inputs
• writing a JavaScript statement for each step
• returning the required result (output).
WORKED EXAMPLE 28 Implementing an algorithm
Implement an algorithm as a function in JavaScript for each of the problems below.

a. Round a decimal down to the nearest unit.
b. Count the number of squares with a given side length that fit inside a rectangle with a given
width and height.
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Design an algorithm. a.
2. Write the function input. function roundDown(decimal) {
3. Write step 1. // Find the decimal part
var decimalPart = decimal%1;
4. Write step 2. // Find the whole number part.
var whole = decimal−decimalPart;
5. Return the required result. return whole;
}

b. 1. Design an algorithm. b.
2. Write the function inputs. function count(side,width,height) {
3. Write step 1. // Count number squares that
// fit along the width.
var widthCount = width/side;
4. Write step 2. // Round the width count down
// to the nearest unit.
widthCount=roundDown(widthCount);
5. Write step 3. // Count number squares that
// fit up the height.
var heightCount = height/side;
6. Write step 4. // Round the height count down
// to the nearest unit.
heightCount=roundDown(heightCount);
7. Write step 5. var squares=widthCount*heightCount;
8. Return the required result. return squares;
}
18.4.7 Linked list algorithms and empty lists

• The following algorithms are required to create and manipulate a list of data.
• Create a terminator.
• Create an empty list.
• Add data to the start of the list.
• Add data to the end of the list.
• Add data at a particular location in the list.
• Remove data from the start of the list.
• Remove data from the end of the list.
• Remove data at a particular location in the list.
• Read the data at particular location in the list.
• Change the data at particular location in the list.
• Copy a list.
• Sort a list.
Create an empty list

• In order to build on a list, the first thing required is an empty list. The variable list normally points to
the start of the list, but in this case the start of an empty list is the terminator.
list
terminator

Creating empty lists
//Create a terminator.
// Define a function to create an empty list.

function empty() {
return terminator;
}
// Store the empty list

var list = empty();
Add data
• Once you have a list, new data can be added to the list.
list
object1 object2
data
+ data:”value 1” data:”value 2”
”add”
next next
terminator
list
newObject object1 object1

data:”add” data:”value 1” data:”value 2”
next next next
terminator
WORKED EXAMPLE 29 Designing and implementing an algorithm to add data to an

empty list
Design and implement an algorithm to add data to the start of a linked list and return the
updated list. Create an empty list called blank. Call the function defined above with the data
”Only” and the blank list. Store the updated list in the variable list. Use the following steps.
a. Determine the inputs.
b. Determine the function name.
c. Break the problem into simple steps.
d. Implement the algorithm as a function in JavaScript.
i. Write function inputs.
ii. Write JavaScript statements for each step.
iii. Return the required result (output).
e. Test the function.

THINK WRITE
a. Write the inputs. a. list, data
b. Give the function a short meaningful b. addToStart
name.
c. 1. Write step 1. c. Create a new object.
2. Write step 2. Add the data to the new object.
3. Write step 3. Point the new object to the first item in the
original list.
4. Returning the required result. Return the new object as the start of the new
list.
d. i. Implement the algorithm. Start by writing d. function addToStart(list,
the function inputs. data) {
ii. 1. Comment on step 1. // Create a new object.
2. Comment on step 2. // Add the data to the new
object.
3. Comment on step 3. // Point the new object to
the
// first item in the
original list.
4. Implement steps 1, 2 and 3. var newObject = {
data: data,
next: list
}
iii. Return the required result. return newObject;
}
e. 1. Test the new function. Start by defining e. var terminator = {};
the terminator and function function empty() {
empty as outlined previously in the return terminator;
chapter. }
2. Create an empty list. var blank = empty();
3. Call the function addToStart with var data = ”Only”;
the required inputs and store the result. var list = addToStart(data,
blank);
18.4.8 Remove data

• Once you have a populated list (a list that contains objects), objects can be removed from the list.
list list
object1 object2 object2

data:”value 1” data:”value 2” = data:”value 2”
next next next
terminator terminator

WORKED EXAMPLE 30 Designing and implementing an algorithm to remove data from
a list
Design and implement an algorithm to remove the first object in a linked list, and return the updated
list. Represent the list3 of values 1, 2 and 3 as the linked list. Create a function and call it with
the list3 list. Store the updated list in the variable list2.
i. Write the function inputs.
ii. Write a JavaScript statement for each step.
e. Now test the function.
THINK WRITE
a. Write the inputs. a. list
b. Give the function a short meaningful b. removeFromStart
name.
c. 1. Write step 1. c. Create a pointer to the second object.
2. Return the required result. Return the second object as the start of the new list.
d. i. 1. Implement the algorithm. Start by d. function removeFromStart(list) {
writing the function inputs.
ii. 1. Comment on step 1. ii. // Create a pointer to
// the second object.
2. Implement step 1. var secondObject = list.next;
iii. Return the required result. iii. // Return the second object
// as the start of the list.
return secondObject;
}
e. 1. Test the new function. Start by e. var terminator = {};
defining a terminator.
2. Define the last object with the var object3 = {
data value 3 and next pointing data:3,
to the terminator. next:terminator
}
3. Define the object with the data var object2 = {
value 2 and next pointing to the data:2,
previous object. next:object3
}
4. Define the first object with the var object1 = {
data value 1 and next pointing data:1,
to the previous object. next:object2
}
5. Define list3 pointing to the first var list3 = object1;
object.
6. Call the function removeFrom var list2 = removeFromStart
Start with the required inputs (list3);
and store the result.

18.4.9 Accessing data
• Once you have a populated list, objects can be accessed at any position in the list. Objects in a linked list
are accessed in a similar way to objects in an array, using an integer index starting at 0. The first object in
a list of length N is accessed with index 0, the second object is accessed with index 1, the third object is
accessed with index 2, and the last object is accessed with index N−1.
list
index0 index1 index2 index3

data:”first” data:”second” data:”third” data:”fourth”
next next next next
terminator
WORKED EXAMPLE 31 Accessing data from a list
Design and implement an algorithm to return the data at a particular index in a linked list.
Represent the list of values ”Find”, ”me” and ”here.” as the linked list. Create a function,
call it function with the list and access the second piece of data. Store the returned data in the
variable found.
THINK WRITE
a. Write the inputs. a. list, index
b. Give the function a short b. getData
meaningful name.
c. 1. Write step 1. c. If the index is 0 or less, then return the data of the first
object.
2. Write step 2. Create a reduced list pointer to the second object.
3. Write step 3. Create a new index one less than the input index.
4. Write step 4. Return getData using the reduced list and index.
d. i. Implement the algorithm. Start i. function getData(list, index) {
by writing the function inputs.
ii. 1. Comment on step 1. ii. // If index 0 or less then
return
// data of the first
object.

2. Implement step 1. if (index < = 0) {
return list.data;
}
3. Comment on step 2. // Create a reduced list pointer
// to the second object.
4. Implement step 2. var reduced = list.next;
5. Comment on step 3. // Create a new index one less
// than the input index.
6. Implement step 3. var newIndex = index-1;
7. Comment on step 4. // Return getData using the
// reduced list and index.
8. Implement step 4. return getData(reduced,
newIndex);
}
e. 1. Test the new function. Start by e. var terminator = {};
defining a terminator.
2. Define the last object with var object3 = {
the data: ”here. ” data: ”here. ”,
and next pointing to the next:terminator
terminator. }
3. Define the object with the var object2 = {
data: ”me” and next data: ”me”,
pointing to the previous next:object3
object. }
4. Define the first object with the var object1 = {
data: ”Find” and next data: ”Find”,
pointing to the previous next:object2
object. }
5. Define a list pointing to the var list = object1;
first object.
6. Call the function getData var found = getData(list,1);
with the list and index 1
(2nd value). Then store the
result in found.
Resources
Resourceseses

Exercise 18.4 Algorithms
Individual pathways
1, 3, 7, 11 2, 4, 8, 12, 14 5, 6, 9, 10, 13, 15
Fluency
1. WE23 Determine the output to the console after each of the following statements runs.
a. console.log(”A string”);
b. console.log([”A”,”B”,”C”,”D”][2]);
c. console.log(Math.sqrt(16));
2. Determine the output to the console after each of the following statements runs.
a. console.log(true);
b. console.log(123*4/2);
c. console.log(true&&false);
3. Match the following JavaScript comments with the appropriate program statements in the table below.
// set the depth to 1.4
// set the height to 2.3
// calculate the volume
// calculate the top area
// set the width to 3
Program Comment
var width = 3;
var height = 2.3;
var depth = 1.4;
var area = width*height;
var volume = area*depth;
4. WE25 Determine the output to the console of each of the following programs.
a. function total(a,b,c,d,e) {
console.log((a+b+c+d+e));
}
total(19,28,37,46,55);
b. function boring() {
return ”Nothing to see here”;
}
console.log(boring());
c. function surfaceArea(width,height,depth){
var faceTop = width*depth;
var faceFront = width*height;
var faceSide = height*depth;
var area = 2*(faceTop + faceFront + faceSide);
console.log(area);
}
surfaceArea(4,7,9);
5. WE26 Determine the output to the console of the following program.
function testLast(index, length) {
var decision = index===length−1;
if (decision) {
return ”Yes”;
}
return ”No”;
}
var isLast = testLast(100,100);
console.log(isLast);
6. Match the following algorithm design steps with their function implementations.
• Calculate the total of a, b and c.
• Calculate the average.
• Return the average.
• The function average requires three values: a,b,c.
• Store the number of values.
Function Design
function average(a,b,c) {
var total = a+b+c;
var number = 3;
var output = total/number;
return output;}
Understanding
7. WE24 Add a comment to each statement of the form // variable=value where variable is
the variable name and value is the evaluated value.
a. var nearly_2 = 1+1/2+1/4+1/8+1/16+1/32;
b. var distanceKm = 2600/1000;
c. var seconds = 60*60*24*356.25;
8. For each statement in the following program, find the variable name between var and =, then calculate
the value assigned to this variable. Add a comment to the end of each statement indicating the
progress: // variable=value.
var percentage=22+3;
var total=6+14;
var amount=(percentage/100)*total;
9. WE27 Design an algorithm for each of the problems below. For each problem:
i. determine the inputs
ii. determine the function name
iii. break the problem into simple steps.
a. Test if a triangle with sides a, b and c is a right-angled triangle. Assume c is the largest value.
b. Test if a number is a positive integer.
c. Test if three numbers a, b and c are a Pythagorean triad. (A Pythagorean triad is 3 positive integers
(whole numbers) that could form a right-angled triangle.) Assume c is the largest value.
d. Test if three numbers x, y and z are a Pythagorean triad. The variables x, y and z could be in any order.
10. WE28 Implement an algorithm as a function in JavaScript for each of the problems given in question 9.

Reasoning
11. WE29 Design and implement an algorithm to add data to the end of a linked list and return the updated
list. Use the following steps. Assume there is a terminator already defined.
Represent the list3 of values 1, 2 and 3 as a linked list. Call the function with the list3 list and the
value 4. Store the updated list in the variable list4.
i. Write function inputs.
ii. Write JavaScript statements for each step.
e. Test the function.
12. WE30 Design and implement an algorithm to remove the last object in a linked list and return the
updated list. Assume there is a terminator already defined.
Represent the list3 of values 1, 2 and 3 as the linked list. Create a function and call it with the list3
list. Store the updated list in the variable list2.
13. WE31 Design and implement an algorithm to set the data at a particular index in a linked list.
Represent the list of values ”Replace”, ”me” and ”here.” as the linked list. Create a
function, call it with the list and set the third piece of data as ”there.”.
Problem solving
14. Design and implement an algorithm to remove at an object at a particular index in a list and return an
updated list.
Represent the list3 of values 1, 2 and 3 as the linked list. Create a function and call it with list3
and index 1. Store the updated list in the variable list2.

i Write the function inputs.

ii Write a JavaScript statement for each step.
iii Return the required result (output).
15. Design and implement a function to return the maximum possible area with a given perimeter. (Hint: Of all
the plane shapes, a circle has the maximum possible area for a given perimeter.)
18.5 Matrices
LEARNING INTENTION
• identify two-dimensional arrays in JavaScript
• identify the indexes of values in two-dimensional arrays
• identify arrays that can represent matrices
• determine the size of a matrix represented by a two-dimensional array.
18.5.1 Two-dimensional arrays

• Subtopic 18.3 introduced the concept of arrays. In a simple array, every item can be accessed with a
single index. A simple array that requires only one index to access elements is called a one-dimensional
array. An array of arrays is considered a two-dimensional array, as it requires two indexes to access a
single element.
WORKED EXAMPLE 32 Identifying two-dimensional arrays
Identify how many dimensions the following arrays have.

a. [1,2,3] b. [[1,2],[3,4]] c. [[1],[2],[3]]
d. [[1,2,3]] e. [[],[],[]]
THINK WRITE
a. Each element in the array is a simple number. a. 1
b. Each element in the array is another array. b. 2
c. Each element in the array is still another array with of c. 2
length 1.
d. The only element in the array is another array. d. 2
e. Each element in the array is a simple empty array. e. 2
18.5.2 Array indexes

• Values in a two-dimensional array are accessed with two indexes, both starting at 0. The first index
accesses the sub-array, and the second index accesses the value inside the sub-array.

var array = [[ 1 , 2 , 3 ],[ 4 , 5 , 6 ]];
First index 0 0 0 1 1 1
Second index 0 1 2 0 1 2
WORKED EXAMPLE 33 Identifying the indexes of values in a two-dimensional array
Consider the following two-dimensional array.

var array = [[”a”,”b”],[”c”,”d”],[”e”,”f”]];
i. State the first JavaScript index required to access each of the following values in the array.
ii. State the second JavaScript index required to access each of the following values in the array.
a. ”a” b. ”b” c. ”f” d. ”c”
THINK WRITE
a. i. ”a” is in the 1st sub-array, so the first index is 0. a. i. 0
ii. ”a” is the 1st in the sub-array, so the second index is 0. ii. 0
b. i. ”b” is in the 1st sub-array, so the first index is 0. b. i. 0
ii. ”b” is the 2nd in the sub-array, so the second index is 1. ii. 1
c. i. ”f” is in the 3rd sub-array, so the first index is 2. c. i. 2
ii. ”f” is the 2nd in the sub-array, so the second index is 1. ii. 1
d. i. ”c” is in the 2nd sub-array, so the first index is 1. d. i. 1
ii. ”c” is the 1st in the sub-array, so the second index is 0. ii. 0
• Values inside a two-dimensional array are accessed using two indexes index1 and index2 with
the following expression array[index1][index2].
WORKED EXAMPLE 34 Identifying values at different indexes within two-dimensional

arrays
Consider the two-dimensional array below.

var array = [[3.4,2.1,3.9,8.3],[4.1,8.7,3.2,2.3]];

a. array[1][3] b. array[0][1] c. array[0][2]
THINK WRITE
a. array[1][3] has a first index of 1 which is a. 2.3
the 2nd sub-array. array[1][3] has a second index
of 3 which is the 4th value in the 2nd sub-array.
b. array[0][1] has a first index of 0 which is the b. 2.1
1st sub-array. array[0][1] has a second index of
1 which is the 2nd value in the 1st sub-array.
c. array[0][2] has a first index of 0 which is the c. 3.9
1st sub-array. array[0][2] has a second index of
2 which is the 3rd value in the 1st sub-array.

