ECE 2416 JKUAT 2021 - Lecture Notes

ECE 2416: THEORY OF
STRUCTURES VI
(Structural Dynamics)
Dr. N. Gathimba, PhD

Department of Civil, Construction and Environmental Engineering,
Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology
Email: n_gathimba@jkuat.ac.ke
Cell: +254724672392
COURSE CONTENT
i. Introduction to Structural Dynamics
ii. Single degree of freedom systems
iii. Multi-degree of freedom dynamics
iv. Introduction to Earthquake Engineering
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2
References
Main reference
1. Mario Paz, Young H. Kim: Structural Dynamics: Theory and

Computation, 6th Edition. Springer Nature Switzerland AG, 2019
Others
1. J. L. Humar: Dynamics of structures, A.A. Balkema Publishers,

2002
2. Roy R. Craig, Andrew J. Kurdila: Fundamentals of Structural

Dynamics. John Wiley and Sons, 2011
General Introduction
4
Types of loads on a structure
STATIC LOADS
¾ Gradually applied/remain in place for longer duration of time.
¾ Independent/less dependent on time.
• Dead loads
• Live loads - varies gradually in magnitude and position.
DYNAMIC LOADS
¾ Time dependent
¾ Act for small interval of time or quickly change in magnitude or
direction.
Dynamic loads
Sources of dynamic loads
o Human activities - walking, jumping, running,
o Working machines,
o Construction works - mechanical drilling, blasting,
o Moving loads on bridges,
o Impact loads (accidents, debris falling),
o Wind loads,
o Earthquakes, etc
Nature of dynamic loads

• deterministic loads - described as a particular function of time
• nondeterministic or stochastic - random dynamic loads
6
Types of dynamic loads
1. Periodic loads
Has a regular time
variation in many
cycles (Fig. a).
If this variation has a sinusoidal pattern, then it is known as

harmonic load (Fig. b)
Types of dynamic loads

2. Nonperiodic loads
can be of diverse forms, usually of short duration (Fig. c).
8
2. Nonperiodic loads (cont’d)
o If the load is applied in a truly short lapse of time, dt, it is known
as an impulse load (Fig. d).
o Nonperiodic loads can have a nonsymmetric form, e.g. an
earthquake (Fig. e)
Static vs dynamic structural analysis

Conventional structural Structural dynamics
analysis
Based on the concept of statics Based on Newton’s 2nd law of
(Newton’s 1st law of motion) motion (F=Ma).
External forces or joint Considers external loads or

displacements are considered as displacements to vary with time
static (time independent) and and the structure to respond to
restricted only by the stiffness of them by its stiffness as well as
the structure. inertia and damping.
10
Assumptions in dynamic analysis
Complex
mplex phys
physical Conceptual idealization/ Idealized analytical/
simplifying assumptions
system mathematical model
1. Material assumptions e.g.

• material properties e.g. homogeneity or isotropy
• material behaviours e.g. linearity or elasticity.
2. Loading assumptions e.g.
• concentrated forces to be applied at a geometric point,
• forces suddenly applied, or
• external forces to be constant or periodic.
3. Geometric assumptions e.g.
• Beams, frames and trusses considered as unidirectional elements.
• Plates as two-dimensional systems with relatively small
thicknesses.
11
Assumptions dynamic analysis

A continuous structures may be analysed as discrete systems by
specifying locations (nodes) and directions for displacements (nodal
coordinates) in the structures
12
Some Definitions:
• Vibration - reciprocatory motion with deformation of the
structure
• Oscillation - No deformation (rigid body motion)
9 Free vibration: vibration occurs without the external force.
Motion governed by the initial conditions
9 Forced Vibration: external force (Ft) is also involved during
vibration
• Dynamic system: A simple representation of physical systems. It
is modelled by; Stiffness (k) - the resistance it provides to
deformations; mass (m) is the matter it contains, and damping (c)
represents its ability to decrease its own motion with time
13
9Damping: All real life structures, when subjected to vibration resist

it. Due to this the amplitude of the vibration gradually reduces with
respect to time. In case of free vibration, the motion is damped out
eventually.
• Sources of damping in a dynamic system.
a) (Linear) Viscous damping is an intrinsic property of the material
and originates from internal resistance to motion between different
layers within the material itself. Force ‫ ן‬structural velocity.
b) Frictional damping due to friction between different materials or
different parts of the structure, drag between fluid or structures
flowing past each other, etc.
c) External damping - Sometimes external forces themselves can
contribute to (increase or decrease) the damping.
14
• Degree of Freedom: The number of possible displacement components
or the minimum number of coordinate systems required to denote the
position of the mass at any instant of time
• Depending upon the co-ordinates required to describe the motion, we
have
1. Single degree of freedom system (SDoF).
2. Multiple degrees of freedom (MDoF).
3. Continuous system.
A beam modelled as a
SDoF system
15
SINGLE DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM
SYSTEMS
• Free vibration - undamped
- damped
• Forced vibration - undamped
- damped
16
2.1 Elements of a Simple Vibration Model
• A SDoF system is composed of a mass, a spring and a damper.
The mass (m)

• Newton 2nd law of motion
ࡲ ൌ ࢓ࢇ ൌ ࢓࢛ሷ (1)
(u = displacement, a =acceleration =d2u/dt2 )
The Spring Stiffness (k)
• For an ideal (purely elastic and massless) linear spring,
ࡲ ൌ ࢑࢛ (2)
k = spring constant
17
Some notes on springs

• Spring types
(a) Hard spring,

(b) Linear spring,
(c) Soft spring
• Spring equivalents
Springs in parallel
Springs in series
ͳ ͳ ͳ
݇௘ ൌ ݇ଵ ൅ ݇ଶ ൌ ൅
‫ܭ‬௘ ݇ଵ ݇ଶ
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The Damping Value c
• = Frictional characteristics and energy dissipation of a structure
• An ideal damper (massless and no elasticity) ← *hypothetical
¾ The passive resistance offered by a viscous fluid (oil) in hydraulic
dampers on motorcycles and cars approaches very well the behavior
of an ideal linear damper ← *Actual damper
• For a viscous damper with a damping value c and the resulting
velocity v is then the following.
ࡲ ൌ ࢉ࢜ ൌ ࢉ࢛ሶ (3)
• The three most often used damping models are;
9 Viscous damping
9 Friction damping
9 Structural or hysterical damping.
19
2.2 Equation of Motion for a SDoF System

For a single bay single storey SDoF rigid frame, assume;
(i) Mass of columns is small compared to the mass of the beam hence
neglected.
(ii)Girder is infinitely rigid structure i.e., does not deform and hence the
stiffness is provided only by column.
¾ Lateral forces acting on the frame;

• Applied forces (Fapplied), Static stiffness (Fstiffness), damping force (Fdamping),
inertial forces (Finertia = D’Alambert’s inertial force)
Rigid frame
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Dynamic system
20
Fapplied = Fstiffness+Fdamping+Finertia
All the forces are a function of time. The fundamental Equation of
motion becomes
ሶ
ࡲ ࢚ ൌ ࢑࢛ሺ࢚ሻ ൅ ࢉ࢛ሺ࢚ሻ ሷ
൅ ࢓࢛ሺ࢚ሻ (4)
Eq. (4) is a standard form 2nd order differential equation whose
solution gives response of a SDoF system
The solution of such an o.d.e depends on the nature of the exciting

force F(t):
9Free vibration: F(t) = 0
9Forced harmonic excitation: F = F0sin (ωt)
9Forced random excitation: F(t) = random
21
2.3 Free – undamped vibration

• In this case, F(t) = 0, c = 0. Eq(4) becomes;
݉‫ݑ‬ሷ ൅ ݇‫ ݑ‬ൌ Ͳ (5)
• Eq. (5) is a 2nd order linear o.d.e. whose (trial) solution are
‫ ݑ‬ൌ ‫ݐ߱ݏ݋ܿ ܣ‬ (6)
‫ ݑ‬ൌ ‫ݐ߱݊݅ݏ ܤ‬, and (7)
‫ ݑ‬ൌ ‫ ݐ߱ݏ݋ܿ ܣ‬൅ ‫ݐ߱݊݅ݏ ܤ‬, (*superposition) (8)
A and B are constants depending on the initiation of the motion,
߱ is a quantity denoting a physical characteristic of the system
• Substituting (6) into (5) gives
െ݉߱ଶ ൅ ݇ ‫ ݐݓݏ݋ܿ ܣ‬ൌ Ͳ (9)
• If this equation is to be satisfied at any time, the factor in parentheses
must be equal to zero, thus
22
௞
߱ଶ ൌ (10)
௠
• The positive root of Eq. (10) is the circular/angular natural frequency of

the system (units = radians/sec)
௞
߱ൌ (11)
௠
௞௚
߱ൌ (Recall: W = mg) (12)
ௐ
௚
߱ൌ (NB: ܷ௦௧ ൌ ܹȀ݇) (13)
௎ೞ೟
ܷ௦௧ is the static displacement of the spring due to the weight, W