18.5.3 Matrices and arrays
• Matrices are a mathematical concept. A matrix is a rectangular array of numbers arranged in rows
and columns.
• A JavaScript two-dimensional array can represent a matrix as long as all the sub-arrays have the same
length (number of columns).
WORKED EXAMPLE 35 Identifying arrays that can represent matrices
The arrays below can represent matrices. State whether this is true or false.
a. [[1,2],[3,4],[5,6]]
b. [[3],[3,3.1],[3,3.1,3.14]]
c. [[[10,9],[8,7]],[[6,5],[4,3]]]
THINK WRITE
a. [[1,2],[3,4],[5,6]] can represent a matrix a. True
because it is a two-dimensional array and all 3 sub-arrays
have length 2.
b. [[3],[3,3.1],[3,3.1,3.14]] cannot b. False
represent a matrix because all 3 sub-arrays have
different lengths.
c. [[[10,9],[8,7]],[[6,5],[4,3]]] c. False
cannot represent a matrix because it is a three-
dimensional array.
18.5.4 Matrix size
columns. The size of a matrix is described as m × n, or ‘m by n’, where m is the number of rows and n is
• The size of a matrix (also known as its order) is described with the number rows first then the number
the number of columns.

• In JavaScript, there is a direct relationship between the size of a matrix and the array that represents it.
• The number of rows in a matrix corresponds to the number of sub-arrays.
• The number of columns in a matrix corresponds to the length of each sub-array.
WORKED EXAMPLE 36 Determining the size of matrix represented by two-dimensional

arrays
Each of the arrays below represents a matrix. Answer the following for each array.
i. Reformat the array so there is one sub-array per line.
ii. State how many rows the corresponding matrix has.
iii. State how many columns the corresponding matrix has.
a. [[1,2],[3,4],[5,6]]
b. [[3,1,4]]
c. [[3,1,9,8],[3,2,4,2]]
d. [[4],[2],[2],[21]]

THINK WRITE
a. i. Reformatting the array helps to make the number of rows a. i. [
and columns clearer. [1,2],
[3,4],
[5,6]
]
ii. The array has 3 sub-arrays, so the matrix has 3 rows. ii. 3
iii. Each sub-array has length 2, so the matrix has 2 columns. iii. 2
b. i. Reformatting the array helps to make the number of rows b. i. [
and columns clearer. [3,1,4]
]
ii. The array has 1 sub-array, so the matrix has 1 row. ii. 1
iii. The sub-array has length 3, so the matrix has 3 columns. iii. 3
c. i. Reformatting the array helps to make the number of rows c. i. [
and columns clearer. [3,1,9,8],
[3,2,4,2]
]
iii. Each sub-array has length 4, so the matrix has 4 columns. iii. 4
d. i. Reformatting the array helps make the number of rows and d. i. [
columns clearer. [4],
[2],
[2],
[21]
]
iii. Each sub-array has length 1, so the matrix has 1 column. iii. 1
18.5.5 Matrix representation

• A matrix can be converted into a two-dimensional array. For each row in the matrix, create a sub-array of
the row. The final representation is an array of the sub-arrays in the same order they appear in the matrix.
Matrix JavaScript two-dimensional array

…
…
⎡ 11 12 19 ⎤ [
⋮ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮
⎢ 21 22 29 ⎥ [11, 12, ..., 19],
…
⎢ ⎥ [21, 22, ..., 29],
⎢ ⎥
⎣ 71 72 79 ⎦ ...
[71, 72, ..., 79]
]

WORKED EXAMPLE 37 Representing matrices as arrays in JavaScript
Represent each of the following matrices as a JavaScript two-dimensional array.

a. [ 22 41 15 ]
[ ]
2 4 5 62
b.
1 3 1 31
⎡ 2 ⎤
⎢ 9 ⎥
c. ⎢ ⎥
⎢ 7 ⎥
⎣ 1 ⎦
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Open the outer array. a. [
2. Convert the first/last row into a sub-array. [22, 41, 15]
3. Close the outer array once all rows have been converted. ]
b. 1. Open the outer array. b. [
2. Convert the first row into a sub-array. [2, 4, 5, 62],
3. Convert the last row into a sub-array. [1, 3, 1, 31]
c. 1. Open the outer array. c. [
2. Convert the first row into a sub-array. [2],
3. Convert the second row into a sub-array. [9],
4. Convert the third row into a sub-array. [7],
5. Convert the last row into a sub-array. [1]
18.5.6 Matrix indexes

• Traditionally, elements in a matrix are referenced with two integer indexes starting at 1. This is different to
the JavaScript method of referencing an array element using an index starting at 0.
Matrix JavaScript two-dimensional array

The matrix below has m rows The two-dimensional array below has m rows and n columns. Elements
and n columns. Elements of of a two-dimensional array are accessed with two integer indexes starting
a matrix are accessed with at 0. The first index accesses the sub-array and the second index accesses
two integer indexes starting value in the sub-array.
at 1. The first index references
the row and the second index
references the column.
…
…
⎡ a11 a12 a1n ⎤ [
⎢ ⎥
⋮ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ⎥
a21 a22 a2n ⎥ [a[0][0], a[0][1], ..., a[0][n−1]],
⎢ [a[1][0], a[1][1], ..., a[1][n−1]],
…
⎢
⎢ ⎥ ...
⎣ am1 am2 amn ⎦ [a[m−1][0], a[m−1][1], ..., a[m−1][n−1]]
]

WORKED EXAMPLE 38 Identifying the indexes of values imatrices and JavaScript arrays
Consider the following matrix and two-dimensional JavaScript array.

A=
[ ]
12 22 13 24
46 28 92 15
var A = [
[12,22,13,24],
[46,28,92,15]
];
Answer the following for each of the values below.
i. State the first index required to access this value in the matrix A.
ii. State the second index required to access this value in the matrix A.
iii. State the first index required to access this value in the JavaScript array A.
iv. State the second index required to access this value in the JavaScript array A.
v. Using the JavaScript indexes, write an expression to access this value in the JavaScript array A.
a. 13
b. 15
c. 12
THINK WRITE
a. i. 13 is in the 1st row of the matrix A. a. i. 1
ii. 13 is in the 3rd column of the matrix A. ii. 3
iii. 13 is in the 1st sub-array, so the first index is 0. iii. 0
iv. 13 is in the 3rd in the sub-array, so the second index iv. 2
is 2.
v. Use the JavaScript indexes 0 and 2. v. A[0][2]
b. i. 15 is in the 2nd row of the matrix A. b. i. 2
ii. 15 is in the 4th column of the matrix A. ii. 4
iii. 15 is in the 2nd sub-array, so the first index is 1. iii. 1
iv. 15 is in the 4th in the sub-array, so the second index iv. 3
is 3.
c. i. 12 is in the 1st row of the matrix A. b. i. 1
ii. 12 is in the 1st column of the matrix A. ii. 1
iii. 12 is in the 1st sub-array, so the first index is 0. iii. 0
iv. 12 is in the 1st in the sub-array, so the second index iv. 0
is 0.

Exercise 18.5 Matrices
Individual pathways
1, 3, 6 2, 4, 7, 9 5, 8, 10, 11
Fluency
1. WE32 State how many dimensions the following arrays have.
a. [[12],[5]] b. [1] c. []
d. [[[2]]] e. [[21,29,31,24,23]]
2. State how many dimensions the following arrays have.

a. [[[]]]
b. [[[21,29],[31,24]]]
c. [[],[],[],[],[]]
d. [[101,22],[13,14],[36,44],[33,45]]
3. WE33Consider the two-dimensional array below.
var matrix = [[1,2],[3,4],[5,6],[7,8]];
i. State the first JavaScript index required to access each of the following values in the array.
ii. State the second JavaScript index required to access each of the following values in the array.
a. 7 b. 1 c. 5 d. 6
4. WE34 Consider the two-dimensional array below.

var matrix = [[23,4,3],[4,6,7],[1,1,72]];
a. matrix[2][1] b. matrix[2][2] c. matrix[1][0]
5. WE35 The arrays below can represent matrices. State whether this is true or false.
a. [[1],[1,2],[1,2,3],[1,2,3,4]]
b. [[],[3]]
c. [[12,12],[223,14]]
d. [[[101,19],[84,47],[78,77]],[[26,5],[28,72],[28,79]]]
Understanding
6. WE36 Each of the arrays below represents a matrix. For each array:
i. State how many rows the corresponding matrix has
ii. State how many columns the corresponding matrix has.
a. [[1],[2],[3],[4],[5],[6]]
b. [[32.2,13.5,44.3,3.3,23.2,3.1]]
c. [[3,1,9],[31,12,14],[32,27,47],[3,24,44],[34,42,4]]
d. [[1,2,3,4,5],[6,7,8,9,10]]

7. WE37 Represent each of the following matrices as a JavaScript two-dimensional array.
[ ] [ ] ⎡ 21 11 ⎤
1 2 3 2 4 5 2 62 ⎢ 19 12 ⎥
a. b. c. ⎢ ⎥
5 6 2 1 3 1 2 31 ⎢ 71 82 ⎥
⎣ 12 81 ⎦
8. WE38 Consider the following matrix and two-dimensional JavaScript array.
B=
[ ]
6 8 2
1 2 4
var B = [
[6,8,2],
[1,2,4]
];
i. State the first index required to access this value in the matrix B.
ii. State the second index required to access this value in the matrix B.
iii. State the first index required to access this value in the JavaScript array B.
iv. State the second index required to access this value in the JavaScript array B.
v. Using the JavaScript indexes, write an expression to access this value in the JavaScript array B.
a. 6 b. 4 c. 8
Reasoning
9. Create a JavaScript representation of a 4 by 4 matrix called indexProduct
where the values are the product of the two corresponding JavaScript indexes.
10. Create a JavaScript representation of a 4 by 2 matrix called square. Each row
[50, 50] 100
of the matrix is the [x,y] coordinates of a corner of a unit square. The square is
centred at the coordinates [50,50] and has side lengths of 100.
Problem solving
11. Create a JavaScript representation of an 8 by 2 matrix called octagon.
Each row of the matrix is the [x,y] corner coordinates of an octagon.
The octagon is centred at coordinates [100,100] and has side lengths
of 40. Round all values to the closest integer.
[100, 100] 40

18.6 Graphics
LEARNING INTENTION
• draw lines on HTML pages
• draw polygons and circles on HTML pages
• define colours using rgb strings
• draw coloured lines, polygons and circles on HTML pages.
18.6.1 Web pages

• A simple way of drawing graphics on a computer screen is to create an HTML page with a canvas. The
canvas is a defined area on your web page where the graphics can be drawn with JavaScript.
• The HTML page will be the same for all graphical examples in this section, but it can be modified for your
own programs. The canvas provided has a set width of 600 and height of 500. These parameters can also be
modified for your own programs. What will change for each example is the JavaScript used to draw on the
canvas.
• Depending on what technology and internet access you have available, there are two options to build the
HTML web page and the necessary JavaScript programs: you can build it either locally (stored on your
own computer) or online.
Local web page

• The first option to build a web page is to create it locally on your computer.
• It is important to edit and create program files using a plain text editor. Do not
use word processing programs such as Word, as they add extra information in the
files for structure, formatting and so on. Many plain text editors are available, and
some are designed for editing programs. Two simple plain text editors installed by
default on most computers are Notepad on PCs and TextEdit (in plain text mode)
on Macs.
• In order to use TextEdit in plain text mode on a Mac, you will need to change
some preferences.
1. Go to TextEdit > Preferences > New Document and set Format to Plain
text. Also turn off all the Options.
2. Go to TextEdit > Preferences > Open and Save. Under When Opening a
File, check Display HTML files as HTML code instead of formatted text.
• Once the preferences in TextEdit have been set correctly, you can create web pages locally on your
computer using the following steps.
1. On your computer, create a new directory for each web page.
2. In the new directory, create a new standard HTML file called index.html with following content. (The
content of this file is the same for all examples in this section.)

Creating a canvas
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html lang=”en”>
<head></head>
<body>
<canvas id=”canvas” width=”600” height=”500”> </canvas>
<script>
var canvas = document.getElementById(”canvas”);
var context = canvas.getContext(”2d”); </script>
<script src=”/add-4tb-disk/webroot/wileyv3-
xeditpro/api/uploads/1/book/214/c18AlgorithmicThinking_
OnlineOnly/script.js.jpg”> </script>
</body>
</html>
3. In the new directory, create a new JavaScript file called script.js with the following content. (The content of
this file will change for different graphical examples.)
Adding a colour gradient
// Assume there exists an HTML page which

// provides a context to the canvas
var gradient=context.createLinearGradient(0,0,400,300);
gradient.addColorStop(0,”red”);
gradient.addColorStop(1,”blue”);
context.fillStyle=gradient;
context.fillRect(100,100,400,300);
4. Open the file index.html with any web browser on your computer and it should display a red and
blue rectangle.
Online web page

• Your second option for building a web page is to do it online. There are a number of online JavaScript
editors, such as JSFiddle and JS Bin, which allow you to edit HTML and JavaScript online without having
to save files locally. The following instructions are for JS Bin, but similar steps will be required for other
online JavaScript editors.
1. Open http://jsbin.com/?html,js,output in your web browser.
2. In the HTML section, add the following standard content (this will stay the same for all examples).

Creating a canvas
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html lang=”en”>
<head></head>
<body>
<canvas id=”canvas” width=”600” height=”500”></canvas>
<script>
var canvas = document.getElementById(”canvas”);
var context = canvas.getContext(”2d”);
</script>
</body>
</html>
3. In the JavaScript section, add the following example content (this will change for different
graphical examples).
Adding a colour gradient

var gradient=context.createLinearGradient(0,0,400,300);
gradient.addColorStop(0,”red”);
gradient.addColorStop(1,”blue”);
context.fillStyle=gradient;
4. The output section should display a red and blue rectangle.
18.6.2 Canvas coordinates

• Coordinates (x,y) are used to reference every point on the canvas. 0 600 x
0
The example canvas provided has a width of 600 and height of 500.
• The x value indicates how far right the point is. The left edge is at
x=0 and the right edge is at x=600.
• The y value indicates how far down the point is. The top edge is at Canvas
y=0 and the bottom edge is at y=500.
500

Lines
• The HTML page provides a context to the canvas. The context allows JavaScript to draw on the
canvas.
• In order to draw a line, two coordinate pairs are required. The following code will draw a line from
(x1,y1) to (x2,y2).
Drawing a line

context.moveTo(x1,y1);
context.lineTo(x2,y2);
context.stroke();
• The width of line can be changed with context.lineWidth = width;.
WORKED EXAMPLE 39 Drawing lines on HTML pages
Assume there exists an HTML page which provides a context to the canvas. Write JavaScript code
to draw a line:
a. from (5,15) to (500,500)
b. from (300,10) to (50,400) with width 15
c. from (50,50) to (550,50) to (300,483) back to (50,50).
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Assume there exists a context. a.
2. Move to the first point, (5,15). context.moveTo(5,15);
3. Create a line to the second point, context.lineTo(500,500);
(500,500).
4. Draw the line stroke. context.stroke();
b. 1. Assume there exists a context. b.
2. Set the line width. context.lineWidth = 15;
(50,400).
c. 1. Assume there exists a context. c.
(550,50).
4. Create a line to the third point, context.lineTo(300,483);
(300,483).
5. Create a line to the fourth point, (50,50). context.lineTo(50,50);

18.6.3 Polygons
• In order to draw a polygon, a list of m coordinates (vertices) is required. The following code will draw a
filled polygon from a list of coordinates (x1,y1),(x2,y2),...,(xm,ym).
Drawing a polygon

context.beginPath();
...
context.lineTo(xm,xm);
context.closePath();
context.fill();
WORKED EXAMPLE 40 Drawing a rectangle on a HTML page
Assume there exists an HTML page which provides a context to the (100, 50)
canvas. Write JavaScript code to draw a filled rectangle with corners at
(100,50) and (500,250).
(500, 250)
THINK WRITE
1. Assume there exists a context.
2. Store the 1st point, (100,50). var x1 = 100;
var y1 = 50;
3. Infer and store the 2nd point, (500,50), var x2 = 500;
from the two given corners. var y2 = 50;
4. Store the 3rd point, (500,250). var x3 = 500;
var y3 = 250;
5. Infer and store the 4th point, (500,50), var x4 = 100;
from the two given corners. var y4 = 250;
6. Restart the path. context.beginPath();
7. Move to the 1st point, (x1,y1). context.moveTo(x1,y1);
8. Create a line to the 2nd point, (x2,y2). context.lineTo(x2,y2);
9. Create a line to the 3rd point, (x3,y3). context.lineTo(x3,y3);
10. Create a line to the 4th point, (x4,y4). context.lineTo(x4,y4);
11. Create a line to the beginning of the path. context.closePath();
12. Fill in the closed path. context.fill();

18.6.4 Circles
• To draw a circle we require the function arc(x,y,
radius,start,end,counterclock−wise).
• x,y define the centre.
arc end
• radius defines the radius of the arc.
• The two inputs start and end define the start and end
points of the arc. They are measured in radians (another way to radius
x
measure angles); 360° equals 2𝜋 radians. centre
• counterclockwise is an optional input and defines the x,y
direction the arc is drawn. The direction defaults to clockwise start
(false) if counterclockwise is omitted. The input
counterclockwise can be set to true to reverse the
direction to anticlockwise.
• To draw a circle, we require a full circuit, so the start is set to 0 and the end is set to 2π radians
(2*Math.PI). The following code will draw a filled circle with the centre (x,y) and a given
radius.
Drawing a circle

var end = 2*Math.PI;
context.arc(x, y, radius, 0, end);
context.fill();
WORKED EXAMPLE 41 Drawing circles on HTML pages
Assume there exists an HTML page which provides a context to the canvas. Write JavaScript code
to draw a filled circle:
a. with centre (100,100) and radius 50 b. with centre (50,200) and diameter 80.
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Assume there exists a context. a.
2. Store the centre, (100,100). var x = 100; var y = 100;
3. Store the radius of 50. var radius = 50;
4. Store the end as a complete circuit. var end = 2*Math.PI;
6. Create a full arc at the radius around x,y. context.arc(x,y,radius,0,end);
7. Close the path. context.closePath();
b. 1. Assume there exists a context. b.
2. Store the centre, (50,200). var x = 50; var y = 200;
3. Store the diameter of 80. var diameter = 80;
4. Calculate and store the radius of 50. var radius = diameter/2;

7. Create a full arc at the radius around x,y. context.arc(x,y,radius,0,end);
18.6.5 Colour
• Graphical displays use light to display colour. This is additive colour. This is different from mixing paints,
which is subtractive colour.
• The three primary colours used in computer graphics are red, green and blue. The following code generates
a Venn diagram to show how red, green and blue add together.
Adding rgb colours
context.fillStyle = ”black”;
// Forces the new shapes to add colours
context.globalCompositeOperation = ”lighter”;
context.fillStyle = ”Red”;
context.arc(300, 181, 160, 0, 2*Math.PI);
context.fill();
context.fillStyle = ”Lime”; // Pure green
context.fill();
context.fillStyle = ”Blue”;
context.fill();
• There a number of predefined colours, but sometimes more control

is required. Another method to define a colour is with the string
”rgb(red,green,blue)” where red, green and
blue define the intensity using integers between 0 and 255.
WORKED EXAMPLE 42 Defining colours using rgb strings
Define a string of the form ”rgb(red,green,blue)” for each of the following colours.
a. Green b. Yellow c. White d. Dark red
THINK WRITE
a. Set the green to maximum intensity, 255, and a. ”rgb(0,255,0)”
set the other colours to 0.

b. It can be seen from the Venn diagram that in b. ”rgb(255,255,0)”
additive colour, yellow is a combination of red
and green. Set the red and green to maximum
intensity, 255, and set blue to 0.
c. It can be seen from the Venn diagram that in c. ”rgb(255,255,255)”
additive colour, white is a combination of red,
green and blue. Set all colours to maximum
intensity, 255.
d. Reduce the red intensity to a value about midway d. ”rgb(128,0,0)”
between 0 and 255 and set the other colours to 0.
• Colour can be added to lines with context.strokeStyle = lineColour;.

• Colour can be added to fill with context.fillStyle = fillColour;.
WORKED EXAMPLE 43 Drawing coloured circles on HTML pages
Assume there exists an HTML page which provides a context to the canvas. Write
JavaScript code to draw a blue circle with its centre at (300,180), a radius of 70,
and an outline of width 15 and colour dark red.
THINK WRITE
1. Assume there exists a context.
2. Store the centre, (300,180). var x = 300;
var y = 180;
3. Store the radius, 70. var radius = 70;
5. Store the blue fill colour. var fillColour = ”rgb(0,0,255) ”;
6. Store the dark red outline colour. var lineColour = ”rgb(128,0,0) ”;
8. Set the fill colour of the circle. context.fillStyle = fillColour;
9. Set the outline width. context.lineWidth = 15;
10. Set the outline colour of the circle. context.strokeStyle = lineColour;
11. Create a full arc at the radius around context.arc(x,y,radius,0,end);
x,y.
14. Draw the outline. context.stroke();

Exercise 18.6 Graphics
Individual pathways
1, 3, 5, 10, 12 2, 6, 8, 13, 15 4, 7, 9, 11, 14, 16, 17
Fluency
1. A canvas has width 300 and height 400. On the canvas, state the coordinates in the
0 300
form [x,y] of: 0 x
a. the centre
b. the middle of the right edge Canvas
c. the middle of the bottom edge
d. the right top corner.
400
2. WE42 Define a string of the form ”rgb(red,green,blue)” for each of the following colours.
a. Blue
b. Black
c. Cyan (green and blue)
3. Match the colours below with the colour strings in the following table.
Red, pink, yellow, blue, green, light green, black, light blue
Colour string Colour

”rgb(128,255,128)”
”rgb(0,0,0)”
”rgb(255,255,0)”
”rgb(255,128,128)”
”rgb(255,0,0)”
”rgb(0,255,0)”
”rgb(128,128,255)”
”rgb(0,0,255)”
4. Assume there exists an HTML page which provides a context to the canvas. Write a JavaScript
statement to change the colour of a fill to yellow.
Use the string structure ”rgb(red,green,blue)”.
Understanding
5. WE39 Assume there exists an HTML page which provides a context to the canvas. Write JavaScript
code to draw a line:
a. from (500,10) to (10,500)
b. from (66,14) to (20,410) with width 10
c. from (86,3) to (50,150) with width 3
d. from (20,13) to (5,40) with width 9
e. from (50,50) to (550,50) to (550,450) to (50,450) and back to (50,50).

6. WE40 Assume there exists an HTML page which provides a context to the canvas. Write
(40, 20)
JavaScript code to draw a filled rectangle with corners at (40,20) and (200,250).
7. WE41 Assume there exists an HTML page which provides a context to the canvas. Write
JavaScript code to draw a filled circle:
a. with centre (22,43) and radius 20. (200, 250)
b. with centre (100,100) and diameter 160.
8. WE43 Assume there exists an HTML page which provides a context to the canvas.
Write JavaScript code to draw a red circle with centre (200,280), diameter 200,
and an outline of width 8 and colour green.
9. Assume there exists an HTML page which provides a context to the canvas. Write
JavaScript code to draw lines to create a square with opposite corners at:
a. (150,200) and (200,100)
b. (116,240) and (120,210)
c. (400,130) and (110,250).
Reasoning
JavaScript code to draw two equal touching blue circles with centres (200,300) and
(400,300).
JavaScript code to draw a filled circle to fit inside a square with corners at (200,150)
and (400,300). Also draw the square with no fill.
12. Given that 180° equals 𝜋 radians and equals Math.PI in JavaScript, write the JavaScript expression to
represent the following angles in radians.
a. 90°
b. 60°
c. 30°
d. 45°
e. 161.2° x = 300
13. Assume there exists an HTML page which provides a context to the canvas. Draw
[300, 50]
a black arc with a radius of 200. The arc has an angle of 60° and rotates about the
point [300,250]. The arc is symmetrical about the line x = 300, and its
highest point is [300,50].
14. Assume there exists an HTML page which provides a context to the canvas. Draw 60°
a light blue square with a blue outline. The square is centred on the point [50,50] 200
and has side lengths of 100. [300, 250]
[50, 50] 100

Problem solving
15. Assume there exists an HTML page which provides a context to the canvas.
Draw a light blue octagon with a blue outline. The octagon is centred on the point
40
[100,100] and has side lengths of 40. Round all values to the closest integer. [100, 100]
Draw a red sector with a black outline. The sector has a radius of 200. The sector
point has an angle of 60° and coordinates [300,250]. The sector is symmetrical
about the line x = 300 and is pointing down. x = 300
Using JavaScript, draw a colour wheel as shown, centred at the point [300,250]
with radius 200. The fill colours have the extreme intensities of 0 and 255. The
outlines are blue.
60°
200
[300, 250]
[300, 250]
18.7 Simulations
LEARNING INTENTION
• generate random numbers within a set range in JavaScript
• define loops and nested loops to perform functions in JavaScript
• define functions to determine the status of cells in a matrix
• define functions to transform matrices.
• The more complex a problem is, the harder it is to analyse manually. Simulating a complex problem in
computer programs can help our understanding of the problem, as we can change the variables and view
the results.
18.7.1 Random numbers

• Some simulations require random events. JavaScript has a function named Math.random to generate
numbers. Every time Math.random() is called, a different random number between 0 (inclusive)
and 1 (exclusive, but can come very close) is returned. The following statement stores a random number in
the variable sample.
var sample = Math.random();
• Math.random() returns a real number between 0 (inclusive) and 1 (exclusive). Often a larger or
smaller range of random numbers is required. The value returned from Math.random() can be
multiplied by a scaling factor to adjust the range. The following statement stores a random number between
0 (inclusive) and scale (exclusive) in the variable sample.
var sample = scale*Math.random();

WORKED EXAMPLE 44 Generating random numbers within different ranges
c. −3
Write an expression to return a random number between 0 and:
a. 20 b. 0.01
THINK WRITE
a. The scale factor is 20. a. 20*Math.random()
b. The scale factor is 0.01. b. 0.01*Math.random()
c. The scale factor is −3. c. −3*Math.random()
18.7.2 For loops

• Simulations often require that the same task be applied to every value in an array. Loops can execute a task
many times on different data without needing multiple copies of the same code.
• The JavaScript keyword for provides a mechanism to loop over the same code many times. There are
four sections where the for loop can be customised.
• initialise provides a place to initialise a variable. This is usually involves setting an index
variable to 0.
• If repeat is true, the code in the loop is repeated until repeat changes to false. The
repeat is usually a Boolean expression to indicate if there is any more data to process.
• iterate is executed each time, directly after the code block is executed. It is extremely important
that iterate eventually changes the repeat expression to false. This step usually involves
increasing the index variable.
• {statement 1, statement 2,..., statement S} is the section of code
repeated every time repeat is true.
Using loops
for (initialise; repeat; iterate) {

statement 1
statement 2
statement S
}
Loop over an array

• The following structure is one way to repeat a section of code {statement 1, statement
2,..., statement S} for each item in an array. The variable i is the array index and is
also used to track the current loop iteration.
Using loops over arrays
var array = [...];

var m = array.length;
for (var i = 0; i < m; i = i+1) {
var item = array[i];
statement 1
statement 2
statement S
}