• Differentiating Eq. 8 w.r.t time give expression of velocity
‫ݑ‬ሶ ൌ െ‫ ݐ߱݊݅ݏ ߱ܣ‬൅ ‫ݐ߱ݏ݋ܿ ߱ܤ‬ (14)
• The constants of integrations, A & B are determined from the known
initial conditions, i.e. at t = 0, ൌ ‫ݑ‬௢ , ‫ݑ‬ሶ ൌ ‫ݒ‬௢ 23
• Solution of ode from initial conditions constitutes the initial value

problem
• Substituting initial conditions into Eqs. (8) and (14) gives
‫ ܣ‬ൌ ‫ݑ‬௢ (15a)
௩బ
‫ܤ‬ൌ (15b)
ఠ
• Hence, Eq. (8) becomes
࢜૙
࢛ ൌ ࢛૙ ‫ ࢚࣓ ܛܗ܋‬൅ ‫࢚࣓ ܖܑܛ‬ (16)
࣓
• Eq. (16) is harmonic, hence periodic, i.e. sinusoidal (NB: these
functions always have a period as ૛࣊), i.e. ࣓ࢀ ൌ ૛࣊, thus
ଶగ
ܶൌ (17)
ఠ
• Eq. (17) is the undamped natural period (units = seconds) of an
undamped SDoF system
24
• The reciprocal of Eq. (17) is the undamped natural frequency (units
= cycles per sec or hertz)
ఠ ଵ ௞
݂ൌ ൌ (18)
ଶగ ଶగ ௠
• From trigonometry, Eq. (16) can be expressed as follows:

‫ ݑ‬ൌ ‫݊݅ݏ ܥ‬ሺ߱‫ ݐ‬൅ ߙሻ (19)
‫ ݑ‬ൌ ‫ݏ݋ܿ ܥ‬ሺ߱‫ ݐ‬െ ߚሻ (20)
Where
‫ܥ‬ൌ ‫ݑ‬଴ଶ ൅ ሺ‫ݒ‬଴ Ȁ߱ሻଶ (21)

௨బ
‫ ߙ݊ܽݐ‬ൌ (22)
௩బ Ȁఠ
ଵ ௩బ Ȁఠ
‫ ߚ݊ܽݐ‬ൌ ൌ (23)
௧௔௡ఈ ௨బ
25
• In Eqs. (19) to (23), C is the amplitude of the motion and α (or β) is

the phase angle
• The solution for the motion of the simple oscillator is shown
graphically as
Undamped free-vibration response
26
Worked Examples
Example 1
• A Weight of 15 N is vertically suspended by a spring of stiffness k=2
N/mm. Determine natural frequency of free vibration of weight.
߱ ͳ ݇ ͳ ݇Ǥ ݃ ͳ ʹ ൈ ͻͺͳͲ
݂ൌ ൌ ൌ ൌ ൌ ͷǤ͹͸ ሺܿ‫ݏ݌‬ሻ
ʹߨ ʹߨ ݉ ʹߨ ܹ ʹߨ ͳͷ
Example 2
• Calculate the natural angular frequency of the frame shown in figure
below. Compute also natural period of vibration. If the initial
displacement is 25 mm and initial velocity is 25 mm/s what is the
amplitude and displacement @t =1s. (Take EI=30x1012 Nmm3)
27
• The restoring force in the form of spring force is provided by columns

AB and CD which can be considered as springs in parallel.
• Therefore, equivalent spring constant
ͳʹ‫ܫܧʹͳ ܫܧ‬
݇௘ ൌ ݇஺஻ ൅ ݇஼஽ ൌ ൅ ൌ ͳͲ͸͵ͳʹͷ Ȁ
ͳͲͲͲଷ ͺͲͲଷ
• Natural angular frequency,
݇௘ ݃ ͳͲ͸͵ͳʹͷ‫ͻݔ‬ͺͳͲ
߱ൌ ൌ ൌ ͳͺǤ͸Ͷͷ ‫ݏ݀ܽݎ‬Ȁ‫ܿ݁ݏ‬
ܹ ͵Ͳ‫଺Ͳͳݔ‬
ఠ
• Natural frequencyǡ ݂ ൌ ൌ ʹǤͻ͸͹ ܿ‫ݏ݌‬
ଶగ
ଵ
• Natural period, ܶ ൌ ൌ ͲǤ͵͵͹ ‫ݏܿ݁ݏ‬
௙
• For amplitude calculations, use Eqs. (21) and (23)

‫ ݑ‬ൌ ‫ ܣ‬ሺ߱‫ ݐ‬െ ߚሻ
At ‫ ݐ‬ൌ Ͳ ‫ܿ݁ݏ‬Ǣ ‫ݑ‬଴ ൌ ʹͷ ǡ ‫ݑ‬଴ሶ ൌ ʹͷ Ȁ
ଶ
ʹͷ
‫ܣ׵‬ൌ ʹͷଶ ൅ ൌ ʹͷǤͲ͵ ݉݉
ͳͺǤ͸Ͷͷ
Set
calculator ʹͷൗ
to rads ߚ ൌ ‫݊ܽݐ‬ ିଵ ͳͺǤ͸Ͷͷ ൌ ͲǤͲͷ͵ͷ ‫ݏ݀ܽݎ‬
ʹͷ
At ‫ ݐ‬ൌ ͳ ‫ܿ݁ݏ‬
‫ ݑ‬ൌ ʹͷǤͲ͵ ሺͳͺǤ͸Ͷͷ‫ ݐ‬െ ͲǤͲͷ͵ͷሻ ൌ ʹͶǤʹ ݉݉
correction
29
Some notes on spring constants

ி
• Recall; ‫ ܨ‬ൌ ݇ο , thus ݇ ൌ
ο
• Examples of spring constants

Rigid deck; columns mass
Flexible but massless less & axially inextensible
͵‫ܫܧ‬
݇ൌ
݈ଷ
L2
L1 E1I1 E2I2
ͳʹ‫ܫܧ‬
݇ൌ
݈ଷ
ாభ ூభ ாమ ூమ
݇௘ ൌ ͳʹ ൅͵
௅యభ ௅యమ
͵‫ܫܧ‬
݇ൌ
݈ଷ
Exercise 1
Find the natural frequency of the system shown. The mass of the
beam is negligible in comparison to the suspended mass. E=2.1 x
105 N/mm2.
Go through examples 1.2 to 1.5 given in our main reference text
31
2.4 Free – damped vibration of SDoF systems

• In this case, F(t) = 0, c ≠ 0. Eq(4) becomes
݉‫ݑ‬ሷ ൅ ܿ‫ݑ‬ሶ ൅ ݇‫ ݑ‬ൌ Ͳ (24)
A trial solution of Eq. (24) is of the form:
‫ ݑ‬ൌ ‫ ݁ܥ‬ఒ௧ (25)
Substitute Eq. (25) into (24) and cancel the common factor
݉ߣଶ ൅ ܿߣ ൅ ݇ ൌ Ͳ (26)
Eq. (26) is the characteristic equation for the system whose roots are
ߣଵ ௖ ௖ ଶ ௞
ൌെ േ െ (27)
ߣଶ ଶ௠ ଶ௠ ௠
thus, general solution of Eq. (24) is the superposition of the two roots
‫ ݑ‬ൌ ‫ܥ‬ଵ ݁ ఒభ ௧ ൅ ‫ܥ‬ଶ ݁ ఒమ ௧ (28)
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conditions 32
• The sign under radical in Eq. (27) can either be
i. Zero (critically damped system)
ii. Positive (Over-damped system
iii. Negative (underdamped system)
A. Critically damped systems (ܿ ൌ ܿ௖௥ )
௖೎ೝ ଶ ௞
െ ൌͲ (29)
ଶ௠ ௠
• Recall ߱ ൌ ݇ Τ݉ (Eq.(11)), thus,

ଶ௞
ܿ௖௥ ൌ ʹ ݇݉ ൌ ܿ௖௥ ൌ ʹɘ ൌ (30)
ఠ
B. Overdamped systems (ܿ ൐ ܿ௖௥ )

• No oscillatory response occurs for case A & B, thus, will not be
considered further
33
Fig. Critically damped and overdamped SDoF systems
34
C. Underdamped systems (ܿ ൏ ܿ௖௥ )
• Motion is oscillatory
• The expression under the radical is negative
ߣଵ ௖ ௞ ௖ ଶ
ൌെ േ݅ െ (31)
ߣଶ ଶ௠ ௠ ଶ௠
Recall Euler’s equations

݁ ௜௫ ൌ ܿ‫ ݔݏ݋‬൅ ݅‫ݔ݊݅ݏ‬
݁ ି௜௫ ൌ ܿ‫ ݔݏ݋‬െ ݅‫ݔ݊݅ݏ‬
• Substitute ߣଵ and ߣଶ from Eq. (31) into Eq. (28) and utilize Euler’s
expressions to obtain the general solution for underdamped SDoF
system
‫ ݐ ݑ‬ൌ ݁ି ௖Ȁଶ௠ ௧
ሺ‫߱ ݏ݋ܿܣ‬஽ ‫ ݐ‬൅ ‫߱ ݊݅ݏܤ‬஽ ‫ݐ‬ሻ (32)
• A & B are redefined constants of integration; ߱஽ is the damping
frequency of the system
35
௞ ௖ ଶ
߱஽ ൌ െ (33)
௠ ଶ௠
• Utilizing Eq. (11) and ߦ (damping ratio), Eq. (33) reduces to
߱஽ ൌ ߱ ͳ െ ߦ ଶ (34)
where
௖
ߦൌ (35)
௖௥
• Evaluate constants of integrations, A & B from the known initial
conditions, i.e. at t = 0, ൌ ‫ݑ‬௢ , ‫ݑ‬ሶ ൌ ‫ݒ‬௢ and substituting into Eq.
(32) gives
௩೚ ା௨೚ కఠ
‫ݑ‬ሺ‫ݐ‬ሻ ൌ ݁ ିకఠ௧ ሺ‫ݑ‬௢ ܿ‫߱ݏ݋‬஽ ‫ ݐ‬൅ ‫݊݅ݏ‬ ߱஽ ‫ݐ‬ሻ (36)
ఠವ
Or
‫ݑ‬ሺ‫ݐ‬ሻ ൌ ‫ି ݁ܥ‬కఠ௧ ሺ ܿ‫߱ݏ݋‬஽ ‫ ݐ‬െ ߙሻ (37)
36
where
ଶ ௩೚ ା௨೚ కఠ మ
‫ܥ‬ൌ ‫ݑ‬௢ ൅ మ (38)
ఠವ
௩೚ ା௨೚ కఠ
Ƚ ൌ (39)
ఠವ ௨೚
• For the underdamped SDoF system shown, ‫ Ͳ ݑ‬ൌ ‫ݑ‬௢ , ‫ Ͳ ݒ‬ൌ Ͳ

NOTES:
• Oscillatory & periodic
• Amplitude decreases with time
• Damped period of vibration,
ଶగ ଶగ
ܶ஽ ൌ ൌ (40)
ఠವ ఠ ଵିక మ
37
• SDoF vibration response for:
(a) ߦ=0 (undamped); (b) ߦ=0.05 (c) ߦ=0.1; and (d) ߦ=0.5
38
Estimating Damping in Structures
• Logarithmic decrement = rate of decay of amplitude of motion
௨భ
ߜ ൌ ݈݊ (41)
௨మ
• The exponential curves (cosine factor = unity) (almost) corresponds to

the point of maximum amplitude
39
• From Eq. (37), expression for two consecutive peaks can be expressed
as
‫ݑ‬ଵ ൌ ‫ି ݁ܥ‬కఠ௧భ ; ‫ݑ‬ଶ ൌ ‫ି ݁ܥ‬కఠሺ௧భ ା்ವሻ
• Therefore, Eq. (41) becomes

௨భ
ߜ ൌ ݈݊ ൌ ߦ߱ܶ஽ (42)
௨మ
• And by substituting expression for damped frequency (Eq. (40)), Eq.

(42) becomes
ଶగక
ߜൌ (43)
ଵିక మ
• For small values of ߦ, ߜ can be approximated by
ߜ ൌ ʹߨߦ (44)
40
Worked Examples
Example 3
A vibrating system consisting of a weight of w=50 N and a spring with
stiffness of 4 N/mm is viscously damped. The ratio of two successive
amplitudes is 1:0.85 compute;
(a)The logarithmic decrement
(b)The damping ratio
(c)The damping coefficient and
(d)The damped natural frequency
୳భ ଵ
Ǥ Ɂ ൌ ൌ ൌ ͲǤͳ͸ʹ
୳మ ଴Ǥ଼ହ
ఋ ଴Ǥଵ଺ଶ
b. From Eq. (44), approximation of Ɍ ൌ ൌ ൌ ͲǤͲʹ͸
ଶగ ଶగ
c. Using Eqs. (30) & (35);
ହ଴
ൌ ʹɌ ݇݉ ൌ ʹ ͲǤͲʹ͸ Ͷ ൌ ͹ǤͶʹ‫ିͲͳݔ‬ଷ NS/mm
ଽ଼ଵ଴
41
Example 3 (Cont’d)
Ǥ ɘୈ ൌ ɘ ͳ െ Ɍଶ
௞ ௞௚ ସሺଽ଼ଵ଴ሻ
ɘൌ ൌ ൌ ൌ ʹͺǤͲͳ ‫݀ܽݎ‬Ȁ‫ܿ݁ݏ‬
௠ ௐ ହ଴
ɘୈ ൌ ʹͺǤͲͳ ͳ െ ͲǤͲʹ͸ଶ ൌ ʹͺ ‫݀ܽݎ‬Ȁ‫ܿ݁ݏ‬

Example 4
A platform of weight 18 kN is being supported by four equal columns which
are clamped to the foundation. Experimentally, it has been computed that a
static force 5 kN applied horizontally, to the platform produces a displacement
of 2.5 mm. It is estimated that the damping in the structure is of the order of
5% of critical damping. Compute the following:
(a) Undamped natural frequency
(b) Damping coefficient
(c) Logarithmic decrement
(d) No of cycles and time required for amplitude of motion to be reduced from
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42
Example 4 (cont’d)
a) Undamped natural frequency
௞௚ ி ହ଴଴଴
ɘൌ ; ‫݇׶‬ൌ ൌ ൌ ʹͲͲͲ ܰȀ݉݉
ௐ ୼ ଶǤହ
ଶ଴଴଴ሺଽ଼ଵ଴ሻ
‫׵‬ɘൌ ൌ ͵͵ǤͲʹ ‫݀ܽݎ‬Ȁ‫ܿ݁ݏ‬
ଵ଼଴଴଴
b) Damping coefficient
ଵ଼଴଴଴
ൌ ʹɌ ݇݉ ൌ ʹሺͲǤͲͷሻ ʹͲͲͲ ൌ ͸ǤͲ͸ NS/mm
ଽ଼ଵ଴
c) Logarithmic decrement
(Approximate) ߜ ൌ ʹߨߦ ൌ ʹߨ ǤͲͷ ൌ ͲǤ͵ͳͶ

43
Example 4 (cont’d)
d) No of cycles and time required for amplitude of motion to be reduced

from an initial value of 2.5 mm to 0.25 mm
The ratio between the first amplitude u0 and the amplitude un after n
cycles may be expressed as
‫ݑ‬଴ ‫ݑ‬଴ ‫ݑ‬ଵ ‫ݑ‬௡ିଵ
ൌ Ǥ ǥ
‫ݑ‬௡ ‫ݑ‬ଵ ‫ݑ‬ଶ ‫ݑ‬௡
௨బ
Take natural logarithm, ݈݊ ൌ ߜ ൅ ߜ ൅ ‫ ڮ‬൅ ߜ ൌ ݊ߜ
௨೙
ଶǤହ
݈݊ ൌ ͲǤ͵ͳͶ݊ ֜ ݊ ൌ ͹Ǥ͵͵, say 8 cycles
଴Ǥଶହ
ଶగ ଵ଺గ ଵ଺గ
Time for 8 cycles = ͺܶ஽ ൌ ͺ ൌ ൌ ൌ ͳǤͷʹ ‫ܿ݁ݏ‬
ఠವ ఠ ଵିక మ ଷଷǤ଴ଶ ଵି଴Ǥ଴ହమ
44
Exercise 2
1. An SDOF system (m = 20 kg, k = 350 N/m) is given an initial
displacement of 10 mm and initial velocity of 100 mm/s. (a) Find the
natural frequency; (b) the period of vibration; (c) the amplitude of
vibration; and (d) the time at which the third maximum peak occurs.
(Probable ans: 0.666 Hz; 1.502 sec; 25.91 mm; 3.285 sec.)
2. Go through examples 2.1 to 2.3 given in our main reference text
45
2.5 Forced vibration of SDoF systems
Forms of forcing functions

I. Harmonic excitation
‫ ݐ ܨ‬ൌ ‫ܨ‬଴ ‫݊݅ݏ‬ȳ‫ݐ‬
46
II. Non-harmonic excitation
• Examples
9 Step loading 9 Ramped step loading
‫ ݐ ܨ‬ൌ ܲ଴
‫ ݐ ܨ‬ൌ ܲ଴ Τ‫ݐ‬଴ Ǣ Ͳ ൏ ൏ ‫ݐ‬଴
‫ ݐ ܨ‬ൌ ܲ଴ Ǣ ൐ ‫ݐ‬଴
9 General loading
47
2.5.1 Harmonic excitation: Undamped SDoF system
FBD
• The fundamental equation of motion becomes

݉‫ݑ‬ሷ ൅ ݇‫ ݑ‬ൌ ‫ܨ‬଴ ‫݊݅ݏ‬ȳ‫ݐ‬ (45)
where Fo and Ω are the excitation amplitude and frequency of the
forcing function
• Solution to Eq. (45) has two parts
i. Complimentary solution ሺ‫ݑ‬௖ ሻ - solution to homogeneous eqn for free
vibration (i.e. when forcing function equals zero) (c.f. Eq. 8)
‫ݑ‬௖ ‫ ݐ‬ൌ ‫ݐ߱ݏ݋ܿ ܣ‬
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ii. Particular (‫ݑ‬௣ ሻ solution – solution to the nonhomogeneous Eq.
(45)
‫ݑ‬௣ ‫ ݐ‬ൌ ܷ ‫݊݅ݏ‬ȳ‫ݐ‬ (46)
where U is the amplitude of the forcing function
• Substitute Eq. (46) into Eq. (45) and cancel common factors gives
െ݉ȳଶ ܷ ൅ ܷ݇ ൌ ‫ܨ‬଴ (48)
or
ிబ ிబ Ȁ௞
ܷൌ ൌ (49)
௞ି௠ஐమ ଵି௥ మ
ஐ
where the frequency ratio, ‫ ݎ‬ൌ
ఠ
• The complete solution to Eq. (45) is

‫ ݐ‬ൌ ‫ݑ‬௖ ‫ ݐ‬൅ ‫ݑ‬௣ ሺ‫ݐ‬ሻ
ிబ Ȁ௞
‫ ݐ‬ൌ ‫ ݐ߱ݏ݋ܿ ܣ‬൅ ‫ ݐ߱݊݅ݏ ܤ‬൅ ‫݊݅ݏ‬ȳ‫ݐ‬ (50)
ଵି௥ మ
49
• The complete solution to Eq. (45) is