WORKED EXAMPLE 45 Determining the number of iterations of a loop
State how many times the loop code is executed in each of the following programs.
a. var employees = [”Ben”,”Tom”,”Tim”];
var payRates = [54.50,43.00,90.00];
var m = employees.length;
for (var i=0; i < m; i = i+1) {
var item = employees[i];
var payRate = payRates[i];
console.log(item+ ”gets payed ”+payRate+” per hour”);
}
b. var sum = 0;
var groups = [[2,3,5,7],[11,13,17,19]];
var m = groups.length;
for (var j=0; j < m; j = j+1) {
var group = primes[j];
sum = sum + group.length;
}
console.log(sum);
THINK WRITE
a. 1. The code follows the structure to loop over the array a.
employees=[”Ben”,”Tom”,”Tim”].
2. The length of the employees array is 3. 3
b. 1. The code follows the structure to loop over the array b.
groups=[[2,3,5,7],[11,13,17,19]].
2. The array groups has 2 sub-arrays, so it has a length of 2. 2
18.7.3 Nested loops

• A single loop over a multi-dimensional array only gives you access to the sub-arrays. In order to access all
the items in a multi-dimensional array, a nested loop is required.
• The following structure is one way to repeat a section of code {statement 1, statement
2,..., statement S} for each item in a two-dimensional array. The variable i is the
first array index and is also used to track the outer loop iteration. The variable j is the second array index
and is also used to track the inner loop iteration.
Using nested loops
var array = [[...],...,[...]];

var m = array.length;
for (var i = 0; i < m; i = i+1) {
var n = array[i].length;
for (var j = 0; j < n; j = j+1) {
var item = array[i][j];
statement 1
statement 2
statement S
}
}

WORKED EXAMPLE 46 Defining a nested loop for a two-dimensional array
Given the following two-dimensional array assignment, write a nested loop to total all the values in
the two-dimensional array. Store the total in the variable sum.
var array = [
[1,2,3,4],
[5,6,7,8]
];
THINK WRITE
1. Write the initial array assignment. var array = [
[1,2,3,4],
[5,6,7,8]
];
2. Initialise the sum with 0. var sum = 0;
3. Store the length of the array. var m = array.length;
4. Start the outer for loop. for (var i=0; im; i=i+1) {
5. Store the length of the sub-array. var n = array[i].length;
6. Start the inner for loop. for (var j=0; j < n; j=j+1) {
7. Store the current array item. var item = array[i][j];
8. Increase sum by the array item. sum = sum + item;
9. Close the inner for loop. }
10. Close the output for loop. }
18.7.4 Initialising arrays

• It is not always practical to initialise arrays to the correct size and values straight away. Sometimes the
values are generated by a program, or the initial size is unknown. The following statement stores an empty
array in the variable empty.
var empty = [];
• Values can be added to the array using the push function. The following statement pushes the item to the
end of existing array.
array.push(item);
WORKED EXAMPLE 47 Creating a function to return an array of random numbers
Create a function called randomNumbers to return an array of size random numbers between
0 and 1.
THINK WRITE
1. Write the function inputs. function randomNumbers(size) {
2. Create an empty array var array = [];
3. Start the for loop. for (var i=0; isize; i=i+1) {
4. Determine a new random value. var random = Math.random();
5. Add the random number to the end of array.push(random);
the array. }
6. Return the generated array. return array;
}

WORKED EXAMPLE 48 Defining a function to create a matrix of random probabilities
Create a function called randomBooleans to return a matrix of Booleans with a given number of
rows and columns where each value has a probability of being true.
THINK WRITE
1. Write the function inputs. function randomBooleans(
rows,
columns,
probability) {
2. Create an empty matrix. var matrix = [];
3. Start the outer for loop. for (var i=0; irows; i=i+1) {
4. Create a new empty row. var newRow = [];
5. Start the inner for loop. for (var j=0; j < columns; j=j+1) {
6. Determine a new random value. var random = Math.random();
7. Generate a random Boolean. var isTrue = randomprobability;
8. Add the random Boolean to the newRow.push(isTrue);
end of the array. }
9. Store the new row in the new matrix.push(newRow);
matrix. }
10. Return the generated matrix. return matrix;
}
18.7.5 The Game of Life

• The Game of Life was invented by the mathematician John Conway.
It has some simple rules but is very difficult to analyse without using
a simulation. The next few subsections will work towards building a
simulation of the Game of Life.
6 7 8
• The Game of Life consists of a matrix of cells. Each cell in the matrix
has 8 adjacent cells. A cell can be either alive or empty.
• If a given cell has a live cell adjacent to it, that cell is referred to as a 5 cell 1
neighbour of the first cell. Each cell lives or dies depending on how
many neighbours it has. If a cell is alive and: 4 3 2
• has only one or no neighbours, it will die of loneliness
• has two or three neighbours, it will continue to live
• has four or more neighbours, it will die from overcrowding.
• If a cell is empty and has three neighbours, the neighbours will
reproduce and the cell will become alive.

WORKED EXAMPLE 49 Designing and implementing a function to return true and
false
Design and implement a function to return true if a cell lives according to John Conway’s rules for
the Game of Life. Return false if the cell stays empty or dies. The function isAlive has the
Boolean input alive and number of neighbours.
a. Break the problem into simple steps.
b. Implement the algorithm as a function in JavaScript.
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Write step 1. a. Initialise a variable to track the status of the new cell. A
status of true indicates alive, a status of false indicates dead
or empty.
2. Write step 2. If the current cell is alive and has 2 or 3 neighbours set the
new status to alive.
3. Write step 3. If the current cell is alive and does not have 2 or 3
neighbours set the new status to dead.
4. Write step 4. If the current cell is empty and has 3 neighbours set the new
status to alive.
5. Write step 5. If the current cell is empty and does not have 3 neighbours
set the new status to empty.
6. Return the required Return the status.
result
b. i. Implement the b. i. functionisAlive(alive,neighbours) {
algorithm. Start by
writing the function
inputs.
ii. 1. Comment on step 1. ii. // Initialise a variable to
// track the status of the new cell
// A status of true indicates alive,
// a status of false indicates
// dead or empty.
2. Implement step 1. var newStatus = false;
3. Comment and if (alive) {
implement step 2 // If the current cell is alive
and 3. // and has 2 or 3 neighbours set
// the new status to alive.
// If the current cell is alive
// and does not have 2 or 3
// neighbours set the new status
// to dead.
newStatus = neighbours===2 ||
neighbours===3;
}

4. Comment and else {
implement step 4 // If the current cell is empty
and 5. // and has 3 neighbours set the
// new status to alive.
// If the current cell is empty
// and does not have 3 neighbours
// set the new status to empty.
newStatus = neighbours === 3;
}
5. Return the required return newStatus;
result. }
18.7.6 Adjacent cells

• Computer programs often perform image manipulations such as blurring, sharpening and resizing. These
operations involve treating an image as a large matrix and performing calculations based on adjacent cells.
The locations of these adjacent cells can be considered as indexes [i,j] relative to the current cell. For
example, the adjacent right cell is 0 units down and 1 unit right [0,1].
[–1, –1] [–1, 0] [–1, –1]
[0, –1] cell [0, 1]

j
[1, –1] [1, 0] [1, 1]
WORKED EXAMPLE 50 Defining a function to determine the number of true values

adjacent to a cell of a matrix
Given the following list of adjacent cells (adjacents), create a function to count the number of
adjacent true values at the cell location [i,j] of the input matrix.
var adjacents = [
[0,1],[1,1],[1,0],[1,−1],[0,−1],[−1,−1],[−1,0],[−1,1]
];
THINK WRITE
1. Rewrite the list of adjacents. var adjacents = [
[0,1],[1,1],[1,0],[1,−1],
[0,−1],[−1,−1],[−1,0],[−1,1]
];
2. Write the function inputs. function count(i,j,matrix) {

3. Initialise the total to 0. var total = 0;
4. Store the number of adjacents. var tests = adjacents.length;
5. Start the for loop. for (var k=0; ktests; k=k+1) {
6. Offset the i index up or down. var ai = i + adjacents[k][0];
7. Offset the j index left or right. var aj = j + adjacents[k][1];
8. Check the adjacent row exists. if (matrix[ai]) {
9. Check the adjacent cell. if (matrix[ai][aj]) {
10. Increment the total if true. total = total+1;
11. Close the if statements. }
}
12. Close the for loop. }
13. Return the generated count as the return total;
number of neighbours. }
18.7.7 Matrix transforms

• Some simulations require large amounts of information to be stored
as a matrix. As part of the simulation, these matrices are transformed
to produce new matrices. The following function transforms a
matrix into a new transformed matrix.
var transformed = transforms(matrix);
• For example, weather prediction involves extremely complex
simulations. The following is a major oversimplification of predicting
the weather. Fundamentally, weather simulations divide the surface
of the Earth into a grid and convert relevant information into a
matrix. A sequence of transformations is applied to the matrix to
simulate weather propagation. For weather prediction to be useful, the
simulated propagation has to be faster than real weather propagation.
The following is an example of a transform function in a weather
simulation.
var weatherAtTime1 = timeTransform(weatherAtTime0);
• The following function structure can be used to iterate through all the elements in a matrix and generate a
new transformed matrix of the same size.
Generating a transformed matrix
function transforms(matrix) {
var newMatrix = [];
var m = matrix.length;
for (var i = 0; i < m; i = i+1) {
var newColumn = [];
var n = matrix[i].length;
for (var j = 0; j < n; j = j+1) {
var item = matrix[i][j];
// Processing to create a newItem
newColumn.push(newItem);
}

newMatrix.push(newColumn);
}
return newMatrix;
}
WORKED EXAMPLE 51 Defining a function to determine whether each cell in a matrix is

alive or dead in the Game of Life
Given the following adjacent cells and function definitions, create a function called transforms to
accept a matrix. The matrix represents the current state of the cells in an instance of John
Conway’s Game of Life. Each element in the matrix is a Boolean cell. The cell is true if alive and
false if empty.
function isAlive(alive, neighbours) {
var newStatus = false;
if (alive) {
newStatus = neighbours === 2||neighbours === 3;
} else {
}
return newStatus;
}
var adjacents = [
[0,1],[1,1],[1,0],[1,−1],
[0,−1],[−1,−1],[−1,0],[−1,1]
];
function count(i, j, matrix) {
var total = 0;
var tests = adjacents.length;
for (var k=0; ktests; k = k+1) {
var ai = i + adjacents[k][0];
var aj = j + adjacents[k][1];
if (matrix[ai]) {
if (matrix[ai][aj]) {
total = total+1;
}
}
}
return total;
}
THINK WRITE
1. Write the function and input. function transforms(matrix) {
2. Create an new empty matrix. var newMatrix = [];
3. Store the length of the matrix. var m = matrix.length;
4. Start the outer for loop. for (var i=0; im; i=i+1) {
5. Create a new empty row. var newRow = [];
6. Store the length of the row. var n = matrix[i].length;

7. Start the inner for loop. for (var j=0; jn; j=j+1) {
8. Store the current matrix item. var item = matrix[i][j];
9. Count the number of neighbours around var neighbours =
the cell. count(i,j,matrix);
10. Determine if the cell is still alive in the var newItem =
new iteration. isAlive(item,neighbours);
11. Store the item in the new row. newRow.push(newItem);
12. Close the inner for loop. }
13. Store the new row in the new matrix. newMatrix.push(newRow);
14. Close the outer for loop. }
15. Return the new transformed matrix. return newMatrix;
}
18.7.8 Simulation animations

• Animating the results of a simulation can help visualise the process. The following program structure can
be expanded and used to animate a simulation. The animation loop updates and redraws the simulation
state a number of times a second, depending on the computer’s speed. The details of the code are explained
in the comments.
Animating simulations

// Create the first simulation state
var matrix = initialiseMatrix();
function draw() {
// Clear the canvas
context.clearRect(0,0,width,height);
// Draw the current state
// add your own code here
// Update the state
matrix = transforms(matrix);
// Wait for the next animation time
window.requestAnimationFrame(draw);
}
// Start the animation
WORKED EXAMPLE 52 Creating an animation of a simulation of the Game of Life
Below are some functions created in previous worked examples. These will be used for the final
simulation. Use them to create a loop to simulate John Conway’s Game of Life. Create a 500 by 500
matrix of cells. Initially each cell has a 0.5 probability of being alive. Display the cells’ progression as
an animation.
function randomBooleans(rows, columns, probability) {
var matrix = [];

for (var i = 0; i >rows; i = i+1) {
var newRow = [];
for (var j = 0; j < columns; j = j+1) {
var random = Math.random();
var isTrue = random < = probability;
newRow.push(isTrue);
}
matrix.push(newRow);
}
return matrix;
}
if (alive) {
newStatus = neighbours === 2||neighbours === 3;
}else {
}
return newStatus;
}
var adjacents = [
[0,1],[1,1],[1,0],[1,−1],
[0,−1],[−1,−1],[−1,0],[−1,1]
];
var total = 0;
for (var k=0; k < tests; k = k+1) {
if (matrix[ai]) {
total = total+1;
}
}
}
return total;
}
var newMatrix = [];
for (var i = 0; i < m; i = i+1) {
var newRow = [];
for (var j = 0; j < n; j = j+1) {
var neighbours = count(i, j, matrix);
var newItem = isAlive(item, neighbours);
newRow.push(newItem);
}

newMatrix.push(newRow);
}
return newMatrix;
}
THINK WRITE
1. Store the number of cell rows and var rows = 500;
columns. var columns = 500;
2. Generate a rows−by−columns var matrix = randomBooleans(
matrix of random Booleans. Each cell rows,
has a 0.5 probability of being alive. columns,
0.5);
3. Define a draw function. function draw() {
4. Clear the canvas each loop. context.clearRect(0,0,600,500);
5. This part of the code is used to draw for (var i=0; i < rows; i=i+1) {
all the cells each time through the for (var j=0; j < columns; j=j+1) {
animation loop. The nested for loop if (matrix[i][j]) {
iterates through the rows and columns. context.fillRect(j,i,1,1);
If the cell is alive, a 1 by 1 black }
rectangle is drawn at the cell location. }
}
6. The matrix is updated according to John matrix = transforms(matrix);
Conway’s Game of Life rules. This is
done by the predefined transforms
function.
7. The animation loop is now complete. window.requestAnimationFrame(draw);
Request the next animation frame. }
8. This call starts the animation loop. window.requestAnimationFrame(draw);

Exercise 18.7 Simulations
Individual pathways
1, 3, 7, 13 2, 4, 8, 10, 12, 15 5, 6, 9, 11, 14, 16
Fluency
1. WE44 Write an expression to return a random number between 0 and:
a. 1 b. 0.11 c. –0.22 d. 3 e. 2
2. Write an expression to return a random number between 0 and:

a. –3 b. 5 c. 2.4 d. 1000
3. Write an expression to return a random number between 20 and 30.
4. WE45State how many times the following loop code is executed.

var matrix = [[2,3],[5,7],[6,4],[1,8]];
for (var i=0; i < m; i = i+1) {
var row = matrix[i];
console.log(row[0]+row[1]);
}
5. State how many times the inner loop code is executed.
var matrix = [[2,3,3],[5,7,2],[6,4,1],[1,8,0]];
for (var i=0; i < m; i = i+1) {
var n = row.length;
for (var j=0; j < n; j = j+1) {
console.log(row[j]);
}
}
6. Consider the following program.
var sum = 0;
var speed = 12;
var times = [2,2,3,2,4,5];
var m = times.length;
for (var i=0; i = m; i = i+1) {
var time = times[i];
var distance = time*speed;
sum = sum + distance;
}
console.log(sum);
a. State how many times the loop code is executed.
b. Determine the output to the console.

Understanding
7. WE46 Given the following matrix assignment, write a nested loop to total all the values in the matrix. Store
the average in the variable mean.
var matrix = [
[1,2,3,4,5,6,7],
[8,9,10,11,12,13,14],
[15,16,17,18,19,20,21]
];
8. WE47 Create a function called randomBooleans to return an array of size required random
Boolean where true and false have an equal random chance.
9. Create a function called randomGenders to return an array of size people. Make the elements of the
array random strings, either ”Male” or ”Female”, where ”Male” has a 51% random chance.
10. WE48Create a function called randomScaled to return a matrix of random numbers between 0 and
scale with a given number of rows and columns.
11. a. Create a function called randomColours to return a height−by−width matrix of colours
where each colour string has a random probability according to the table below.
Colour Probability
”rgb(255,0,0) ” 0.05
”rgb(0,255,0) ” 0.10
”rgb(0,0,255) ” 0.15
”rgb(0,0,0) ” 0.70
b. Assume there exists an HTML page which provides a context to the canvas. Write a JavaScript
function to draw an image matrix where each element is a pixel with a colour string. (Hint: Use
the function context.fillRect(x,y,1,1) to draw a filled 1-by-1 square with a corner
at x,y.)
c. Call the two functions with the following code and describe the image generated on the canvas.
var image = randomColours(500,600);
draw(image);
Reasoning
12. WE49 Design and implement a function to return true if a cell lives according to Nathan Thompson’s
rules for Highlife. Highlife has very similar rules to John Conway’s Game of Life except for the rule for
reproduction.
In Highlife, if a cell is alive and:
• has only one or no neighbours, it will die of loneliness
• has two or three neighbours, it will continue to live
• had four or more neighbours, it will die from overcrowding.
In Highlife, if a cell is empty and has three or six neighbours, the neighbours will reproduce and the cell
will become alive.
Return false if the cell stays empty or dies. The function isAlive has the Boolean input alive
and number of neighbours.
a. Break the problem into simple steps.
b. Implement the algorithm as a function in JavaScript.

13. WE50 Given the list of closeCells, create a function to average the value of all the close cells relative
to the cell location [i,j] of the input image matrix.
var closeCells = [[0,0],[0,1],[1,0],[0,−1],[−1,0]];
[–1, 0]
[0, –1] [0, 0] [0, 1] j
[1, 0]
14. WE51 Given the following program definitions, create a function called transforms to accept a
matrix. The matrix represents a greyscale image. Each element in the matrix represents a pixel’s
shade. The function transforms and generates a new matrix that is a blurred version of the original.
The new matrix is generated by taking the average of a 3 by 3 grid centred around the pixel location.
[–1, –1] [–1, 0] [–1, 1]
Pixel
[0, –1] [0, 1] j
[0, 0]
[1, –1] [1, 0] [1, 1]
var grid = [
[0,0],[0,1],[1,1],[1,0],[1,−1],[0,−1],[−1,−1],[−1,0],[−1,1]
];
function smooth(i, j, matrix) {
var count = 0;
var total = 0;
var tests = grid.length;
var ai = i + grid[k][0];
var aj = j + grid[k][1];
if (matrix[ai]) {
if (typeof matrix[ai][aj] === ”number”) {

count = count+1;
total = total + matrix[ai][aj];
}
}
}
if (count === 0) {
return 0;
}
var mean = total / count;
return mean;
}
Problem solving
15. WE52 Create a simulation loop to simulate Nathan Thompson’s Highlife, using the rules given in question
12. Create a 100 by 100 matrix of cells. Initially each cell has a 0.4 probability of being alive. Display
the cells’ progression as an animation. Each cell should be displayed as a 5 by 5 rectangle.
16. Create a simulation of John Conway’s Game of Life. Use a 100 by 100 matrix of cells. Initially each cell
has a 0.5 probability of being alive. The program should also draw a scatterplot showing the proportion
of alive cells against the simulation iteration number. Run the simulation for 600 iterations and restart each
time. The program should automatically restart the simulation 20 times and draw the 20 graphs on top of
each other, with a result similar to the image shown.

18.8 Review
(Green: I understand; Yellow: I can do it with help; Red: I do not understand.)
18.2 I can identify values, strings and Booleans.

I can identify valid JavaScript variable names.
I can write numerical expressions in JavaScript.
I can assign variables in JavaScript.
I can evaluate the output of a JavaScript variable.
I can evaluate if statements.
I can evaluate if else statements.
18.3 I can identify values that can be stored in JavaScript.
I can identify the index of a character in a string.
I can evaluate Boolean comparisons.
I can identify arrays in JavaScript.
I can identify the index of a value in an array.
I can determine the length of an array.
I can assign objects in JavaScript.
I can access properties of JavaScript objects.
I can identify variables that are pointers.
I can define linked lists in JavaScript.
18.4 I can evaluate the output to the console of a JavaScript statement,
function or algorithm.
I can add comments to JavaScript statements, functions or algorithms.
I can define functions in JavaScript.
I can design and implement algorithms in JavaScript.
I can create lists and add or remove data to/from lists in JavaScript.
I can access data from a list in JavaScript.
18.5 I can identify two-dimensional arrays in JavaScript.
I can identify the indexes of values in two-dimensional arrays.
I can identify arrays which can represent matrices.
I can determine the size of a matrix represented by a two-dimensional
array.
18.6 I can draw lines on HTML pages.
I can draw polygons and circles on HTML pages.
I can define colours using rgb strings.
I can draw coloured lines, polygons and circles on HTML pages.

18.7 I can generate random numbers within a set range in JavaScript.
I can define loops and nested loops to perform functions in JavaScript.
I can define functions to determine the status of cells in a matrix.
I can define functions to transform matrices.
Resources
Resourceseses
Digital document How to write your own program (doc-18769)
Fluency
1. Answer the questions below for each of the following values.
i. State whether the value is a number, string or Boolean.
ii. Apply the expression typeof value to the value. State the result of the expression typeof
value.
a. false
b. ”−99823.232”
c. −99823.232
d. true
e. 0
f. ”Some information as a string”
2. Each of the following is a valid variable name. State whether this is true or false.
a. camelCase b. snake − case c. −negative
d. result&&other e. toˆpower
3. Each of the following is a valid variable name. State whether this is true or false.
a. some space b. item_12_21 c. function
d. dimension_2 e. _2_
For questions 4 and 5, manually simulate running the following programs. For each program:
i. State the final type of the variable change.
ii. State the final result stored in the variable change.
iii. Determine the result of the expression typeof change.
4. a. var change = 3;
if (change < 5) {
change = change*change;
}
b. var change = 3;
var tooLarge = change >= 3;
if (tooLarge) {
change = change − 3;
} else {
change = change * change * change;
}

c. var change = true||false;
change = true && change;
change = false && change;
d. var change = ”Start with this.”;
change = ”End with this.”;
5. a. var change = false;

var less = 1213;
change = less;
change = ”A string”;
less = 22;
less = true;
b. var change = 123*2;
change = 12*22;
change = true;
c. var change = true;
if (change) {
change = false;
}
For questions 6 to 8, state whether the following values can be stored. If so, state if they will be stored
6. a. 1.6 × 10
accurately or approximately.
−200
c. 1.7976931 × 10
b. 9007199254740992
e. −1.79 × 10
308
d. −9007199254740995
308
f. −9007199254740992
7. a. −9007199254740991
b. −9007199254740994
c. 2412
d. 14.00
e. −123.1
f. 26
8. a. 61.00
c. 1.2 × 10
−800
b. −866.99
d. 3 × 10
308
f. 1.7976932 × 10
e. 9007199254740991
308
For questions 9 to 12, evaluate the following JavaScript expressions manually.

9. a. !(true&&false)
b. false&&true
c. false||true
d. 537===538
e. 3.41!==3.41
f. [”some”,”string”,”here”,false,true,10,[”Array”]].length

10. a. false!==true
b. ”923”===”923”
c. false&&false
d. 14401.9249 < =1242.1
e. !!!(true||false)
f. ”2”===”42”
11. a. [111,12,2932,32].length
b. [1,2,3,2,4,3,2].length
c. 61363.1 > =163242.17
d. 34122.12315 < 1233224.25
e. [].length
f. 33.33 < 74.275
g. 21.122 > =122.17
12. a. Math.sqrt(100)
b. true&&false
c. truetrue
d. falsefalse
e. !true
f. true===false
g. 32.4221!==32.4212
13. Determine the JavaScript index of each of the following characters in the string ”The review
questions.”.
a. ”.” b. ”q” c. ”v” d. ”w” e. ”t” f. ”T”
14. Given the string assignment below, evaluate the following JavaScript expressions manually.
var heading = ”The review questions.”;
a. heading[2] b. heading[5] c. heading[4+3]
15. Each of the following is an array. State whether this is true or false.
a. −21.13
b. [”Q”,”U”,”E”,”S”,”T”,”I”,”O”,”N”].length
c. [”QUESTION”]
d. true
e. ”DATA”
f. [true,false,”W”,”WEWE”,120,[],[1,2]]
g. [0.13,16]
h. []
16. Determine the JavaScript indexes of the following values in the array shown below.
[”Monday”,”Tuesday”,”Wednesday”,”Thursday”,”Friday”,
”Saturday”,”Sunday”]
a. ”Wednesday” b. ”Monday” c. ”Sunday”
d. ”Saturday” e. ”Tuesday”
17. Given the object assignment below, evaluate the following JavaScript expressions manually.
var day = {
name: ”Monday”,
day: 9,

month: ”May”,
year: 2016
}
a. day.name b. day.month c. day.year
18. In each of the following programs, the aPointer is a pointer. State whether this is true or false.
a. var aPointer = [”Some data”,”in”,”an”,”array”].length;
b. var aPointer = { a:”complex”,data:”structure”};
c. var aPointer = ”True”;
d. var someObject = {}; var aPointer = someObject;
e. var person = {
firstName: ”Beth”,
class: ”Mathematics”
};
19. In each of the following programs, the aPointer is a pointer. State whether this is true or false.
a. var aPointer = [”Some data”,”in”,”an”,”array”];
b. var aPointer = 10;
c. var aPointer = true;
var person = {
firstName: ”Beth”,
class: ”Mathematics”
};
var aPointer = person.firstName;
20. Match the following JavaScript comments with the appropriate program statements in the table below.
// total surface area
// set the depth to 6
// set the height to 5
// calculate the top area
// set the width to 3
// calculate the front area
// calculate the side area
Program Comment
var width = 3;
var height = 5;
var depth = 6;
var tArea =
width*depth;
var fArea =
width*height;
var sArea =
depth*height;
var area = 2*(tArea
+ fArea + sArea)

21. Determine the output to the console of each of the following programs.
a. function distance(x1,y1,x2,y2) {
var diffX = x2 − x1;
var diffY = y2 − y1;
console.log(Math.sqrt(diffX*diffX+diffY*diffY));
}
distance(50,200,200,400);
b. function doTheSame() {
return ”Nothing changes”;
}
console.log(doTheSame());
c. function edgeLength(width,height,depth) {
var totalEdges = 4*(width+height+depth);
console.log(totalEdges);
}
edgeLength(4,7,9);
d. function median(sortedArray) {
var arrayLength = sortedArray.length;
var isOdd = arrayLength%2 === 1;
if (isOdd) {
var index = (arrayLength−1)/2;
return sortedArray[index];
}
var index1 = arrayLength/2;
var index2 = index1−1;
return (sortedArray[index1]+sortedArray[index2])/2;
}
var theMedian = median([1,2,3,4,6,7,9,144]);
console.log(theMedian);
22. Match the following algorithm design steps with their function implementations.
• Return the square root of the sum of squares.
• The function distance requires two points, p1 and p2.
• Calculate the difference in y coordinates.
• Calculate the difference in x coordinates.
• Sum the differences squared.
Function Design
function
distance(p1,p2) {
var dx = p2.x−p1.x;
var dy = p2.y−p1.y;
var sum = dx*dx+dy*dy;
return Math.sqrt(sum);
}

For questions 23 and 24, consider the following arrays.
i. State how many dimensions each array has.
ii. The arrays below can represent matrices. State whether this is true or false.
23. a. [[13],[52],[2]] b. [100]
c. [] d. [[[[4]]]]
24. a. [[271,279,274,273],[2,9,4,3]]
b. [[23,4,7],[2,3],[2,3,3]]
c. [[271,27],[2,93],[1]]
d. [[1]]
For questions 25 and 26, consider the two-dimensional array below.

var matrix = [[19,28,37,46],[55,64,73,82]];
For each of the following values in the matrix:
i. State the first JavaScript index required to access the value.
ii. State the second JavaScript index required to access the value.
iii. Determine the JavaScript expression required to access the value.
25. a. 64 b. 73 c. 46
26. a. 19 b. 28 c. 82
27. Consider the two-dimensional array below.

var results = [[1,4,7,3],[7,6,7,3],[1,2,6,3],[4,6,7,31]];
a. results[2][0]
b. results[3][1]
c. results[3][3]
28. Each of the arrays below represents a matrix. For each array:
i. State how many rows the corresponding matrix has
ii. State how many columns the corresponding matrix has.
a. [[1],[2]]
b. [[31,12,97,3,4,7],[321,122,124,4,3,2],[324,422,42,3,
2,9]]
c. [[1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10],[10,9,8,7,6,5,4,3,2,1]]
d. [[12,3,23,9],[2,32,2,76],[3,2,6,42]]
29. Consider the following matrix and two-dimensional JavaScript array.