‫ ݐ‬ൌ ‫ݑ‬௖ ‫ ݐ‬൅ ‫ݑ‬௣ ሺ‫ݐ‬ሻ
ிబ Ȁ௞
‫ ݐ‬ൌ ‫ ݐ߱ݏ݋ܿ ܣ‬൅ ‫ ݐ߱݊݅ݏ ܤ‬൅ ‫݊݅ݏ‬ȳ‫ݐ‬ (51)
ଵି௥ మ
• Assuming initial conditions; at ൌ Ͳ , ‫ݑ‬௖ ൌ Ͳ and ‫ݒ‬଴ ൌ Ͳ , the
constants of integration are
ிబ Ȁ௞
‫ ܣ‬ൌ Ͳ and ‫ ܤ‬ൌ െ‫ݎ‬
ଵି௥ మ 9 Transient response
• Thus Eq. (51) becomes 9 Vanishes out due to damping
ிబ Τ௞
‫ ݐ‬ൌ ሺ‫݊݅ݏ‬ȳ‫ ݐ‬െ ‫ݐ߱݊݅ݏ‬ሻ (52)
ଵି௥ మ
9 Steady-state response
• When ȳ ൌ ߱ (i.e. ‫ ݎ‬ൌ ͳ), resonance occurs. The amplitude ൌ λ
50
2.5.2 Harmonic excitation: damped SDoF system
FBD
• The fundamental equation of motion becomes

݉‫ݑ‬ሷ ൅ ܿ‫ݑ‬ሶ ൅ ݇‫ ݑ‬ൌ ‫ܨ‬଴ ‫ݐߗ݊݅ݏ‬ (53)
• Again, solution to Eq. (53) has two parts
‫ݑ‬௖ ሺ‫ݐ‬ሻ ൌ ݁ ିకఠ௧ ሺ‫߱ݏ݋ܿ ܣ‬஽ ‫ ݐ‬൅ ‫߱ ݊݅ݏ ܤ‬஽ ‫ݐ‬ሻ (c.f. Eq.(36)) (54)
‫ݑ‬௣ ‫ ݐ‬ൌ ‫ܥ‬ଵ ‫݊݅ݏ‬ȳ‫ ݐ‬൅ ‫ܥ‬ଶ ܿ‫ݏ݋‬ȳ‫ݐ‬ (55)
Substitute Eq. (54) and Eq. (55) into Eq. (53) and equate coefficients
of sine and cosine functions to obtain the constants C1 and C2 as
51
ிబ ଵି௥ మ ிబ ିଶక௥
‫ܥ‬ଵ ൌ , ‫ܥ‬ଶ ൌ (56)
௞ ଵି௥ మ మ ା ଶక௥ మ ௞ ଵି௥ మ మ ା ଶక௥ మ
• Employing Euler’s relations, of Eq. (53) can be written as
݉‫ݑ‬ሷ ൅ ܿ ‫ݑ‬ሶ ൅ ݇‫ ݑ‬ൌ ‫ܨ‬଴ ݁ ௜ஐ௧ (57)
(NB: Only the imaginary part of ‫ܨ‬଴ ݁ ௜ஐ௧ i.e. the force component ‫ܨ‬଴ ‫ݐߗ݊݅ݏ‬
is acting)
Thus, the ‫ݑ‬௣ is of the form
‫ݑ‬௣ ‫ ݐ‬ൌ ‫ ݁ܥ‬௜ஐ௧ (58)
• Substitute Eq. (58) into Eq. (57) and cancel the common factor ݁ ௜ஐ௧
െ݉ȳଶ ‫ ܥ‬൅ ݅ܿȳ‫ ܥ‬൅ ݇‫ ܥ‬ൌ ‫ܨ‬଴ (59)
or
‫ܨ‬଴
‫ܥ‬ൌ
݇ െ ݉ȳଶ ൅ ݅ܿȳ
and
ிబ ௘ ೔ಈ೟
‫ݑ‬Subscribe
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(60)
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52
• In polar coordinate, Eq. (60) becomes
ிబ ௘ ೔ሾಈ೟షഇሿ
‫ݑ‬௣ ൌ (61)
௞ି௠ஐమ మ ା ௖ஐ మ
where
௖ஐ
ߠ ൌ (62)
௞ି௠ஐమ
• The response to the force in ‫ܨ‬଴ ‫( ݐߗ݊݅ݏ‬i.e. the imaginary component
in ‫ܨ‬଴ ݁ ௜ఆ௧ ) is the imaginary component of Eq. (61), namely
ிబ ୱ୧୬ሺஐ௧ିఏሻ
‫ݑ‬௣ ൌ (63)
௞ି௠ஐమ మ ା ௖ஐ మ
or
‫ݑ‬௣ ൌ ܷ ‫݊݅ݏ‬ሺߗ‫ ݐ‬െ ߠሻ (64)
where ܷ is the amplitude of the steady-state motion
ிబ
ܷൌ (65)
௞ି௠ஐమ మ ା ௖ஐ మ 53
• In terms of dimensionless ratios, Eqs. (62), (63) and (65) can be

written as
ଶక௥
ߠ ൌ (66)
ଵି௥ మ
௨ೞ೟ ୱ୧୬ሺஐ௧ିఏሻ
‫ݑ‬௣ ൌ (67)
ଵି௥ మ మ ା ଶక௥ మ
௨ೞ೟
ܷൌ (68)
• Finally, total response of the motion (solution to Eq. (53))
‫ ݐ‬ൌ ‫ݑ‬௖ ‫ ݐ‬൅ ‫ݑ‬௣ ሺ‫ݐ‬ሻ
௨ೞ೟ ୱ୧୬ሺஐ௧ିఏሻ
‫ ݐ‬ൌ ݁ ିకఠ௧ ‫߱ݏ݋ܿ ܣ‬஽ ‫ ݐ‬൅ ‫߱ ݊݅ݏ ܤ‬஽ ‫ ݐ‬൅
(69)
54
• Dynamic magnification factor, D is the ratio of steady-state amplitude
to static deflection
௎ ଵ
ൌ ൌ (70)
௨ೞ೟ ଵି௥ మ మ ା ଶక௥ మ
• At resonance (r=1),
ൌ ͳΤʹߦ
55
Example 5
A one bay one storey steel rigid frame having hinged supports, carries a
rotating machine. This escorts a horizontal force at girder level in the
form of “50000 sin 11 t” N. Assuming 4% critical damping, (a) what is
steady state amplitude of vibration? (b) what is the maximum dynamic
stress in the columns? I for columns =1500×10-7 m4, E=21×1010N/m2,
Z=120×103 mm3
Solution – part (a)

ଷாூ
Stiffness of both columns, ݇ ൌ ʹ ൌ
௟య
௞
Natural frequency, ߱ ൌ ൌǫ
௠
ஐ
Given, ȳ ൌ…, ‫ ݎ ׵‬ൌ ൌǫ
ఠ
ிబ
Also, ߦ ൌ ‫ ڮ‬ǡ and ‫ܨ‬଴ ൌ ‫ ڮ‬ǡ ‫ ܷ ׵‬ൌ ൌǫ
௞ ଵି௥ మ మ ା ଶక௥ మ
56
Solution –part (b)
ଷாூ
Maximum shear force in a column, ܸ௠௔௫ ൌ ݇ȟ ൌ ܷ ൌǫ
௟య
Maximum bending moment, ‫ܯ‬௠௔௫ ൌ ܸ௠௔௫ ‫ ܮ‬ൌǫ
ெ೘ೌೣ
Maximum stress, ߪ௠௔௫ ൌ …,
௓
Example 6
A machine weighing 1750.87 kg is mounted on simply supported steel
beams as shown below. A piston that moves up and down in the
machine produces a harmonic force of magnitude of 3175.15 kg and
frequency of ͸Ͳ rad/sec. Neglecting the weight of the beam assuming
10% of the critical damping, determine;
(i) The amplitude of the motion of the machine
(ii)The force transmitted to the beam supports
(iii)The corresponding phase angle 57
Force transmission to the foundation/support
݉‫ݑ‬ሷ ൅ ܿ ‫ݑ‬ሶ ൅ ݇‫ ݑ‬ൌ ‫ܨ‬଴ ‫( ݐߗ݊݅ݏ‬53) –repeated
• For a damped oscillator above, the force is transmitted to the support

through the spring and the damper
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(71) 58
• The steady-state solution to the above motion is given by Eq. (64)
‫ݑ‬௣ ൌ ܷ ‫݊݅ݏ‬ሺߗ‫ ݐ‬െ ߠሻ (64) –repeated
where ܷ and ߠ are given by
ଶక௥
ߠ ൌ (66) -repeated
ଵି௥ మ
௨ೞ೟
ܷൌ (68) -repeated
• Differentiating Eq. (64) and substitute in Eq. (71) gives
‫ ்ܨ‬ൌ ܷ ݇‫ ݐߗ ݊ ݅ݏ‬െ ߠ ൅ ܿߗܿ‫ݏ݋‬ሺߗ‫ ݐ‬െ ߠሻ
‫ ்ܨ‬ൌ ܷ ݇ ଶ ൅ ܿ ଶ ߗଶ ‫ ݐߗ ݊ ݅ݏ‬െ ߠ ൅ ߚ (72)
‫ ்ܨ‬ൌ ܷ݇ ͳ ൅ ʹߦ‫ ݎ‬ଶ ‫ ݐߗ ݊ ݅ݏ‬െ ߶ (73)
where ߚ ൌ ܿߗΤ݇ ൌ ʹߦ‫ݎ‬ (74)
and ߶ ൌߠെߚ (75)
ߠ ൌ ʹߦ‫ ݎ‬ଷ Τ ͳ െ ‫ ݎ‬ଶ ൅ Ͷߦ ଶ ‫ ݎ‬ଶ (76) 59
• From Eq. (68) and (73), the maximum force transmitted to the support
ଵା ଶక௥ మ
‫ ்ܨ‬ൌ ‫ܨ‬଴ (77)
• Transmissibility, ܶ௥ is the ratio between the amplitude of the force

transmitted to the support and the amplitude of the applied force, thus
ி೅ ଵା ଶక௥ మ
ܶ௥ ൌ ൌ (78)
ிబ ଵି௥ మ మ ା ଶక௥ మ
Exercise 3
o Using Eqs. (71) to 78, find the solution to Example 6
60
2.5.3 General Loading: Undamped SDoF system
• The impulse produced by a force ‫ ߬ ݌‬acting at time ‫ ݐ‬ൌ ߬ for a very

short duration ݀߬ equals ‫ ߬݀ ߬ ݌‬and the resulting response equals
‫߬݀ ߬ ݌‬
݀‫ ݐ ݑ‬ൌ ‫ ݐ ߱݊݅ݏ‬െ ߬ ‫ݐ‬൒߬ ሺ͹ͻሻ
݉߱
61
• Total response for the entire loading history (Duhamel integral)

ͳ ௧
‫ ݐ ݑ‬ൌ න ‫ ݐ ߱݊݅ݏ ߬ ݌‬െ ߬ ݀߬ ‫ݐ‬൒Ͳ ሺͺͲሻ
݉߱ ଴
• If the initial conditions are such that ‫ Ͳ ് Ͳ ݑ‬and ‫ݑ‬ሶ Ͳ ് Ͳ, the
additional free vibration response (Eq. (16)) must be added to the
solution (Eq. 80) giving the general solution as
‫ݑ‬ሶ Ͳ ͳ ௧
‫ ݐ ݑ‬ൌ ‫ ݐ߱ Ͳ ݑ‬൅ ߱‫ ݐ‬൅ න ‫ ݐ ߱݊݅ݏ ߬ ݌‬െ ߬ ݀߬ ሺͺͳሻ
߱ ݉߱ ଴
• In case ‫ ߬ ݌‬is empirical (i.e. not analytical) Duhamel integral is
evaluated numerically.
• Utilizing trigonometric identity; sin(ωt-ωτ) = sinωtcos ωτ – cosωtsinωτ
Eq. (80) can be expressed as
ͳ ௧ ͳ ௧
‫ ݐ ݑ‬ൌ ‫ݐ߱݊݅ݏ‬ න ‫ ߬݀ ߬߱ݏ݋ܿ ߬ ݌‬െ ܿ‫ݐ߱ݏ݋‬ න ‫݌‬ሺ߬ሻ‫߬݀ ߬߱݊݅ݏ‬
݉߱ ଴ ݉߱ ଴

Or
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62
‫ ݐ ݑ‬ൌ ‫ ݐ߱݊݅ݏ ݐ ܣ‬െ ‫ݐ߱ݏ݋ܿ ݐ ܤ‬ ሺͺʹሻ
where
ͳ ௧ ͳ ௧
‫ؠ ݐ ܣ‬ න ‫߬݀ ߬߱ݏ݋ܿ ߬ ݌‬ ‫ؠ ݐ ܤ‬ න ‫݌‬ሺ߬ሻ‫߬݀ ߬߱݊݅ݏ‬
݉߱ ଴ ݉߱ ଴
• Consider numerical evaluation of

‫ ݐ ܣ‬, which can be written as
ͳ ௧
‫ؠ ݐ ܣ‬ න ‫߬݀ ߬ ݕ‬
݉߱ ଴
where ‫ ߬ ݕ‬ൌ ‫߬߱ݏ݋ܿ ߬ ݌‬Ǥ
• Divide ‫ ߬ ݕ‬into N increments of
equal time increments, ȟ߬.
• The integral ‫ܣ‬ே ‫ܣ ؠ‬ሺ‫ ݐ‬ൌ ܰȟ߬) is
evaluated numerically using
approximation methods such as
trapezoidal, Simpsons rules, etc 63
• Example, using Simpson’s rule
୼ఛ
‫ܣ‬ே ؐ ‫ݕ‬଴ ൅ Ͷ‫ݕ‬ଵ ൅ ʹ‫ݕ‬ଶ ൅ ‫ ڮ‬൅ Ͷ‫ݕ‬ேିଵ ൅ ‫ݕ‬ே ܰ ൌ ʹǡͶǡ͸ǡ ǥ ሺͺ͵ሻ
ଷ௠ఠ
Where ܰ ൌ Ȁȟ߬ must be an even number
• Expressed in its recursive form, Eq. (83) becomes
ȟ߬
‫ܣ‬ே ؐ ‫ܣ‬ேିଶ ൅ ‫ݕ‬ ൅ Ͷ‫ݕ‬ேିଵ ൅ ‫ݕ‬ே ܰ ൌ ʹǡͶǡ͸ǡ ǥ ሺͺͶሻ
͵݉߱ ேିଶ
• ‫ ݐ ܤ‬can be evaluate in a similar manner by first expressing it in its

discrete form, ‫ܤ‬ே and setting ‫ ߬ ݕ‬ൌ ‫߬߱݊݅ݏ ߬ ݌‬
• Finally, the total response ‫ݑ‬ே ‫ݑ ؠ‬ሺ‫ ݐ‬ൌ ܰȟ߬) is obtained as follows
‫ݑ‬ே ൌ ‫ܣ‬ே ‫ݐ߱݊݅ݏ‬ே െ ‫ܤ‬ே ܿ‫ݐ߱ݏ݋‬ே ሺͺͷሻ

64
Example 7
A water tower is subjected to a blast loading lasting 0.05 sec. The
idealizations of the structure and of the blast loading are shown below.
Compute the force history by numerical evaluation of the Duhamel
integral using Simpson's rule for (a) undamped loading case and (b)
damped case with a damping ratio of 5%.
Solution
Adopt a time increment, Δτ = 0.005 s, which corresponds to an angular
increment in free vibrations of ωΔτ = 0.15 rad 65
Numerical Duhamel integral analysis without damping

• For this system, the vibration frequency and period are
݇݃ ʹǡ͹ͲͲሺ͵ʹǤʹሻ ʹߨ
߱ൌ ൌ ൌ ͵Ͳ‫݀ܽݎ‬Ȁ‫ݏ‬ ܶൌ ൌ ͲǤʹͲͻ‫ݏ‬
ܹ ͻ͸Ǥ͸ ߱
66
• For numerical Duhamel integral analysis with damping, see E6-2 (c.f.
hand-out notes). The elastic response for undamped and damped
cases is shown below
Response of the water tower to blast loading

67
MULTI-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM
DYNAMIC SYSTEMS
• Shear Buildings
• Framed Structures
• Continuous Systems
68
3 SHEAR BUILDINGS
Def. - No rotation of horizontal section at floor level. Deformation
is similar to that of a cantilever beam deflected by shear force
The Gramercy Residences, Philippines (skyscrapercity.com)

69
3 SHEAR BUILDINGS
Assumptions:
i. Lumped mass at floor levels
ii. Very rigid floor slab
iii. No deformation due to axial force
70
3.1 Free-undamped vibration of Shear Buildings
(a) (b) (c)

a) Single bay (b) single column model representation of shear building
c) FBD
71
(a) Multi-mass spring model

(b) FBD
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72
Stiffness equations for the shear building
݉ଵ ‫ݑ‬ሷ ଵ ൅ ݇ଵ ‫ݑ‬ଵ െ ݇ଶ ‫ݑ‬ଶ െ ‫ݑ‬ଵ െ ‫ܨ‬ଵ ሺ‫ݐ‬ሻ ൌ Ͳ
݉ଶ ‫ݑ‬ሷ ଶ ൅ ݇ଶ ‫ݑ‬ଶ െ ‫ݑ‬ଵ െ ݇ଷ ‫ݑ‬ଷ െ ‫ݑ‬ଶ െ ‫ܨ‬ଶ ሺ‫ݐ‬ሻ ൌ Ͳቑ ሺͺ͸ሻ
݉ଷ ‫ݑ‬ሷ ଷ ൅ ݇ଷ ‫ݑ‬ଷ െ ‫ݑ‬ଶ െ ‫ܨ‬ଷ ሺ‫ݐ‬ሻ ൌ Ͳ
• Or
‫ݑ ܯ‬ሷ ൅ ‫ ݑ ܭ‬ൌ ‫ܨ‬ ሺͺ͹ሻ
where
݉ଵ Ͳ Ͳ ݇ଵ ൅ ݇ଶ െ݇ଶ Ͳ
‫ ܯ‬ൌ Ͳ ݉ଶ Ͳ ‫ ܭ‬ൌ െ݇ଶ ݇ଶ ൅ ݇ଷ െ݇ଷ ሺͺͺሻ
Ͳ Ͳ ݉ଷ Ͳ െ݇ଷ ݇ଷ
‫ݑ‬ଵ ‫ݑ‬ሷ ଵ ‫ܨ‬ଵ ሺ‫ݐ‬ሻ
‫ ݑ‬ൌ ‫ݑ‬ଶ ‫ݑ‬ሷ ൌ ‫ݑ‬ሷ ଶ ‫ ܨ‬ൌ ‫ܨ‬ଶ ሺ‫ݐ‬ሻ ሺͺͻሻ
‫ݑ‬ଷ ‫ݑ‬ሷ ଷ ‫ܨ‬ଷ ሺ‫ݐ‬ሻ
73