⎡ 2 11 ⎤
C=⎢
⎢ 3 13 ⎥
⎥
⎢ 5 17 ⎥
⎣ 7 19 ⎦
var C = [
[2,11],
[3,13],
[5,17],
[7,19]
];

i. State the first index required to access the value in the matrix C.
ii. State the second index required to access the value in the matrix C.
iii. State the first index required to access the value in the JavaScript array C.
iv. State the second index required to access the value in the JavaScript array C.
v. Using the JavaScript indexes, write an expression to access the value in the JavaScript array C.
a. 17 b. 13 c. 2
30. A canvas has height 512 and width 1024. On the canvas, determine the coordinate in the form
[x,y] of:
a. the centre
b. the middle of the left edge
c. the middle of the top edge
d. the right bottom corner.
31. Match the colours below with the colour strings in the following table.
Light red, dark purple, dark green, dark yellow, light yellow, dark grey, light grey, blue

”rgb(128,0,128)”
”rgb(0,0,255)”
”rgb(0,128,0)”
”rgb(255,255,128”
”rgb(200,200,200)”
”rgb(128,128,0)”
”rgb(255,128,128)”
”rgb(50,50,50)”
For questions 32 and 33, define a string of the form ”rgb(red,green,blue)” for each
of the following colours. for the following colours. Use the value 128 to represent a medium
intensity of red, green or blue. For example, dark green is ”rgb(0,128,0)” and light green is
”rgb(128,255,128)”.
32. a. Red b. Blue c. Dark blue
d. Green e. Cyan
33. a. Dark cyan b. Dark red c. Black

d. White e. Light blue f. Yellow
34. Write an expression to return a random number between 0 and:

a. 1 b. −10 c. 255
√
d. 3.14 e. 2*Math.PI f. 2
g. 360
35. Determine how many times the following loop code is executed.
var array = [3,4,234,3,32];
for (var i=0; i >array.length; i = i+1) {
var value = array[i];
console.log(value);
}

var matrix = [[2,3,3,2,2],[5,7,2,4,5],[6,4,1,5,6]];
for (var i=0; I < m; i = i+1) {
var n = row.length;
for (var j=0; j < n; j = j+1) {
console.log(row[j]);
}
}
a. Determine how many times the outer loop code is executed.
b. Determine how many times the inner loop code is executed.

var mass = 0;
var densities = [1000,500,100,10];
var volumes = [2,2,3,42];
var matrix = [densities,volumes];
var m = volumes.length;
for (var i=0; I < m; i = i+1) {
var volume = matrix[0][i];
var density = matrix[1][i];
var weight = volume*density;
mass = mass + weight;
}
console.log(mass);
a. Determine how many times the loop code is executed.
b. Determine the output to the console.
Problem solving
38. Represent each of the following matrices as a JavaScript two dimensional array.
⎡ 2 9 ⎤
⎢ 1 3 ⎥ ⎡ 13 22 31 ⎤ [ ]
⎢ ⎥ 72 24 56
a. ⎢ 19 122 ⎥ b. ⎢ 8 2 8 ⎥ c.
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ 14 31 61
23 83 ⎣ 51 26 29 ⎦
⎢ 9 5 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
statement to change the colour of a line to blue. Use the string structure
”rgb(red,green,blue)”.
statement to change the colour of a fill to cyan. Use the string structure
”rgb(red,green,blue)”.
41. Write an expression to return a random number between 180 and 270.
42. a. Design and implement an algorithm sumMultiples(value1,value2,limit) to

sum all of the positive integers that are multiples of value1 or value2 below limit.
b. Determine the output of the function from part a given value1=7, value2=11 and
limit=1000.

43. For each of the following problems:
i. write a program to solve the problem and output the solution to the console
ii. state the solution to the problem.
a. Determine how many different ways are there to make 1 dollar using only 5-cent, 10-cent, 20-cent
and 50-cent coins.
2× + 2× + + =
b. A prime number is an integer greater than 1 with only two whole number factors, itself and 1.
Evaluate the thousandth prime.

Solutions
question in this topic (sol-0752)
Digital document
18.8 How to write your own program (doc-18769)
Interactivities
18.2 CodeBlocks Activity 1 (int-6573)
Teacher resources
online.

Answers
Topic 18 Algorithmic thinking
1. D
2. B
3. C
4. 4
5. C
6. A
7. 93
8. 6.6
9. 38
10. A
11. 5.5
12. D
13. C
14. Yellow
15. C
Exercise 18.2 Programs

1. a. i. String ii. ”string”
b. i. String ii. ”string”
c. i. Boolean ii. ”boolean”
d. i. String ii. ”string”
2. a. i. Number ii. ”number”
b. i. Boolean ii. ”boolean”
c. i. String ii. ”string”
d. i. Number ii. ”number”
3. a. False b. False c. True d. False
4. a. True b. False c. True d. True
5. a. False b. True c. False d. False
6. a. True b. False c. False
7. a. i. Boolean ii. false iii. ”boolean”
b. i. Number ii. 2 iii. ”number”
8. a. i.String
ii. ”Now this, but the same type”
iii. ”string”
b. i. String
ii. ”Another type and value”
iii. ”string”
9. a. true b. 27
10. a. 9 b. 15
11. a. 2048/(2*2*2*2*2*2*2*2) b. (2.2+0.7+0.1)/(3.2−0.1*2)
c. (11+2)+(15−4)/11+16 d. 22%16
12. a. 22*12/2
b. Math.sqrt(625/(5*5))
c. 18*9*27*2*0.5
13. a. var planet = “Earth”;
b. var threeSquared = 2*4+1;

var timeInSeconds = 10.2;
c.
d. var division = (2+3+3)/2;
e. var distanceOverThereInKilometers = 2;
14. a. i. Number ii. 506 iii. ”number”
15. 484
16. 3960
17. var width = 10;
18. var height = 12;
var perimeter = 2*(width+height);
var area = width*height;
var width = 8;
var height = 5;
var depth = 3;
var topArea = width*depth;
var sideArea = height*depth;
var frontArea = width*height;
var surface = 2*(topArea+sideArea+frontArea);
var volume = width*height*depth;
19. var f = 7;
var g = 12;
var h = 2;
var i = −3;
var a = f*h;
var b = f*i + g*h;
var c = g*i;
20. var a = 12;
var b = 39;
var c = 30;
var f = 3;
var g = 6;
var h = a/f;
var i = c/g;
Exercise 18.3 Data structures

1. a. No b. Yes, accurately c. Yes, accurately d. Yes, approximately
2. a. Yes, approximately b. Yes, approximately c. Yes, accurately d. Yes, accurately
3. a. Yes, accurately b. Yes, approximately c. Yes, accurately d. No
4. a. Yes, approximately b. No c. Yes, approximately d. Yes, approximately
5. a. False b. False c. True d. True
6. a. True b. True c. False
7. a. True b. False c. False
8. a. True b. True c. True
9. a. True b. True c. False
10. a. False b. True c. True
11. a. false b. false
12. a. true b. false
13. a. true b. false c. true d. true
14. a. 4 b. 5 c. 0 d. 6 e. 4
15. a. 18 b. 7 c. 38
d. 23 e. 16 f. 43
16. a. ”r” b. ”e” c. ”t”

17. a. False b. True c. True d. True
18. a. 11 b. 6 c. 2 d. 0 e. 6 f. 10
19. a. 765 b. ”iPad” c. true
20. a–d.False
21. a–c.True
22. a. ”Simons” b. ”Clare” c. 19
23. var terminator = {};
var object3 = { data:3, next:terminator};
var object2 = { data:4, next:object3};
var object1 = { data:5, next:object2};
var list = object1;
24. The terminator is a blank object that references nothing, so it can be built first. The last object only points to the terminator so it
can be built next.
If the first object is built first, the data can be added but the next has nothing to point to yet.
25. list = list.next;
26. list.next.next = list.next.next.next;
Exercise 18.4 Algorithms

1. a. A string b. C c. 4
2. a. true b. 246 c. false
3.
Program Comment
var width = 3; // set the width to 3
var height = 2.3; // set the height to 2.3
var depth = 1.4; // set the depth to 1.4
var area = width*height; // calculate the top area
var volume = area*depth; // calculate the volume
4. a. 185 b. Nothing to see here c. 254

5. No
6.
Function Design
function average(a,b,c) { The function average requires three values: a,b,c.
var total = a+b+c; Calculate the total of a, b and c.
var number = 3; Store the number of values.
var output = total/number; Calculate the average.
return output; Return the average.
}
7. a. var nearly_2 = 1+1/2+1/4+1/8+1/16+1/32;

// nearly_2=1.96875
b. var distanceKm = 2600/1000; //
distanceKm=2.6
c. var seconds = 60*60*24*356.25; //
seconds= 30780000
8. var percentage=22+3; // percentage=25
var total=6+14; // total=20
var amount=(percentage/100)*total; // amount=5
9. a. a,b,c
ii. 1. Use Pythagoras’ theorem: a + b = c

i. Any reasonably descriptive name, e.g. isRightAngled
2. Calculate the left-hand side: a + b

2 2 2
2 2
2
3. Calculate the right-hand side: c
4. Return true if the left-hand side equals the right-hand side.

b. i. number
ii. Any reasonably descriptive name, e.g. is Natural
iii. 1. Return false if number is not positive.
2. Find the decimal part of number.
3. Return true if the decimal part is zero.
4. Return false if the decimal part does not equal zero.
c. i. a,b,c
ii. Any reasonably descriptive name, e.g. isTriad
iii. 1. If a is not a positive integer, return false.
2. If b is not a positive integer, return false.
3. If c is not a positive integer, return false.
4. Return true if a, b and c form a right-angled triangle.
d. i. x,y,z
ii. Any reasonably descriptive name, e.g. isPythagoreanTriad
iii. 1. If x,y,z is a Pythagorean triad, return true.
2. If x,z,y is a Pythagorean triad, return true.
3. If y,z,x is a Pythagorean triad, return true.
4. Otherwise, return false.
10. a. function isRightAngled(a,b,c) {
// Use the Pythagoras’ theorem
// a*a+b*b=c*c
// Calculate left side a*a+b*b
var left = a*a+b*b;
// Calculate right side c*c
var right = c*c;
// Return true if left side equals
// right side
return left === right;
}
b. function isNatural(number) {
// Return false if number is not positive.
if (number < = 0) { return false; }
// Find the decimal part.
var decimalPart = number%1;
// Return true if the decimal part is zero
// Return false if the decimal part
// does not equal zero
return decimalPart===0;
}
c. function isTriad(a,b,c) {
// If a is not a positive integer
// return false.
if (isNatural(a)===false) {
return false;
}
// If b is not a positive integer
// return false.
if (isNatural(b)===false) {
return false;
}
// If c is not a positive integer
// return false.
if (isNatural(c)===false) {
return false;
}
// Return true if a, b and c form a
// right angled triangle.
return isRightAngled(a,b,c);
}

d. function isPythagoreanTriad(x,y,z) {
// If x,y,z is a Pythagorean triad
// return true.
if (isTriad(x,y,z)) { return true; }
// If x,z,y is a Pythagorean triad
// return true.
if (isTriad(x,z,y)) { return true; }
// If y,z,x is a Pythagorean triad
// return true.
if (isTriad(y,z,x)) { return true; }
// Otherwise return false.
return false;
}
11. There are many ways to implement the required algorithm. One method is shown below.
a. list, data
b. addToEnd
c. 1. If list is empty, return a new object with the data as the new list.
2. Create a reduced list pointer to point to the next item in the list.
3. Create an appended list by calling addToEnd with the reduced list and data.
4. Update the first object in the list to point to the appended list.
5. Return the updated list as the new list.
d. var terminator = {};
function addToEnd(list, data) {
// If list is empty return a new object
// with the data as the new list.
if (list === terminator) {
return {
data:data,
next:terminator
}
}
// Create a reduced list pointer to point
// to the next item in the list.
var reducedList = list.next;
// Create an appended list by calling
// addToEnd
// with the reduced list and data.
var appendedList = addToEnd(list.next, data);
// Update the first object in the list
// to point to the appended list. list.next = appendedList;
// Return the updated list as the new
// list.
return list;
}
e. var object3 = {
data:3,
next:terminator
}
var object2 = {
data:2,
next:object3
}
var object1 = {
data:1,
next:object2
}
var list3 = object1;
var list4 = addToEnd(list3, 4);

a. list
b. removeFromEnd
c. 1. If the list has no objects, return the terminator.
2. If the list has only one object, return the terminator.
3. Create a sub-list pointer to point to the next item in the list.
4. Create a reduced list by calling removeFromEnd with the sub-list.
5. Update the first object in the list to point to the reduced list.
6. Return the updated list as the new list.
d. var terminator = {};
function removeFromEnd(list) {
// If list has no objects
// return the terminator.
if (list === terminator) {
return terminator;
}
// If list has only one object
// return the terminator.
if (list.next === terminator) {
return terminator;
}
// Create a sub list pointer to
// point to the next item in the list.
var subList = list.next;
// Create a reduced list by calling
// removeFromEnd with the sub list.
var reducedList = removeFromEnd(subList)
// Update the first object in the
// list to point to the reduced list.
list.next = reducedList;
// Return the updated list as the new
// list.
return list;
e. var object3 = {
data:3
next:terminator
}
var object2 = {
data:2
next:object3
}
var object1 = {
data:1
next:object2
}
var list2 = removeFromEnd(list3);
a. list, index, data
b. setData
c. 1. If the index is 0 or less, then set the data of the first object and terminate the function.
2. Create a reduced list pointer to the second object.
3. Create a new index one less than the input index.
4. Call setData using the reduced list, reduced index and data.
d. function setData(list, index, data) {
// If index 0 or less then set
// data of the first object and
// terminate the function.