Natural Frequencies and Normal Modes
• For free vibration, ‫ ܨ‬ൌ Ͳ
‫ݑ ܯ‬ሷ ൅ ‫ ݑ ܭ‬ൌ Ͳ ሺͻͲሻ
• Solution
‫ݑ‬௜ ൌ ܽ௜ ‫ ݐ߱ ݊݅ݏ‬െ ߙ ǡ ݅ ൌ ͳǡʹǡ ǥ ǡ
or in vector form
‫ ݑ‬ൌ ܽ ‫ ݐ߱ ݊݅ݏ‬െ ߙ ሺͻͳሻ
where
ܽ௜ amplitude of motion of the ith coordinate, n = #dof
• Substitute Eq. (91) into Eq. (90) and factor out ‫ ݐ߱ ݊݅ݏ‬െ ߙ to get the
eigenvalue problem
‫ ܭ‬െ ߱ଶ ‫ܯ‬ ܽ ൌͲ ሺͻʹሻ
74
Natural Frequencies and Normal Modes
• For nontrivial solution of the eigenvalue problem
‫ ܭ‬െ ߱ଶ ‫ ܯ‬ൌ Ͳ ሺͻ͵ሻ
• Expansion of Eq. (93) gives the characteristic equation of the system,
a polynomial of n degree in ߱ଶ
• The solution of ߱ଶ are the eigen values of ‫ ܭ‬െ ߱ଶ ‫ ܯ‬. There are
n solutions for an n-DOF system. The lowest value of ߱ଶ is called
fundamental frequency
• Substituting each solution (߱ଶ ) into Eq. (92) yields a unique set of
amplitude vector, ܽ௡ ֜ each frequency has its own characteristic
displaced shape of the DOF called the mode shape
• In free vibration problem, the absolute values of the amplitude is
unknown hence the mode shapes is expressed as a vector of relative
amplitude, ߮௡ , relative, normally, to the first value in ܽ௡ 75

Example 8
The two-storey building shown below has very stiff floor slabs relative
to the supporting columns. Calculate the natural frequencies and mode
shapes. (‫ܫܧ‬௖ ൌ ͶǤͷ‫Ͳͳݔ‬ଷ ݇ܰ݉ଶ ሻ
(a) Shear frame problem (b) 2-DOF model of the Shear frame
76
Example 8: Solution
I. Natural frequencies determination
• Shear stiffness of the columns
ͳʹ‫ܫܧ‬௖ ʹ‫ݔʹͳݔ‬ͶǤͷ‫଺Ͳͳݔ‬ ଺
݇ଵ ൌ ݇ଶ ൌ ݇ ൌ ʹ ൌ ൌ Ͷ‫Ͳͳݔ‬ ܰȀ݉
݄ଷ ͵ଷ
• For a 2-DOF system,
݉ Ͳ ݇ଵ ൅ ݇ଶ െ݇ଶ
‫ ܯ‬ൌ൤ ଵ ൨ ‫ ܭ‬ൌቈ ൨
Ͳ ݉ଶ െ݇ଶ ݇ଶ
• And the characteristic equation
‫ ܭ‬െ ߱ଶ ‫ ܯ‬ൌ ݇ଵ ൅ ݇ଶ െ ߱ଶ ݉ଵ ݇ଶ െ ߱ଶ ݉ଶ െ ݇ଶଶ ൌ Ͳ
ͺ ൈ ͳͲ଺ െ ͷͲͲͲ߱ଶ Ͷ ൈ ͳͲ଺ െ ͵ͲͲͲ߱ଶ െ ͳ͸ ൈ ͳͲଵଶ ൌ Ͳ
‫ͳ ׵‬ͷ ൈ ͳͲ଺ ߱ସ െ ͶǤͶ ൈ ͳͲଵ଴ ߱ଶ ൅ ͳ͸ ൈ ͳͲଵଶ ൌ Ͳ
ͶʹͷǤ͵
߱௡ଶ ൌ ǡ ݊ ൌ ͳǡʹ
ʹͷͲͺ
77
Example 8: Solution cont’d

ʹͲǤ͸ ఠ೙ ͵Ǥʹͺ
߱௡ ൌ‫ݏ݀ܽݎ‬Ȁ‫ݏ‬, ݂௡ ൌ ൌ ‫ݖܪ‬
ͷͲǤͳ ଶగ ͹Ǥͻ͹
II. Mode shapes determination
• From the equation of motion (Eq. (92))
‫ ܭ‬െ ߱ଶ ‫ܯ‬ ܽ ൌͲ
• First solve ൌ ‫ ܭ‬െ ߱ଶ ‫ ܯ‬matrix and then solve ൌ Ͳ for the
amplitudes ܽ௡ . Then form ߮௡
• For a 2-DOF system,
݇ ൅ ݇ଶ െ݇ଶ ݉ Ͳ
‫ܧ‬௡ ൌ ቈ ଵ ൨ െ ߱௡ଶ ൤ ଵ ൨
െ݇ଶ ݇ଶ Ͳ ݉ଶ
݇ଵ ൅ ݇ଶ െ ߱௡ଶ ݉ଵ െ݇ଶ
ൌቈ ൨
െ݇ଶ ݇ଶ െ߱௡ଶ ݉ଶ
78
• For ߱ଵଶ ൌ ͶʹͷǤ͵ǣ
ͷǤͺ͹͵ͷ െͶ
‫ܧ‬ଵ ൌ ቈ ቃ ൈ ͳͲ଺
െͶ ʹǤ͹ʹͶͳ
Hence
ͷǤͺ͹͵ͷ െͶ ܽଵଵ Ͳ
‫ܧ‬ଵ ܽଵ ൌ ͳͲ଺ ቈ ቃ ܽ ൌ
െͶ ʹǤ͹ʹͶͳ ଶଵ Ͳ
ͳ
‫ܽ ׵‬ଵଵ ൌ ͲǤ͸ͺͳܽଶଵ ǡ ߮ଵ ൌ
ͲǤ͸ͺͳିଵ
• Similarly, for ߱ଶଶ ൌ ʹͷͲͺǣ
െͶǤͷͶ െͶ
‫ܧ‬ଶ ൌ ቈ ቃ ൈ ͳͲ଺
െͶ െ͵ǤͷʹͶ
And
െͶǤͷͶ െͶ ܽଵଶ Ͳ
‫ܧ‬ଶ ܽଶ ൌ ͳͲ଺ ቈ ቃ ܽ ൌ
െͶ െ͵ǤͷʹͶ ଶଶ Ͳ
79

ͳ
ฺ ܽଵଶ ൌ െͲǤͺͺͳܽଶଶ ߮ଶ ൌ
െͲǤͺͺͳିଵ
• Sketch of the two frequencies and the associated mode shape is shown
below
80
Exercise
1. Consider a two degrees of freedom model with k1 = k2 = 1000 N/m
and m1 = m2 =10kg. Calculate the 2 eigen frequencies and the
associated eigen modes of the model.
2. Assume a shear building model for the frame shown below and
determine the natural frequencies and normal modes.
81
3.2 Forced-undamped vibration of Shear Buildings
Harmonic loading case
• Equation of motion
݉ଵ ‫ݑ‬ሷ ଵ ൅ ݇ଵ ൅ ݇ଶ ‫ݑ‬ଵ െ ݇ଶ ‫ݑ‬ଶ ൌ Ͳ

ሺͻͶሻ
݉ଶ ‫ݑ‬ሷ ଶ െ ݇ଶ ‫ݑ‬ଵ ൅ ݇ଶ ‫ݑ‬ଶ ൌ ‫ܨ‬଴ ‫݊݅ݏ‬ȳ‫ݐ‬
• Solution for steady state response
‫ݑ‬ଵ ൌ ܷଵ ‫݊݅ݏ‬ȳ‫ݐ‬
ሺͻͷሻ
‫ݑ‬Prepared
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‫݊݅ݏ‬ȳ‫ݐ‬
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82
3.2 Forced-undamped vibration of Shear Buildings
• Substitute Eqn. (95) into (94) and cancel the common factor ‫݊݅ݏ‬ȳ‫ݐ‬
ሺ݇ଵ ൅݇ଶ െ ݉ଵ ȳଶ ሻܷଵ െ ݇ଶ ܷଶ ൌ Ͳ

ሺͻͷሻ
െ݇ଶ ܷଵ െ ሺ݇ଶ െ ݉ଶ ȳଶ ሻܷଶ ൌ ‫ܨ‬଴
Example 9
Determine the steady-state response
of the two-story shear building
shown alongside when a force
‫ܨ‬ଶ ‫ ݐ‬ൌ ͳͲǡͲͲͲ‫ ݐͲʹ݊݅ݏ‬is applied to
the second story as shown in the
figure
83
Example 9 - Solution
• The natural frequencies for this frame were determined in Example 8

to be ߱ଵ ൌ ʹͲǤ͸ ‫݀ܽݎ‬Τ‫ ܿ݁ݏ‬ǡ ߱ଶ ൌ ͷͲǤͳ ‫݀ܽݎ‬Ȁ‫ܿ݁ݏ‬
• Forcing frequency, ȳ ൌ ʹͲ ‫ݏ݀ܽݎ‬Ȁ ‫ ׵‬system not in resonance,

hence steady-state response is obtained by solving Eq. (95)
ሺͺ ൈ ͳͲ଺ െ ͷͲͲͲ ൈ ʹͲଶ ሻܷଵ െ Ͷ ൈ ͳͲ଺ ܷଶ ൌ Ͳ
െͶ ൈ ͳͲ଺ ܷଵ െ ሺͶ ൈ ͳͲ଺ െ ͵ͲͲͲ ൈ ʹͲଶ ሻܷଶ ൌ ͳͲସ
• Solving above gives
ܷଵ ൌ ‫݉݉ ݔݔ‬, ܷଶ ൌ ‫݉݉ ݕݕ‬
And the steady-state response equals

‫ݑ‬ଵ ൌ ‫݊݅ݏݔݔ‬ȳ‫ݐ‬
‫ݑ‬ଶ ൌ ‫݊݅ݏݕݕ‬ȳ‫ݐ‬
84
3.3 Forced-damped vibration of Shear Buildings
Multi-degree mass-spring model
Damped shear building

with harmonic load FBD
• Equation of motion
݉ଵ ‫ݑ‬ሷ ଵ ൅ ܿଵ ൅ ܿଶ ‫ݑ‬ሶ ଵ ൅ ݇ଵ ൅ ݇ଶ ‫ݑ‬ଵ െ ܿଶ ‫ݑ‬ሶ ଶ െ ݇ଶ ‫ݑ‬ଶ ൌ ‫ܨ‬ଵ ሺ‫ݐ‬ሻ
(96)
݉ଶ ‫ݑ‬ሷ ଶ െ ܿଶ ‫ݑ‬ሶ ଵ െ ݇ଶ ‫ݑ‬ଵ ൅ ܿଶ ‫ݑ‬ሶ ଶ ൅ ݇ଶ ‫ݑ‬ଶ ൌ ‫ܨ‬ଶ ሺ‫ݐ‬ሻ
• Assume the applied forces ‫ܨ‬ଵ ሺ‫ݐ‬ሻ and ‫ܨ‬ଶ ሺ‫ݐ‬ሻ are of the form
‫ ݐ ܨ‬ൌ ‫ܨ‬௖ ܿ‫ݏ݋‬ȳ‫ ݐ‬൅ ‫ܨ‬௦ ‫݊݅ݏ‬ȳ‫ݐ‬ ሺͻ͹ሻ
• Eq. (97) can be expressed in complex form as 85
3.3 Forced-damped vibration of Shear Buildings

‫ ݐ ܨ‬ൌ ሺ‫ܨ‬௖ െ ݅‫ܨ‬௦ ሻ݁ ௜ஐ௧ ሺͻͺሻ
• NB: only the real part of Eq. (98) is the applied force.
• Substitute Eq. (98) into (96) gives Eq. (99)
݉ଵ ‫ݑ‬ሷ ଵ ൅ ܿଵ ൅ ܿଶ ‫ݑ‬ሶ ଵ ൅ ݇ଵ ൅ ݇ଶ ‫ݑ‬ଵ െ ܿଶ ‫ݑ‬ሶ ଶ െ ݇ଶ ‫ݑ‬ଶ ൌ ሺ‫ܨ‬௖ଵ െ ݅‫ܨ‬௦ଵ ሻ݁ ௜ஐ௧
(99)
݉ଶ ‫ݑ‬ሷ ଶ െ ܿଶ ‫ݑ‬ሶ ଵ െ ݇ଶ ‫ݑ‬ଵ ൅ ܿଶ ‫ݑ‬ሶ ଶ ൅ ݇ଶ ‫ݑ‬ଶ ൌ ሺ‫ܨ‬௖ଶ െ ݅‫ܨ‬௦ଶ ሻ݁ ௜ஐ௧
• whose solution is of the form
‫ݑ‬ଵ ‫ ݐ‬ൌ ሺܷ௖ଵ ൅ܷ݅௦ଵ ሻ݁ ௜ஐ௧
ሺͳͲͲሻ
‫ݑ‬ଶ ሺ‫ݐ‬ሻ ൌ ሺܷ௖ଶ ൅ܷ݅௦ଶ ሻ݁ ௜ஐ௧
• Substitute Eq. (100) and its derivatives into Eq. (99) yields
ሼሺ݇ଵ ൅݇ଶ െ ݉ଵ ȳଶ ሻ ൅݅ȳ ܿଵ ൅ ܿଶ ሽሺܷ௖ଵ ൅ܷ݅௦ଵ ሻ െ ሼሺ݇ଶ ൅ ݅ȳܿଶ ሻሺܷ௖ଶ ൅ܷ݅௦ଶ ሻ ൌ ‫ܨ‬௖ଵ െ ‫ܨ‬௦ଵ
ሺͳͲͳሻ
െ ݇ଶ ൅ ݅ȳܿଶ ሺܷ௖ଵ ൅ܷ݅௦ଵ ൅ ሼ ݇ଶ െ ݉ଶ ȳଶ ൅ ݅ȳܿଶ ሻሽሺܷ௖ଶ ൅ܷ݅௦ଶ ሻ ൌ ‫ܨ‬௖ଶ െ ‫ܨ‬௦ଶ
• Solve Eq. (101) and retain only the real part to get the response
‫ݑ‬ଵ ‫ ݐ‬ൌ ܷ௖ଵ ܿ‫ݏ݋‬ȳ‫ ݐ‬െ ܷ௦ଵ ‫݊݅ݏ‬ȳ‫ݐ‬
ሺͳͲʹሻ
‫ ݐ‬ൌ
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௖ଶ PhD
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௦ଶ to our YouTube channel on this link >>>
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86
Example 10
Determine the steady state response for the
two−story shear building of Example 8 in
which damping is as shown alongside.
Assume for this example that the damping
constants c1 and c2 are, respectively,
proportional to the magnitude of spring
constants k1 and k2 in which the factor of
proportionality, h1 = 0.01.
Solution
⁻ Damping constants
c1 = c2 = 0.01 ൈ ݇ͳ ‫ ʹ݇ݎ݋‬ൌǫ
⁻ Substitute the given numeric values into Eq. (101) and solve for ܷଵ
and ܷଶ
⁻ Substitute the values of ܷଵ and ܷଶ into Eq. (102) while ignoring the
imaginary part, to obtain the response of the shear building
87
Exercise
1. Go through Example 8.5 given in our main reference text
(reference #1)
88
INTRODUCTION TO EARTHQUAKE
ENGINEERING
89
4.1 Introduction
A typical accelerogram
• Given the ground acceleration, the maximum earthquake response

can be evaluated, e.g.
a) spectral displacement, ܵ஽ ൌ ‫ݑ‬௥ǡ௠௔௫
b) spectral acceleration, ܵ௔ ൌ ‫ݑ‬ሷ ௠௔௫ ൌ െ߱ଶ ܵ஽
ௌೌ
c) spectral velocity, ܵ௩ ൌ ‫ݑ‬ሶ ௠௔௫ ൌ ߱ܵ஽ ൌ
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90
4.2 Response Spectrum
• Def = A plot of maximum response vs. natural frequency (or period)
Construction of a response spectrum
݉‫ݑ‬ሷ ൅ ݇‫ ݑ‬ൌ ‫ܨ‬ሺ‫ݐ‬ሻ ሺͳͲ͵ሻ

‫݊݅ݏ ܨ‬ȳ‫ݐ‬ ݂‫ Ͳ ݎ݋‬൑ ‫ ݐ‬൑ ‫ݐ‬ௗ
where ‫ ݐ ܨ‬ൌቊ ଴ ሺͳͲͶሻ
Ͳ ݂‫ݎ݋‬ ‫ ݐ‬൒ ‫ݐ‬ௗ
ߨ
ȳൌ ሺͳͲͷሻ
‫ݐ‬ௗ 91

• ǦǤሺͳͲ͵ሻ
‫ݑ‬௖ ൌ ‫ ݐ߱ݏ݋ܿ ܣ‬൅ ‫ݐ߱݊݅ݏ ܤ‬ (Eq. 8 - repeated) (106)
‫ݑ‬௣ ൌ ‫݊݅ݏ ܥ‬ȳ‫ݐ‬ (Eq. 46 - repeated) (107)
• ǤሺͳͲ͹ሻǤሺͳͲ͵ሻ

‫ܨ‬଴
‫ܥ‬ൌ ሺͳͲͺሻ
݇ െ ݉ȳଶ
• ሺͳͲ͸ሻሺͳͲͺሻǡͲ ൑
‫ ݐ‬൑ ‫ݐ‬ௗ
‫ܨ‬଴
‫ ݑ‬ൌ ‫ ݐ߱ݏ݋ܿ ܣ‬൅ ‫ ݐ߱݊݅ݏ ܤ‬൅ ሺͳͲͻሻ
݇ െ ݉ȳଶ
• Ͳ ൌ Ͳǡ‫ݑ‬ሶ Ͳ ൌ Ͳ
ǡǤሺͳͲͻሻ
92
‫ܨ‬଴ Τ݇
‫ݑ‬ൌ ଶ
ሾ‫݊݅ݏ‬ȳ‫ ݐ‬െ ȳΤ߱ ‫ݐ߱݊݅ݏ‬ሿ ሺͳͳͲሻ
ͳ െ ሺȳȀ߱ሻ