if (index < = 0) {
list.data = data;
return;
}
// Create a reduced list pointer
var reduced = list.next;
// Create a new index one less
var newIndex = index−1;
// Call setData using the
// reduced list, reduced index
// and data.
setData(reduced, newIndex, data);
}
e. var terminator = {};
var object3 = {
data:”here.”,
next:terminator
}
var object2 = {
data:”me”,
next:object3
}
var object1 = {
data:”Replace”,
next:object2
}
var list = object1;
setData(list,2,”there.”);
a. list, index
b. removeAtIndex
c. 1. If the index is 0 or less, then return the next object in the list.
Create a reduced list pointer to the second object.
2.
3. Create a new index one less than the input index.
4. Call removeAtIndex using the reduced list and index, then store the list.
5. Update the first object in the list to point to the list created above.
6. Return removeAtIndex using the reduced list and index.
d. function removeAtIndex(list, index) {
// If index 0 or less then return the
// next object in the list.
if (index < = 0) {
return list.next;
}
// Create a reduced list pointer
var reduced = list.next;
// Create a new index one less
var newIndex = index−1;
// Call removeAtIndex using the
// reduced list and index then
// store the list.
var removedList = removeAtIndex(reduced, newIndex);
// Update the first object in the
// list to point to the list created above.
list.next = removedList;
// Return the updated list as the new list.

return list;
}
e. var terminator = {};
var object3 = {
data:3,
next:terminator
}
var object2 = {
data:2,
next:object3
}
var object1 = {
data:1,
next:object2
}
var list2 = removeAtIndex(list3, 1);
15. function maximumArea(perimeter) {
// A circle contains the maximum possible
// area with a perimeter.
// Store an approximation to PI
var PI = 3.141592653589793;
// Calculate the radius of a circle with
// a given perimeter
var radius = perimeter / (2*PI);
// Calculate the area of a circle with a
// given radius
var area = PI * radius * radius;
// Return the area of a circle with
// a given perimeter.
return area;
}
Exercise 18.5 Matrices

1. a. 2 b. 1 c. 1 d. 3 e. 2
2. a. 3 b. 3 c. 2 d. 2
3. a. i. 3 ii. 0
b. i. 0 ii. 0
c. i. 2 ii. 0
d. i. 2 ii. 1
4. a. 1 b. 72 c. 4
5. a. False b. False c. True d. False
6. a. i. 6 ii. 1
b. i. 1 ii. 6
c. i. 5 ii. 3
d. i. 2 ii. 5
7. a. [ b. [ c. [
[1,2,3], [2,4,5,2,62], [21,11],
[5,6,2] [1,3,1,2,31] [19,12],
] ] [71,82],
[12,81]
]
8. a. i. 1 ii. 1 iii. 0 iv. 0 v. B[0][0]
b. i. 2 ii. 3 iii. 1 iv. 2 v. B[1][2]
c. i. 1 ii. 2 iii. 0 iv. 1 v. B[0][1]

9. var indexProduct = [
[0,0,0,0],
[0,1,2,3],
[0,2,4,6],
[0,3,6,9]
];
10. Any order of the vertices is correct.
var square = [
[0,0],
[100,0],
[100,100],
[0,100]
];
11. Any order of the vertices is correct.
var octagon = [
[148,80],
[148,120],
[120,148],
[80,148],
[52,120],
[52,80],
[80,52],
[120,52]
];
Exercise 18.6 Graphics

1. a. [150,200] b. [300,200] c. [150,400] d. [300,0]
2. a. ”rgb(0,0,255)”
b. “rgb(0,0,0)”
c. “rgb(0,255,255)”
3.
“rgb(128,255,128)” Light green
“rgb(0,0,0)” Black
“rgb(255,255,0)” Yellow
“rgb(255,128,128)” Pink
“rgb(255,0,0)” Red
“rgb(0,255,0)” Green
“rgb(128,128,255)” Light blue
“rgb(0,0,255)” Blue
4. context.fillStyle = “rgb(255,255,0)”;
5. a. context.moveTo(500,10); b. context.lineWidth = 10;
context.lineTo(10,500); context.moveTo(66,14);
context.stroke(); context.lineTo(20,410);
context.stroke();
c. context.lineWidth = 3; d. context.lineWidth = 9;
context.moveTo(86,3); context.moveTo(20,13);
context.lineTo(50,150); context.lineTo(5,40);
context.stroke(); context.stroke();
e. context.moveTo(50,50);
context.lineTo(550,50);
context.stroke();

6. Many answers are possible. One method is shown below.
var x1 = 40;
var y1 = 20;
var x2 = 200;
var y2 = 20;
var x3 = 200;
var y3 = 250;
var x4 = 40;
var y4 = 250;
context.fill();
7. a. var x = 22; b. var x = 100;
var y = 43; var y = 100;
var radius = 20; var diameter = 160;
var end = 2*Math.PI; var radius = diameter/2;
context.beginPath(); var end = 2*Math.PI;
context.arc(x,y,radius,0,end); context.beginPath();
context.closePath(); context.arc(x,y,radius,0,end);
context.fill(); context.closePath();
context.fill();
8. var x = 200;
var y = 280;
var diameter = 200;
var radius = diameter/2;
var fillColour = “rgb(255,0,0)”;
var lineColour = “rgb(0,128,0)”;
context.fillStyle = fillColour;
context.lineWidth = 8;
context.strokeStyle = lineColour;
context.arc(x,y,radius,0,end);
context.fill();
context.stroke();
9. a. Many answers are possible. One method is shown below.
var x1 = 150;
var y1 = 200;
var x2 = 200;
var y2 = 100;
// Find middle of the square
var mx = (x1+x2)/2;
var my = (y1+y2)/2;
// Find the difference of x and y from
// the centre.
var dx = x1− mx;
var dy = y1− my;
context.moveTo(mx−dx,my−dy);
context.lineTo(mx+dy,my−dx);
context.lineTo(mx+dx,my+dy);
context.lineTo(mx−dy,my+dx);
context.lineTo(mx−dx,my−dy);
context.stroke();
b. var x1 = 116;
var y1 = 240;

var x2 = 120;
var y2 = 210;
var mx = (x1+x2)/2;
var my = (y1+y2)/2;
// the centre.
var dx = x1− mx;
var dy = y1− my;
context.stroke();
c. var x1 = 400;
var y1 = 130;
var x2 = 110;
var y2 = 250;
var mx = (x1+x2)/2;
var my = (y1+y2)/2;
// the centre.
var dx = x1− mx;
var dy = y1− my;
context.stroke();
10. var x1 = 200;
var y1 = 300;
var x2 = 400;
var y2 = 300;
var diameter = x2−x1;
var radius = diameter/2;
var fillColour = “rgb(0,0,255)”;
context.fillStyle = fillColour;
context.arc(x1,y1,radius,0,end);
context.fill();
context.arc(x2,y2,radius,0,end);
context.fill();
11. // Assume there exists a HTML page which
var x1=200;
var y1=100;
var x2=400;
var y2=100;
var x3=400;
var y3=300;
var x4=200;
var y4=300;

context.stroke();
var x = (x1+x3)/2;
var y = (y1+y3)/2;
var radius = (x3−x1)/2;
context.arc(x, y, radius, 0, end);
context.fill();
12. a. Math.PI/2 b. Math.PI/3 c. Math.PI/6
d. Math.PI/4 e. Math.PI*161.2/180
13. var x = 300;
var y = 250;
var radius = 200;
var startAngle = 240;
var endAngle = 300;
var startRatio = startAngle/360;
var endRatio = endAngle/360;
var start = 2*Math.PI * startRatio;
var end = 2*Math.PI * endRatio;
context.arc(x,y,radius,start,end);
context.stroke();
// Assume there exists a HTML page which
context.fillStyle = “rgb(128,128,255)”;
context.strokeStyle = “rgb(0,0,255)”;
context.fill();
context.stroke();
context.fillStyle = ”rgb(128,128,255)”;
context.strokeStyle = ”rgb(0,0,255)”;
context.fill();
context.stroke();
var x = 300;
var y = 250;

var radius = 200;
var start = 2*Math.PI * 4 / 6;
var end = 2*Math.PI * 5 / 6;
context.fillStyle = “rgb(255,0,0)”;
context.moveTo(x,y);
context.lineTo(x,y);
context.fill();
context.stroke();
function sector(colour, i) {
var x = 300;
var y = 250;
var radius = 200;
var start = 2*Math.PI * i / 6;
var end = 2*Math.PI * (i+1) / 6;
context.fillStyle = colour;
context.moveTo(x,y);
context.lineTo(x,y);
context.fill();
context.stroke();
}
sector(”rgb(0,0,255)”,0);
sector(”rgb(0,255,255)”,1);
sector(”rgb(0,255,0)”,2);
sector(”rgb(255,255,0)”,3);
sector(”rgb(255,0,0)”,4);
sector(”rgb(255,0,255)”,5);
Exercise 18.7 Simulations

1. a. Math.random() b. 0.11*Math.random() c. −0.22*Math.random()
d. 3*Math.random() e. 2*Math.random()
2. a. −3*Math.random() b. 5*Math.random() c. 2.4*Math.random()
d. 1000*Math.random()
3. 20+10*Math.random()
4. 4
5. 12
6. a. 6 b. 216
7. var matrix = [
[1,2,3,4,5,6,7],
[8,9,10,11,12,13,14],
[15,16,17,18,19,20,21]
];
var sum = 0;
var count = 0;
for (var i=0; I < m; i=i+1){
for (var j=0; j < n; j=j+1){
sum = sum + item;
count = count + 1;
}
}
var mean = sum / count;

8. function randomBooleans(required) {
var array = [];
for (var i=0; I < required; i=i+1) {
var random = Math.random() < = 0.5;
array.push(random);
}
return array;
}
9. function randomGenders(people) {
var array = [];
for (var i=0; I < people; i=i+1) {
var isMale = Math.random() < = 0.51;
if (isMale) {
array.push(”Male”);
} else {
array.push(”Female”);
}
}
return array;
}
10. function randomScaled(
rows,
columns,
scale) {
var matrix = [];
for (var i=0; I < rows; i=i+1) {
var newRow = [];
for (var j=0; j < columns; j=j+1){
var random = scale*Math.random();
newRow.push(random);
}
}
return matrix;
}
11. a. function randomColours(
height,
width) {
var matrix = [];
for (var i=0; I < height; i=i+1) {
var newRow = [];
for (var j=0; j < width; j=j+1){
if (random < = 0.05) {
newRow.push(”rgb(255,0,0)”);
} else if (random < = 0.15) {
} else if (random < = 0.30) {
} else {
}
}
}
return matrix;
}
b. // Assume there exists a HTML page which
function draw(image) {

var rows = image.length;
var columns = image[i].length;
for (var j=0; j < columns; j=j+1) {
var colour = image[i][j];
context.fillStyle = colour;
context.fillRect(j,i,1,1);
}
}
}
c. The 600 by 500 canvas image is mainly black with random blue, green and red points.
12. a. 1. Initialise a variable to track the status of the new cell. A status of true indicates alive; a status of false indicates dead or
empty.
a. If the current cell is alive and has 2 or 3 neighbours, set the new status to alive.
b. If the current cell is alive and does not have 2 or 3 neighbours, set the new status to dead.
c. If the current cell is empty and has 3 or 6 neighbours, set the new status to alive.
d. If the current cell is empty and does not have 3 or 6 neighbours, set the new status to empty.
2. Return the status.
b. function isAlive(alive, neighbours) {
// Initialise a variable to track the
// status of the new cell. A status
// of true indicates alive, a status
// of false indicates dead or empty.
if (alive) {
// If the current cell is alive and
// has 2 or 3 neighbours, set the new
// status to alive.
// If the current cell is alive and
// does not have 2 or 3 neighbours,
// set the new status to dead.
newStatus =
neighbours === 2 ||
neighbours === 3;
} else {
// If the current cell is empty and
// has 3 or 6 neighbours, set the new
// status to alive.
// If the current cell is empty and
// does not have 3 or 6 neighbours, set
// the new status to empty.
newStatus =
neighbours === 3 ||
neighbours === 6;
}
// Return the status.
return newStatus;
}
13. var closeCells = [[0,0],[0,1],[1,0],
[0,−1],[−1,0]];
function average(i,j,image) {
var total = 0;
var count = 0;
var tests = closeCells.length;
for (var k=0; k < tests; k=k+1) {
var ai = i + closeCells[k][0];
var aj = j + closeCells[k][1];
if (image[ai]) {
if (typeof image[ai][aj] ===
”number”) {

total = total + image[ai][aj];
count = count + 1;
}
}
}
return total/count;
}
14. function transforms(matrix) {
var newMatrix = [];
var rows = matrix.length;
var newRow = [];
var columns = matrix[i].length;
newRow.push(smooth(i,j,matrix));
}
}
return newMatrix;
}
//provides a context to the canvas
function randomBooleans(rows, columns,
probability) {
var matrix = [];
for (var i = 0; I < rows; i = i+1) {
var newRow = [];
for (var j = 0; j < columns; j = j+1) {
}
}
return matrix;
}
if (alive) {
newStatus =
neighbours === 2 ||
neighbours === 3;
}else {
newStatus =
neighbours === 3 ||
neighbours === 6;
}
return newStatus;
}
var adjacents = [
[0,1],[1,1],[1,0],[1, -1],
[0, -1],[ -1, -1],[ -1,0],[ -1,1]];
var total = 0;
if (matrix[ai]) {
total = total+1;