‫ݑ‬ ͳ ‫ݐ‬ ܶ ‫ݐ‬

ൌ ‫ߨ݊݅ݏ‬ െ ‫ߨʹ݊݅ݏ‬ Ͳ ൑ ൑ ୢ ሺͳͳͳሻ
‫ݑ‬௦௧ ͳ െ ሺܶȀʹ‫ݐ‬ௗ ሻଶ ‫ݐ‬ௗ ʹ‫ݐ‬ௗ ܶ
• ‫ ݐ‬൒ ‫ݐ‬ௗ ǡfree vibration ensues, and the response is given by
Eq. (106). The constants of integration are determined from known
values of ‫ ݑ‬and ‫ݑ‬ሶ calculated from Eq. (111) at time ൌ ୢ giving
‫ݑ‬ ܶȀ‫ݐ‬ௗ ‫ݐ‬ ‫ݐ ݐ‬ௗ

ൌ ܿ‫ߨݏ݋‬ ‫ߨʹ݊݅ݏ‬ െ ൒ ୢ ሺͳͳʹሻ
‫ݑ‬௦௧ ሺܶȀʹ‫ݐ‬ௗ ሻଶ െͳ ‫ݐ‬ௗ ܶ ʹܶ
93
1.76
0.8
NOTE
• Response spectral charts are prepared for SDoF system.
• For MDoF systems, it is necessary to perform a transformation of
coordinates to obtain the modal equations of motion, and then combine their
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structure. 94
4.3 Earthquake Design Response Spectra
Spectral acceleration response spectrum

(Source: https://www.structuremag.org/?p=886)
95
4.4 Influence of local soil conditions
(5% damping)
Se/ag
T(s)
Recommended Type 1 elastic response spectra for ground types A to E
(Source: Fig. 3.2, BS-EN 1998-1:2004+A1:2013)
96
4.4 Influence of local soil conditions
97
4.5 Response spectra for inelastic design

• Inelastic design may be necessary for very strong motion where a
structure need to withstand strains beyond the elastic limit
• Elastoplastic relation between force and displacement is assumed in
structural dynamics, e.g. hysteresis curve
• Then ductility ratio, μ is computed analytically or empirically and

used to modify the design response spectra
‫ݑ‬௠௔௫
ߤൌ ሺͳͳ͵ሻ
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98
Example 11
For the single storey structure shown below, the load-displacement relationship
for the column and the acceleration response spectra, the structure’s capacity-
deformation response and non-linear response spectra is given. Determine
a) the natural period
b) the response displacement using elastic spectrum for hard and soft
ground
c) the response displacement using nonlinear spectrum for soft ground
99
Example 11 - solution
• NB: For roller support, only the column with pin support provides
stiffness to resist seismic displacement but the vertical load from the
q
deck is equallyy distributed in both columns.
a)) Natural period
ு ଵ଴
δy = = = 0.05m
ଶ଴଴ ଶ଴଴
௉೤ ହൈଵ଴ల
k= = = 100 ൈ 106 N/m
ఋ೤ ଴Ǥ଴ହ
100
ௐ ଶ଴ൈଵ଴ల
m= = = 2.041 ൈ 106 Kg
௚ ଽǤ଼
௠ ଶǤ଴ସଵൈଵ଴ల
T = 2ߨ = 2ߨ = 0.898 sec
௞ ଵ଴଴ൈଵ଴ల
b)) Response displacement using elastic spectrum

trum for
i. hard ground
At T = 0.898s acceleration response,
α = 1250 gal (i.e., 12.5 m/s2)
The structure capacity Q in this case
refers to the applied load
QL = mα = (2.041 ൈ 106) 12.5 = 25.5MN
MN
QY = Py = 5MN
Ductility ratio is computed thus;

101
ଵ ொಽ ଶ ଵ ଶହǤହ ଶ
μ= ͳ൅ = ͳ൅ = 13.5
ଶ ொೊ ଶ ହ
And the response displacement is;
δu =μδy = 13.5 ൈ 0.05 = 0.68m

ii. Soft ground
At T = 0.898s acceleration
response of, α = 1500 gal (= 15 m/s2)
QL = mα = (2.041 ൈ 106) ൈ 15 = 30.62MN

2MN
QY = Py = 5MN
Ductility ratio is computed thus;
ଵ ொಽ ଶ ଵ ଷ଴Ǥ଺ଶ ଶ
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ͳ ൅ PhD
μ = Dr Gathimba, ͳ to൅our YouTube channel on=this19.25
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ଶ ொೊ ଶ ହ 102
And the response displacement is;
δu=μδy = 19.25 ൈ 0.05 = 0.96m

c) Response displacement using nonlinear spectrum for soft ground
Yield seismic intensity (Ky)
௉೤ ହ
Ky = = = 0.25
ௐ ଶ଴
Line Ky = 0.25 and T = 0.898s

intersect approximately at the
curve μ = 9.5
Therefore, response
displacement equals
δu=μδy = 9.5 ൈ 0.05 = 0.475m
103
Exercise
Solve example 11 assuming a pin-pin support condition at the top of both
columns as shown in the figure below. All the other parameters and
system response remains the same.
104

ECE 2416 JKUAT 2021 - Lecture Notes

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ECE 2416: THEORY OF

Dr. N. Gathimba, PhD

i. Introduction to Structural Dynamics

ii. Single degree of freedom systems

iii. Multi-degree of freedom dynamics

iv. Introduction to Earthquake Engineering

1. Mario Paz, Young H. Kim: Structural Dynamics: Theory and

1. J. L. Humar: Dynamics of structures, A.A. Balkema Publishers,

2. Roy R. Craig, Andrew J. Kurdila: Fundamentals of Structural

Nature of dynamic loads

If this variation has a sinusoidal pattern, then it is known as

Types of dynamic loads

Static vs dynamic structural analysis

External forces or joint Considers external loads or

1. Material assumptions e.g.

Assumptions dynamic analysis

9Damping: All real life structures, when subjected to vibration resist

The mass (m)

Some notes on springs

(a) Hard spring,

2.2 Equation of Motion for a SDoF System

¾ Lateral forces acting on the frame;

 The solution of such an o.d.e depends on the nature of the exciting

2.3 Free – undamped vibration

• The positive root of Eq. (10) is the circular/angular natural frequency of

ܷ௦௧ is the static displacement of the spring due to the weight, W

• Solution of ode from initial conditions constitutes the initial value

• From trigonometry, Eq. (16) can be expressed as follows:

‫ܥ‬ൌ ‫ݑ‬଴ଶ ൅ ሺ‫ݒ‬଴ Ȁ߱ሻଶ (21)

• In Eqs. (19) to (23), C is the amplitude of the motion and α (or β) is

Undamped free-vibration response

• The restoring force in the form of spring force is provided by columns

• For amplitude calculations, use Eqs. (21) and (23)

Some notes on spring constants

• Examples of spring constants

 Go through examples 1.2 to 1.5 given in our main reference text

2.4 Free – damped vibration of SDoF systems

• Recall ߱ ൌ ݇ Τ݉ (Eq.(11)), thus,

B. Overdamped systems (ܿ ൐ ܿ௖௥ )

Fig. Critically damped and overdamped SDoF systems

Recall Euler’s equations

• Utilizing Eq. (11) and ߦ (damping ratio), Eq. (33) reduces to

• For the underdamped SDoF system shown, ‫ Ͳ ݑ‬ൌ ‫ݑ‬௢ , ‫ Ͳ ݒ‬ൌ Ͳ

• SDoF vibration response for:

• Logarithmic decrement = rate of decay of amplitude of motion

• The exponential curves (cosine factor = unity) (almost) corresponds to

‫ݑ‬ଵ ൌ ‫ି ݁ܥ‬కఠ௧భ ; ‫ݑ‬ଶ ൌ ‫ି ݁ܥ‬కఠሺ௧భ ା்ವሻ

• Therefore, Eq. (41) becomes

• And by substituting expression for damped frequency (Eq. (40)), Eq.

• For small values of ߦ, ߜ can be approximated by

ɘୈ ൌ ʹͺǤͲͳ ͳ െ ͲǤͲʹ͸ଶ ൌ ʹͺ ‫݀ܽݎ‬Ȁ‫ܿ݁ݏ‬

a) Undamped natural frequency

(Approximate) ߜ ൌ ʹߨߦ ൌ ʹߨ ǤͲͷ ൌ ͲǤ͵ͳͶ

d) No of cycles and time required for amplitude of motion to be reduced

2.5 Forced vibration of SDoF systems

Forms of forcing functions

‫ ݐ ܨ‬ൌ ‫ܨ‬଴ ‫݊݅ݏ‬ȳ‫ݐ‬

2.5.1 Harmonic excitation: Undamped SDoF system

• The fundamental equation of motion becomes

• The complete solution to Eq. (45) is

• The complete solution to Eq. (45) is

• When ȳ ൌ ߱ (i.e. ‫ ݎ‬ൌ ͳ), resonance occurs. The amplitude  ൌ λ

The solution of such an o.d.e depends on the nature of the exciting

Go through examples 1.2 to 1.5 given in our main reference text

• When ȳ ൌ ߱ (i.e. ‫ ݎ‬ൌ ͳ), resonance occurs. The amplitude ൌ λ

‫ ݐ‬ൌ ‫ݑ‬௖ ‫ ݐ‬൅ ‫ݑ‬௣ ሺ‫ݐ‬ሻ

Where ܰ ൌ Ȁȟ߬ must be an even number

• Forcing frequency, ȳ ൌ ʹͲ ‫ݏ݀ܽݎ‬Ȁ ‫ ׵‬system not in resonance,