}
}
}
return total;
}
var newMatrix = [];
for (var i = 0; I < m; i = i+1) {
var newRow = [];
for (var j = 0; j < n; j = j+1) {
var neighbours =
count(i, j, matrix);
var newItem =
isAlive(item, neighbours);
}
}
return newMatrix;
}
var rows = 100;
var columns = 100;
var matrix = randomBooleans(
rows,
columns,
0.4);
function draw() {
context.clearRect(0,0,600,500);
if (matrix[i][j]) {
context.fillRect(j*5,i*5,5,5);
}
}
}
}
function randomBooleans(rows, columns,
probability) {
var matrix = [];
for (var i = 0; i < rows; i = i+1) {
var newRow = [];
for (var j = 0; j < columns; j = j+1){
}
}
return matrix;
}
if (alive) {

newStatus =
neighbours === 2 ||
neighbours === 3;
} else {
}
return newStatus;
}
var adjacents = [
[0,1],[1,1],[1,0],[1,-1],
[0,-1],[-1,-1],[-1,0],[-1,1]];
var total = 0;
if (matrix[ai]) {
total = total+1;
}
}
}
return total;
}
var newMatrix = [];
for (var i = 0; i < m; i = i+1) {
var newRow = [];
for (var j = 0; j < n; j = j+1) {
var neighbours =
count(i, j, matrix);
var newItem =
isAlive(item, neighbours);
}
}
return newMatrix;
}
var rows = 100;
var columns = 100;
for (var loop = 0; loop < 20; loop++) {
var matrix = randomBooleans(rows,
columns, 0.5);
for (var iteration = 0; iteration < = 600;
iteration++);
var alive = 0;
for (var i=0; i < rows; i=i+1) {
if (matrix[i][j]) {
alive = alive + 1;
}
}
}

var ratio = alive / (rows * columns);
context.fillRect(iteration,
500*(1- ratio),1,1);
}
}

1. a. i. Boolean ii. ”boolean”
b. i. String ii. ”string”
c. i. Number ii. ”number”
d. i. Boolean ii. ”boolean”
e. i. Number ii. ”number”
f. i. String ii. ”string”
2. a. True b. False c. False d. False e. False
3. a. False b. True c. False d. True e. True
4. a. i. Number ii. 9 iii. ”number”
c. i. Boolean ii. False iii. ”boolean”
d. i. String” ii. End with this.” iii. ”string”
5. a. i. String ii. ”A string” iii. ”string”
b. i. Boolean ii. True iii. ”boolean”
c. i. Boolean ii. False iii. ”boolean”
6. a. Yes, approximately b. Yes, accurately c. Yes, approximately
d. Yes, approximately e. Yes, approximately f. Yes, accurately
7. a. Yes, accurately b. Yes, approximately c. Yes, accurately
d. Yes, accurately e. Yes, approximately f. Yes, accurately
8. a. Yes, accurately b. Yes, approximately c. Yes, approximately
d. No e. Yes, accurately f. No
9. a. true b. false c. true
d. false e. false f. 7
10. a. true b. true c. false
d. false e. false f. false
11. a. 4 b. 7 c. false
d. true e. 0 f. true
g. false
12. a. 10 b. false c. true
d. false e. false f. false
g. true
13. a. 20 b. 11 c. 6
d. 9 e. 15 f. 0
14. a. ”e” b. ”e” c. ”i”
15. a. False b. False c. True
d. False e. False f. True
g. True h. True
16. a. 2 b. 0 c. 6
d. 5 e. 1
17. a. ”Monday” b. ”May” c. 2016
18. a. False b. True c. False
d. True e. True
19. a. False b. False c. False

20.
Program Comment
var width = 3; // set the width to 3
var height = 5; // set the height to 5
var depth = 6; // set the depth to 6
var tArea = width*depth; // calculate the top area
var fArea = width*height; // calculate the front area
var sArea = depth*height; // calculate the side area
var area = 2*(tArea + fArea + sArea) // total surface area
21. a. 250 b. Nothing changes

c. 80 d. 5
22.
Function Design
function distance(p1,p2) { The function distance requires two points, p1 and p2.
var dx = p2.x−p1.x; Calculate the difference in x coordinates.
var dy = p2.y−p1.y; Calculate the difference in y coordinates.
var sum = dx*dx+dy*dy; Sum the differences squared.
return Math.sqrt(sum);} Return the square root of the sum of squares.
23. a. i. 2 ii. True

b. i. 1 ii. False
c. i. 1 ii. False
d. i. 4 ii. False
24. a. i. 2 ii. True
b. i. 2 ii. False
c. i. 2 ii. False
d. i. 2 ii. True
25. a. i. 1 ii. 1 iii. matrix[1][1]
b. i. 1 ii. 2 iii. matrix[1][2]
c. i. 0 ii. 3 iii. matrix[0][3]
26. a. i. 0 ii. 0 iii. matrix[0][0]
b. i. 0 ii. 1 iii. matrix[0][1]
c. i. 1 ii. 3 iii. matrix[1][3]
27. a. 1 b. 6 c. 31
28. a. i. 2 ii. 1
b. i. 3 ii. 6
c. i. 2 ii. 10
d. i. 3 ii. 4
29. a. i. 3 ii. 2 iii. 2 iv. 1 v. C[2][1]
b. i. 2 ii. 2 iii. 1 iv. 1 v. C[1][1]
c. i. 1 ii. 1 iii. 0 iv. 0 v. C[0][0]
30. a. [256,512] b. 0,512] c. [256,0] d. [512,1024]

31.
”rgb(128,0,128)” Dark purple
”rgb(0,0,255)” Blue
”rgb(0,128,0)” Dark green
”rgb(255,255,128)” Light yellow
”rgb(200,200,200)” Light grey
”rgb(128,128,0)” Dark yellow
”rgb(255,128,128)” Light red
”rgb(50,50,50)” Dark grey
32. a. ”rgb(255,0,0)” b. ”rgb(0,0,255)” c. ”rgb(0,0,128)”

d. ”rgb(0,255,0)” e. ”rgb(0,255,255)”
33. a. ”rgb(0,128,128)” b. ”rgb(128,0,0)” c. ”rgb(0,0,0)”
d. ”rgb(255,255,255)” e. ”rgb(128,128,255)” f. ”rgb(255,255,0)”
34. a. Math.random() b. −10*Math.random()
c. 255*Math.random() d. 3.14*Math.random()
e. 2*Math.PI*Math.random() f. Math.sqrt(2)*Math.random()
g. 360*Math.random()
35. 5
36. a. 3 b. 15
37. a. 5 b. 3720
38. a. [[2,9],[1,3],[19,122],[23,83],[9,5]]
b. [[13,22,31],[8,2,8],[51,26,29]]
c. [[72,24,56],[14,31,61]]
39. context.strokeStyle = ”rgb(0,0,255)”;
40. context.fillStyle = ”rgb(0,255,255)”;
41. 180 + 90*Math.random()
42. a. function sumMultiples(value1,value2,limit) {
var sum = 0;
for (var i = 1; i < limit; i++) {
if ((i%value1===0)||(i%value2===0)) {
sum = sum + i;
}
}
return sum;
}
b. 110110
43. a. i. Many answers are possible. One solution is shown below.
var combinations = 0;
for (var fifties = 0; fifties < = 2; fifties++) {
for (var twenties = 0; twenties < = 5; twenties++) {
for (var tens = 0; tens < = 10; tens++) {
for (var fives = 0; fives < = 20; fives++) {
var amount = fifties*50+twenties*20+tens*10+fives*5;
if (amount === 100) {
combinations++;
}
}
}
}
}
console.log(combinations);
ii. 49

b. i. Many answers are possible. One solution is shown below.
var primes = [];
for (var i = 2; primes.length < 1000; i++) {
var isPrime = true;
for (var j = 0; (j < primes.length) && isPrime; j++) {
if (i%primes[j] === 0) {
isPrime = false;
}
}
if (isPrime) {
primes.push(i);
}
}
console.log(primes[1000 - 1]);
ii. 7919

Project: Climate change
Scenario
Climate change is upon us and has become one of the great challenges facing
humanity. Our fossil fuel–driven economies are producing large volumes of
greenhouse gases (water vapour, carbon dioxide, methane and ozone) that are
warming the planet. As our planet heats up, the ice sheets at the poles slowly
melt, causing sea levels to rise. Islands in the Pacific Ocean are already being
overcome by water, leading the inhabitants of islands, such as Tuvalu Island in
the Pacific Ocean, to announce that they are abandoning their homeland due
to rising sea levels. In Sydney, many well known suburbs could be threatened by rising sea levels in the future,
including Caringbah, Kurnell, Cromer, Manly Vale, Newcastle, the central coast, Homebush Bay, Newington
Silverwater, Arncliffe, Marrickville and Sydney Airport. Climate change could cause the extinction of many
species as ecosystems are damaged by rising temperatures.
In order to address these apocalyptic issues, we need to understand the role of human activity in climate change.
It will be your job to investigate and understand the relationships that underpin global warming. You can then
make recommendations to our political leaders and take action yourself to help save our planet.
Task
You will need to analyse real data sets to develop a mathematical understanding
of climate change issues. The analysis will involve the use of scatterplots,
box-and-whisker plots and five number summaries. Scatterplots will be used
to investigate and comment on relationships between two climate change
variables. Data sets will be compared using box-and-whisker plots, dot plots
and histograms. Environmental data will be graphed, such that the independent
variable is time. At the end of your project, your improved mathematical
understanding of climate change will allow you to make key recommendations
on how we can meet the environmental challenges of the future.
Process
You will use Microsoft Excel, Google Fusion Tables and Google Public Data Explorer to investigate global
environmental data.
• You must have a gmail account and internet access to use the Google data tools.
• You will need Microsoft Excel and GeoGebra installed on your computer. Go to projectsPLUS in your
learnON title, set up a group and then open the Media Centre to locate everything you need.
• Open the Word documents titled Lesson 1, Lesson 2 etc. Follow the instructions in each document to
complete your project.
• At various stages of your project, you will need to access data sets in Microsoft Excel files.
SUGGESTED SOFTWARE
• Microsoft Excel
• GeoGebra
• Internet connection
• Internet browser with Adobe Flash player installed.
• Use the World Bank weblink in your Resources section to locate banks of data in Excel form.
Jacaranda Maths Quest 10+10A

Project: Networks and shortest paths
Introduction to directed and undirected networks
Your social connections with groups of friends could be illustrated as an undirected network. Undirected
networks show two-way connections between vertices and are not concerned with the direction of the edge
between vertices. The network of airports in Australia would also be an undirected network, as planes flying
into an airport from a city could fly back out of that airport, returning to the first city. Directed networks show
all the existing connections between vertices and also the directions in which movement can take place from
one vertex to another. The World Wide Web is a directed network, in which websites are the vertices and the
communications between websites are the edges. Not all websites communicate with each other, and sometimes
websites can send information to another website but the receiving website cannot send information back.
Task
The Bridges of Königsberg problem is a famous problem in mathematics. Your task is to solve this problem.

THE BRIDGES OF KÖNIGSBERG PROBLEM
The European city of Königsberg (now called Kaliningrad) is set on the banks of the River Pregel. Seven
bridges were arranged as shown to connect the two mainland portions of the city to two large islands.
For a long time the townspeople wondered if it was possible to travel around the city in such a way that all
seven bridges would only have to be crossed once each.
Is there a way to cross all 7 bridges without crossing any bridge more than once?
Process
Open the ProjectsPLUS application in the Resources tab for this topic.
To prepare, open the Media Centre and download the PDF that introduces the concepts related to networks. This
will allow you to learn everything you need in order to be able to solve this famous problem.

Jacandra Math Quest

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“c01IndicesSurdsAndLogarithms_PrintPDF” — 2021/9/8 — 12:27 — page 1 — #1

Indices, surds and

Where to get help

2 Jacaranda Maths Quest 10 + 10A

Exercise 1.1 Pre-test

12. Solve the following equation for x: x = log 1 16.

15. MC Choose the correct value for x in 3 + log2 3 = log2 x.

TOPIC 1 Indices, surds and logarithms 3

1.2 Number classification review

1.2.1 The real number system

4 Jacaranda Maths Quest 10 + 10A

Z = {… , −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, …}

• The set of negative integers is denoted Z− .

Z− = {… − 6, −5, −4, −3, −2, −1}

• Integers may be represented on the number line as illustrated below.

Rational numbers (Q)

TOPIC 1 Indices, surds and logarithms 5

Irrational numbers (I)

• To classify a number as either rational or irrational:

WORKED EXAMPLE 1 Classifying numbers as rational or irrational

Classify whether the following numbers are rational or irrational.

6 Jacaranda Maths Quest 10 + 10A

Exercise 1.2 Number classification review

TOPIC 1 Indices, surds and logarithms 7

8 Jacaranda Maths Quest 10 + 10A

21. Prove that if c2 = a2 + b2 , it does not follow that a = b + c.

1.3 Surds (10A)

1.3.1 Identifying surds

TOPIC 1 Indices, surds and logarithms 9

WORKED EXAMPLE 2 Identifying surds

Determine which of the following numbers

1.3.2 Proof that a number is irrational

10 Jacaranda Maths Quest 10 + 10A

6. Square both sides. a2 = 4r2 [2]

7. Equate [1] and [2]. ∴ 2b2 = 4r2

TOPIC 1 Indices, surds and logarithms 11

Exercise 1.3 Surds (10A)

12 Jacaranda Maths Quest 10 + 10A

TOPIC 1 Indices, surds and logarithms 13

1.4 Operations with surds (10A)

1.4.1 Multiplying and simplifying surds

where a and b are positive real numbers.

14 Jacaranda Maths Quest 10 + 10A

WORKED EXAMPLE 4 Simplifying surds

TOPIC 1 Indices, surds and logarithms 15

WORKED EXAMPLE 5 Multiplying surds

16 Jacaranda Maths Quest 10 + 10A

where a is a positive real number.

WORKED EXAMPLE 6 Squaring surds

Simplify each of the following.

1.4.2 Addition and subtraction of surds

TOPIC 1 Indices, surds and logarithms 17

WORKED EXAMPLE 7 Adding and subtracting surds

TI | THINK DISPLAY/WRITE CASIO | THINK DISPLAY/WRITE

18 Jacaranda Maths Quest 10 + 10A

1.4.3 Dividing surds

WORKED EXAMPLE 8 Dividing surds

TOPIC 1 Indices, surds and logarithms 19

1.4.4 Rationalising denominators

Rationalising the denominator

WORKED EXAMPLE 9 Rationalising the denominator

20 Jacaranda Maths Quest 10 + 10A

TOPIC 1 Indices, surds and logarithms 21

1.4.5 Rationalising denominators using conjugate surds